THE INTERSECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY AND WORKPLACE
DESIGN: HOW INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY INFLUENCES
ERGONOMICS
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
PSY 430 - INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
WEEK 1
A.
Definition of Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Industrial and organizational psychology is the application of psychology in the field of
work. The term Industrial and Organizational Psychology means Industrial and
Organizational Psychology. More broadly, industry also includes the meaning of the
understanding of the company (Munandar, 2014). Industrial and Organizational Psychology is
a scientific study of human behavior, cognition, emotion, and motivation as well as mental
processes that exist in industries/organizations that are oriented towards a system of
coordinated activities of a group of people working cooperatively to achieve the same goals
under certain authority and leadership (Wijono, 2010).
According to Muchinsky (1993; Marliani, 2015), industrial psychology and
Organizational psychology is the study of the relationship between humans and the world of
work, which includes human research on the purpose of individuals working, the people they
meet, and the work done to meet their needs. Meanwhile, according to Naylor (1986;
Marliani, 2015) organizational industrial psychology is a simple application or deepening of
psychological facts and principles relating to humans in the scope of business and industry.
From the understanding related to the descriptions described above, it can be concluded
that industrial and organizational psychology is a science that studies human behavior in the
world of work where humans have a role as workers, either individually or in groups.
1.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology is the Science:
Industrial and organizational psychology developed as an independent science starting
from World War II. This makes industrial and organizational psychology generally applicable
to industrial and organizational situations at that time. In Indonesia, industrial and
organizational psychology has not developed that far. Currently, the development of Industrial
and organizational psychology in Indonesia is still within the limits of applying findings from
psychology in general, and in particular applying psychology to industry and organizations
(Munandar, 2014).
Based on this statement, it can be concluded that industrial and organizational psychology
is a science that can be applied in the industrial and organizational fields where this
knowledge is obtained from the findings of research results.
2.
Industrial and Organizational Psychology Studying Human Behavior:
Applied industrial and organizational psychology means studying human behavior within
the scope of industry or organization or company. Human behavior is all behavior performed
by humans, both directly and indirectly. Direct behavior is behavior that can be observed,
such as reading, cooking, communicating, typing and so on. Meanwhile, behavior that cannot
be observed directly, such as thinking, desires, feelings and so on (Munandar, 2014). Humans
are one of the components in an organization that is very important and drives the
organization. Human behavior is the result of instruction between individuals and their
environment (Triatna, 2015).
In contrast to behavior, "science" only sees in terms of facts that can be observed, seen,
heard, felt, measured and reported. This makes psychologists focus their attention on "open"
behavior, which can be directly observed, to understand and analyze individual performances
(Munandar, 2014). Observation of work behavior can reflect his thinking at work. Humans
are social creatures, so we need to interact with others in order to know the characteristics of
the people in the organization. We can manifest our characteristics into an organization in the
form of duties, authorities, and responsibilities in an organization. In this case we can
manifest by expressing our opinions in an organizational program. With the interaction
between individual characteristics and The organization then manifests behavior in the
organization (Triatna, 2015).
Individuals who feel certain emotions express them through their facial expressions, body
language, behavior or verbal delivery. Likewise, employees who do work that is in
accordance with their wishes will show a variety of pleasant behaviors in carrying it out
(Munandar, 2014).
Industrial and organizational psychology results in the observation and assessment of
individual behaviors carried out in the work environment where existing behaviors are
behaviors that can be observed directly and behaviors that cannot be observed directly.
2.1
Human behavior is studied in its role as a worker and as a Consumer:
In the work environment, human behavior is studied in terms of carrying out their
work tasks, their interactions (reciprocal relationships and mutual influence) with their
work, with their physical work environment, and with their social environment at work. If
as a workforce man becomes a member of his industrial organization, then as a consumer
man becomes a user (user) of the product or service of the company organization. Buying
habits and the decision-making process to buy are what is studied in consumer behavior
(Munandar, 2014). A person will form his self-concept based on what he sees in his
mirror. Products that a person uses, such as clothing, jewelry, accessories, furniture, cars,
and others will affect other people's perceptions of him. Products used or consumed by a
person are often used to describe the self-concept that a person has. In other words, that a
person's identity is shown by the products he uses (Solomon, 2007; Sumarwan, 2015).
2.2
Human Behavior in Organizations
An industrial organization consists of various work units. A large work unit, such as a
division, is made up of smaller work units small or parts, each of which consists of even
smaller work units, and so on. This makes human behavior in the organization can be
seen from the side of the employee himself and from the side of the employee as a
member of a work unit. In this condition, the impact of a group or work unit on the
behavior of an employee and vice versa is studied. In addition, it is also studied to what
extent the structure, pattern and type of organization have an influence on its employees,
on a group of employees in one work unit and on an employee (Munandar, 2014).
By studying human behavior in groups, some information will be found related to
how relationships are established and their influence between workers and their superiors
or managers. The results of the information found can be used as a basis for developing
stimulation tests, tests that reflect the manager's work situation in reality, for example
compiling rules, principles to be used as training materials for managers from lower
sections, or used as tests for the selection of prospective managers (Munandar, 2014).
B.
History of Industrial and Organizational Psychology:
Industrial and organizational psychology as we know it today has undergone many
developments, here are reviews related to the development of industrial and organizational
psychology.
1)
Early Development and Application of Industrial Psychology :
The development of industrial and organizational psychology started with One of the
figures who applied psychology in industry was Walter Dill Scott in 1901 who
revealed the possibility of using psychology in advertising. In 1903 Walter Dill Scott
published his book entitled, The Theory of Advertising. This book is considered the
first book to discuss psychology with an aspect of the world of work (Marliani, 2015).
A few years later, in 1913, another book was published with the title "the
psychology of industrial efficiency" written by Hugo Muensterberg. This book
discusses industrial psychology more broadly (Marliani, 2015). Munsterberg (1913;
Schultz and Schultz, 2014) argued that the best way to improve work efficiency,
productivity, and satisfaction is to select workers for positions that match their
emotional and mental abilities. It is likely that the application of general psychology in
companies occurred at the beginning of the 20th century, but it is known that its
application and rapid development only began in the 1920s (Marliani, 2015).
Other figures who participated in applying industrial psychology and organization is
Frederic, Winslow Taylor, who carried out the scientific management movement. This
movement aims to find the most efficient steps in carrying out a job and make various
kinds of mechanical devices adapted to the physical structure of the human body and
limbs. At that time scholars began to experiment with industrial engineers to work on
new objects of study, namely the suitability and adjustment of the physical work
environment, work equipment, and work processes with the limited physical and
psychological abilities of humans as employees (Marliani, 2015). Scientific
management is a management philosophy that emphasizes that the worker is a
machine that works well and determines the most efficient method for performing all
work-related tasks (King, 2014). Taylor (1911; King, 2014) issued guidelines that are
influential today, namely;
a.
Work should be carefully analyzed for identify the most optimal way of how to do
the work.
b.
Workers should be recruited based on characteristics associated with successfully
performing a task. These characteristics should be identified by researching
people who are already successful at the job.
c.
Workers should be trained on the work they will be doing.
d.
Workers should be rewarded for their productivity to encourage high levels of
performance.
During World War II when machines and work equipment were becoming more
sophisticated, psychologists played an important role in designing machines and
equipment. Through various kinds of research, findings on general laws and principles
are applied in structuring an efficient work process, designing and making tools that
are in accordance with the physical and psychological capabilities of humans
(Marliani, 2015).
One of the benefits of collaboration between psychology scholars and mechanics is
that psychology scholars can provide explanations regarding human capacities and
limitations in using sophisticated equipment. This reality influences the design of the
equipment. In addition, this collaboration also assists engineering designers in
determining the layout of equipment panels so that buttons and controls are easy and
convenient to use and visual displays, such as speedometers, are easy to see and read.
Another example of the results of this collaboration is a telephone set where the results
of research conducted by industrial psychology scholars found that pressing buttons is
easier, faster and more precise than dialing numbers on a telephone set (Marliani,
2015).
2)
Industrial and Organizational Psychology into Science:
The result of the development of general psychology, experimental psychology
and special psychology is what created industrial and organizational psychology. Its
wide application in the field of industrial psychology took place around the 1930s.
Since World War II, industrial and organizational psychology has become an
independent science with the following activities:
a.
Carry out scientific research in relation to human behavior in organizations and
organizations themselves.
b.
Develop theories and test their validity.
c.
Applying new discoveries (Marliani, 2015).
With these activities, industrial and organizational psychology is a whole of
knowledge that contains facts, rules, and principles about human behavior in the field
of work. Until World War II, industrial and organizational psychology was a branch of
psychology that applied psychological science. The main activity of industrial
psychology at that time (there was no additional organizational psychology) was to
apply methods, facts, and principles from psychology to humans as a workforce
(Marliani, 2015). Although the goal of PIO is to improve employee productivity and
well-being, there are two approaches to how this goal can be achieved. The industrial
approach focuses on determining the competencies required to perform the job, filling
the organization with employees who have the competencies (staffing) and
improving competencies through training. On the other hand, the organizational
approach creates an organizational structure and culture that motivates employees to
perform well, provides them with Information that necessary to do their jobs, and
provides safe working conditions and a productive environment work environment
that is pleasant and satisfying (Kaswan, 2017)
3)
History of Psychology Research in Industry:
Psychological research in industry began in 1924 with a series of studies in
Hawthorne, Illinois, at a plant of the Western Electric Company. The research was
conducted by studying the impact of physical aspects of the work environment on
worker efficiency. This researcher sought answers to the effect of increasing the
intensity of lighting (Marliani, 2015).
Hawthorne's research yielded useful information that work climate is potentially
more important than physical working conditions. This is known based on the change
in intensity of the lighting from very bright to almost dark was not reduce the
efficiency of the group of workers. There are stable factors at work that have the effect
of allowing workers to maintain their production levels even in near-dark working
conditions (Marliani, 2015).
There are several things that were researched and lasted for more than ten years.
The things studied include the quality and style of supervision, informal groups
between employees, employees' attitudes towards their work, communication, and
other things that are currently considered as things that are able to influence, even able
to determine the efficiency, motivation, and job satisfaction of employees (Marliani,
2015).
The application of psychology in the field of marketing is carried out by
conducting consumer behavior research which began in the 1960s. This was done with
promotional activities using various media information to attract consumers.
Psychology scholars also study various things related to the influence and impact of
organizations and industries, including the organizational system as a whole, formal
and informal social structures, the climate of various types of organizations,
communication patterns and styles on employee behavior (Marliani, 2015).
4)
Development of Industrial and Organizational Psychology in Indonesia:
In Indonesia, the development of psychology began in late 1949, towards the
beginning of 1950 with the holding of psychological tests by Balai Psichotechniek and
the Army Psychology Center, for selection and management based on psychometric
measurements (Marliani, 2015).
C.
Relationship between Industrial and Organizational Psychology and other sciences:
One discipline can be related to other disciplines so that they can influence each other.
There are fields of study that are joint fields of study of several social sciences, such as
consumer behavior as a study of marketing science and industrial and organizational
psychology, leadership as a field of study of sociology, social psychology, organizational
culture as a field studies from anthropology, sociology, industrial and organizational
psychology (Munandar, 2014).
Furthermore, industrial and organizational psychology makes its contributions to
organizational behavior and human resource management.
1)
Relationship between industrial and organizational psychology and Organizational
Behaviour:
Industrial and organizational psychology has a strong relationship with organizational
behavior where there are several common areas of study. Industrial and organizational
psychology is a science that studies human behavior in organizations, both as workers
and as consumers. In addition, its role as an individual and as a group aims so that the
results can be applied in industry and organizations for the common good and benefit
humans and their organizations (Munandar, 2014). The relationship between industrial
and organizational psychology and organizational behavior is very close. Both have
several areas of study in common.
2)
Relationship between industrial and organizational psychology and Human
Resource Management:
The distinction between industrial and organizational psychology and human resource
management (HRM) is difficult to make. This is because the object of study is the same,
namely humans as workers. The main difference between industrial and organizational
psychology and human resource management (HRM) lies in the conditions under which
humans as workers are studied. Human behavior is studied in relation to management.
While the behavior of workers is studied in relation to how workers can be managed
effectively, is the realm of industrial and organizational psychology (Munandar, 2014).
The difference in the scope of industrial and organizational psychology with human
resource management programs or other business programs is that industrial and
organizational psychology examines more factors that affect the development of human
resources human resources in human organizations (Peggans, Chandra, & McAlarnis,
1986; Wijono, 2015).
Some of the topics covered by industrial and organizational psychology and human
resource management have similarities, such as workforce selection, training, motivation,
leadership. Human resource management addresses selection in the overall process of
hiring new workers. The entire selection process must take place efficiently and
effectively. In this process, human resource management is assisted by psychologists who
ensure that the selection produces workers who have the skills, attitudes and other
personality traits required by the job (Munandar, 2014). Industrial and organizational
psychology gives attention to potential employee issues that are constantly evolving in an
organization, such as: efficient task design, employee selection, training employees, and
assessment of managing frustration, conflict and job stress, increasing employee job
satisfaction, motivating employees to be more productive, and/or fostering superior-
subordinate communication relationships. Business programs estimate areas such as
accounting, marketing, and transportation, while industrial/organizational psychology
programs almost all focus on human resource issues (Peggans, Chandra, & McAlarnis,
1986 in Wijono, 2015).
In the field of industrial and organizational psychology, the behavior of workers is
studied in order to know their personality in the context of (a) the selection and placement
process, the training and development process; (b) the interaction of workers with the
physical and social environment. Mastery in the field of industrial and organizational
psychology will be beneficial for individuals who work as human resource managers.
This is because many parts of the duties of a human resource manager require knowledge
of psychology, especially industrial and organizational psychology (Munandar, 2014).
3)
Ergonomics: A blend of Industrial Psychology and Engineering Ergonomics is a
field that combines engineering
and psychology. The main focus of ergonomics is to understand and improve the safety
and efficiency of human-machine interactions. Desks, chairs, levers and buttons, all
objects that workers use every day are the result of design decisions aimed at improving a
person's efficiency at work. The field of ergonomics is the origin of the term applied
psychology, as those who did this during the war were the first to apply the principles of
psychological research in the work environment (King, 2014).
Ergonomists represent a wide range of expertise from perception, attention, and
cognition (individuals who know about button placement on control boards or preferred
colors for buttons), learning (individuals who design training programs for machine use),
to social and environmental psychologists (individuals who address issues such as how to
live in a confined environment like a shuttle) (King, 2014).
D.
Development of Industrial and Organizational Psychology at Indonesia:
Industrial and organizational psychology in Indonesia has experienced significant
development. As a new science, psychology began to be recognized and developed in
Indonesia around the 1950s. This was marked by the activities of psychological tests carried
out with the following details; (Munandar, 2014):
1)
Psychological tests conducted by the Psychotechniek Center of the Ministry of
Education, Teaching and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia, for the purpose of
selection into technical vocational high schools, as well as psychometric measurements
for the purpose of school majors.
2)
Psychological tests conducted by the Army Psychology Center in Bandung, for the
purpose of selection and assignment for its members, based on psychometric
measurements.
The development of psychology in Indonesia was also marked by the establishment of the
Institute of Education for Psychological Assistants, and Culture of RI which was merged into
the Vocational and Corporate Psychology section on March 3, 1953. Furthermore, the
Psychology Education Institute developed into the Psychology Department of the Faculty of
Medicine, University of Indonesia and in 1960 became the Faculty of Psychology, University
of Indonesia. While the Vocational and Corporate Psychology section is now developing into
the Industrial and Organizational Psychology section. Industrial psychology is a branch of
psychology that at that time still applied the use of tests in the context of school selection and
management and then turned into a science that could be developed theories through research
conducted (Munandar, 2014).
Pioneer development psychology industry and organization:
In the development of industrial and organizational psychology, there are several
obstacles that occur. Industrial and organizational psychology that has first developed and
advanced in Western countries provides a lot of knowledge material to Indonesia. Research
results, developing theories, methodologies and sophisticated equipment are available for
Indonesia to use. On the one hand, Indonesia benefits because it can directly obtain findings
to There are psychological theories, rules and principles that apply or can be applied
universally. On the other hand, Indonesia must remain careful in recognizing which
psychological theories, rules and principles are universally applicable which more appropriate
with society and Indonesian culture (Munandar, 2014). Therefore, the test tool psychology
that enters Indonesia must be adapted or adjusted to the conditions and culture of Indonesian
society.
So far, the opportunities for the development of industrial and organizational psychology,
both through research and through the application of science, are still not large enough so that
the development of industrial and organizational psychology as a science cannot be said to be
meaningful. Meanwhile, a science can develop if basic and applied research is conducted, and
if there are opportunities to apply existing theories. There are several main factors that limit
opportunities, namely funds, research personnel and applications that are not yet optimal, and
the willingness and ability of companies to use psychological services is still limited in
number (Munandar, 2014).
In Indonesia, psychology and industry are currently applied sciences with the main
activities being psychological tests aimed at selection and placement, vocational counseling
and guidance, and career development. In addition, there is the field of training. The
preparation and implementation of training programs in companies have been carried out by
many psychology graduates. There are other applied fields that are still not widely practiced,
namely the field of organizational / corporate consulting. Even so, there are already several
psychology graduates who work as consultants in companies and some work in public/private
management institutions as consultants (Munandar, 2014).
MOTIVATION WORK
A.
Understanding Motivation Work:
Motivation is a set of attitudes and values that influence individuals to achieve specific
things in accordance with individual goals. These attitudes and values are invisible that
provide the power to encourage individuals to behave in achieving goals. The drive consists
of two components, namely: direction of behavior (work to achieve goals), and strength of
behavior (how strong individual effort in work). In addition, motivation can also be
interpreted as encouraging individuals to take action because they want to do so (Rivai and
Sagala, 2011). Work motivation is something that causes encouragement or work enthusiasm
or encourages work enthusiasm (Ardana, Mujiati & Utama, 2012). Robbins (2003; Triatna,
2015) defines motivation as a willingness to expend high levels of effort for organizational
goals conditioned by the ability of that effort to meet some individual needs. Meanwhile,
motivation according to Heller (1998; Wibowo, 2013) is the desire to act. Everyone can be
motivated by several different forces. In working individuals need to be directed in order to
align their motivation with organizational goals.
Another opinion from Ivanko (2012) explains that motivation as a person's desire and
energy directed towards achieving a goal. Meanwhile, Gray (1984; Winardi, 2011) defines
motivation as the result of a number of processes that are internal or external to the individual,
which causes enthusiasm and persistence in terms of carrying out certain activities. Work
motivation is a condition or energy that drives employees who are directed or aimed at
achieving the company's organizational goals (Mangkunegara, 2010).
In the world of work, work motivation can be interpreted as the result of a collection of
internal and external forces that cause workers to choose the appropriate course of action and
use certain behaviors (Newstrom, 2011). Meanwhile, according to Robbins and Judge (2011),
motivation is generally related to each goal, while organizational goals focus on work-related
behavior. The same thing is also conveyed by McShane and Von Glinow (2010) who define
motivation as a force within people that affects the direction, intensity, and persistence of
voluntary behavior. Motivated workers are willing to use a certain level of effort (intensity),
for a certain amount of time (persistence), towards a certain goal (direction).
Kreitner and Kinicki, (2010) also stated that motivation is a psychological process that
arouses (arousal), directs (direction) and persistence (persistence) in performing voluntary
actions directed at achieving goals. Another definition of motivation is expressed by Colquitt,
LePine, Wesson (2011) who says motivation as a set of energetic forces that start both from
inside and outside the worker, starting from work-related efforts, and considering their
direction, intensity, and persistence.
Geherman (1983; Kadarisman, 2017) revealed that motivation is the driving force for
someone to do, act, and behave. In addition, Gibson (1989; Kadarisman, 2017) states that
motivation is a theory that describes the forces within employees that initiate and direct
behavior.
From the understanding of the notions of motivation described above, it can be concluded
that motivation is an impetus that can direct and provide strength for individuals in acting to
achieve their goals.
There are two types of motivation: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. In the
world of work, intrinsic motivation includes job suitability, work and targets as expected, a
sense of responsibility because they feel important, development opportunities, and career
opportunities. Meanwhile, extrinsic motivation includes salaries, bonuses, promotions, and
awards or rewards in forms other than money (Suhariadi, 2013).
In addition to definitions and types, motivation also consists of certain motives that are
indicated in three motives, namely primary motives, general motives, and secondary motives.
The following is a description of each motive according to Suhariadi (2013);
1)
Primary Motive, is the drive or desire of the individual to achieve goals due to nature
and is a need that cannot be separated from his life. The form of primary motives is
carried from birth and not the result of the learning process, physical or psychological, as
well as the need to eat and drink.
2)
General Motive, is the drive or desire of the individual to achieve life goals due to the
natural characteristics of the individual and is not a learning process and tends to be a
human need in general. The form of general motives is carried from birth and not the
result of the learning process, not related to the physical processes of the human body,
and the need for affection, curiosity and attention.
3)
Secondary motives, are the drive or desire of the individual to achieve life goals due to
the learning process and tend not to be related to human nature. The form of secondary
motives is to grow as a result of the learning process, not related to the physical process,
and the need for achievement and power.
B.
Theories of Motivation:
There are several theories that explain the process of motivation in individuals. These
theories of motivation include two categories, namely, early theories (up to the 1950s) and
contemporary theories.
1)
Early Theory (1950s)
a.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory:
Abraham Harold Maslow was a social scientist known as a developmental
psychologist in New York, USA. In his theory, he explained that the motivation that
grows in a person depends on where a person is in the hierarchy. The higher a person is in
the hierarchy, the higher his motivation to do something big to achieve an achievement
that can make him and or his organization proud. Abraham Maslow suggested that the
hierarchy of human needs is as follows;
1.
Physiological needs are needs that are needed to maintain one's survival such as
eating, drinking, housing air and others. In organizations these needs can be in the
form of money, entertainment, pension plans, a comfortable work environment.
2.
Safety and security needs, namely security needs from threats, namely feeling safe
from the threat of accidents and safety in doing work, in organizations this need can
be in the form of job security, seniority, work termination programs, severance pay.
3.
Social needs, namely the need for friends, love and belonging, social needs in
organizations can be in the form of work groups (team work) both formally and
informally.
4.
Esteem needs or status needs, namely the need for self-esteem, recognition and
prestige awards from employees and the environmental community. In the
organization, it can be in the form of self-reputation, titles and so on.
5.
Self-actualization needs are the need to develop one's full potential. To do that,
people seek growth, achievement and advancement. In organizational settings these
needs include skill development, creative opportunities, achievement and promotion,
and the ability to have complete control (Veithzal, 2004: 458; Lussier, 2002: 194 in
Kaswan,
2017)
In 1999 Maslow developed the hierarchy of needs theory into eight stages, namely by
adding the need to know and understand, aesthetic / beauty needs, and self-transcendence
needs (Triatna, 2015).
b.
Theory X and Y:
Theory X and Y is a theory proposed by Douglas McGregor. According to McGregor,
human characteristics can be classified into two categories, namely type X and type Y.
the X theory shows that employees do not like to work, do not like when given
responsibility, and must be forced in order to achieve. Theory Y shows that employees
like their work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can carry out self-direction (Triatna,
2015). To understand more fully, it is also necessary to understand Maslow's hierarchical
theory. Theory Y states that a higher order of needs will dominate individuals. McGregor
himself believed that the assumptions of Theory Y were more valid than Theory X.
Therefore, he proposed the idea as participatory decision-making, responsible and more
challenging work, and good group linkages by maximizing a worker's motivation
(Robbins & Judge, 2015).
c.
Motivation-Hygiene Theory:
The motivation-hygiene theory was proposed by Frederick Hezberg. According to
him, intrinsic factors are associated with job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are
associated with dissatisfaction. This means that the urge in a person to do something
arises because there are intrinsic and extrinsic factors related to the fulfillment of self-
satisfaction (Triatna, 2015). According to Herzberg, motivational factors include a
person's job, success achieved, growth opportunities, career advancement and recognition
from others. Meanwhile, hygiene or maintenance factors include One's status in the
organization, an individual's relationship with his superiors, one's relationship with his
colleagues, supervisory techniques applied by supervisors, organizational policies,
administrative systems in the organization, working conditions and the prevailing reward
system (Kaswan, 2017).
2)
Contemporary Theory:
a.
ERG Theory
ERG theory was proposed by Clayton Alderfer. The word ERG stands for existence,
relatedness, and growth.
a)
Existence: the physical and security needs in Maslow's classification.
b)
Relatedness: social needs and the external component of rewards in Maslow's
classification.
c)
Growth: Intrinsic desire for personal development, encompassing the intrinsic
components of Maslow's categories of rewards and the characteristics encompassed
in self-actualization (Triatna, 2015).
This ERG theory is an adjustment of Maslow's theory which states that there are three
processes that can be seen in an effort to achieve these needs, namely: a) fulfillment-
progression, b) frustration-regression, and c) satisfaction-strengthening (Alderfer, 1969;
Wijono, 2010).
b.
McClelland's Need Theory:
McClelland analyzed three very important human needs in the organization. The
focus of this theory refers to three things, namely:
a)
Need for achievement; the ability to achieve the standards set by the company by
showing the employee's fighting power towards success.
b)
Need for power or authority (Need for power); the need to make individuals behave
in a certain way in a reasonable and prudent manner in the performance of duties.
c)
Need for affiliation; the need to establish interpersonal relationships and get to know
closer coworkers within the scope of their work (Kaswan, 2017).
c.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory:
This theory states that sharing extrinsic rewards for behavior that has previously been
intrinsically rewarded, tends to reduce the overall level of motivation. That is, if an
extrinsic award is given to someone to carry out an interesting task, the award will cause
intrinsic interest in the task to decrease (Triatna, 2015).
d.
Goal Setting Theory:
Goal setting theory was proposed by Edwin Locke in the 1960s. This theory suggests
that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, will lead to higher performance (Robbins
& Judge, 2015).
e.
Reinforcement Theory:
Reinforcement theory suggests that the emergence of behavior is due to the
environment. Therefore, experts in this theory state that reinforcement is what causes
human behavior, not just themselves. This theory is based on the behavioristic school
which considers that behavior arises because there is a stimulus role from the
environment (Triatna, 2015).
f.
Justice Theory:
Justice theory states that individuals will make comparisons between their own work
inputs and outputs and the inputs or outputs of others who will then respond to remove
any injustice (Triatna, 2015).
g.
Content Theory:
Content Theory is associated with names such as Maslow, McGregor, Herzberg,
Atkinson, and McClelland. This theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the
factors that exist in individuals that cause them to behave in certain ways. The difficulty
of applying this theory in practice is mainly due to the following (Rivai and Sagala,
2011):
a)
Needs vary greatly in each individual human being.
b)
The manifestation of needs in action also varies greatly from one person to another.
c)
Individuals are not always consistent with their actions being driven by a need.
h.
Process Theory:
This theory focuses on the ways and goals of each individual in order to be motivated
to perform their duties to the best of their ability. In this theory, needs are just one part of
a process of how individuals behave.
The basis of this process theory of motivation is expectancy, which is what
individuals believe they will get from their behavior. An additional factor of this theory is
the strength of individual preferences for expected outcomes (Rivai and Sagala, 2011).
i.
Expectancy Theory:
Currently, one of the most widely accepted theories of motivation is Victor Vroom`s
expectancy theory. This theory suggests that a person's actions tend to be carried out
because of the expectations of the results that will be obtained. For example, expectations
of career paths, incentives, additional facilities and awards. This theory focuses on:
a)
Effort-performance relationship, the possibility that individuals will receive by
displaying their abilities to achieve good work performance.
b)
Performance-reward relationship, the level of individual confidence in certain work
achievements will cause expectations to be achieved.
c)
Reward-personal goal relationship, the organization's appreciation of a person
causes individual satisfaction at work.
Victor H. Vroom, in his book entitled "Work and Motivation" presents a theory which
he calls "Expectancy Theory". According to this theory, motivation is the result of a
result that a person wants to achieve and the estimation that his actions will lead to the
desired result. That is, if someone really wants something, and the way seems open to get
it, he will try to get it.
C.
Approach Motivation
Bangun (2012) suggests that motivation in its development can be divided into 4
approaches, namely:
a.
Traditional Approach:
The traditional approach was first discovered by Fredrick W. Taylor who studied
scientific management. In this model, the focus is on supervision and direction. To
motivate employees, managers have an efficient way of motivating their employees,
namely by using a wage incentive system. The more they produce, the more they earn. In
this view, workers are generally considered lazy and have no responsibility in their work.
On the contrary, if they are rewarded with money, they will be re-motivated in their
work.
b.
Human relations approach:
Elen Mayo gives an opinion on human relationships where boredom and repetition of
various tasks are factors that can reduce motivation. While Social contact helps in
creating and maintaining motivation. Therefore, managers should motivate their
employees by making social contacts with them so that they feel considered and valued.
c.
Human capital approach:
In this approach, it is different from the previous two approaches mentioned above that in
order to motivate the performance of employees, rewards must be given first and social
contacts must be made with them. The human resource approach focuses more on the
aspects of human resources who are entitled to do or meet the criteria of various jobs.
This approach motivates employees to improve their satisfaction and performance by
looking at the human resources first.
d.
Contemporary approach:
Contemporary approaches are dominated by three types of motivation: content theory,
process theory, and reinforcement theory. Content theory contains theories that must
fulfill human needs. Such as managers must meet the needs of their work team to
increase responsibility and loyalty to their work and organization. Furthermore, the
process theory consists of two motivational theories that emphasize the ways in which
members of the organization seek rewards in working conditions. In addition,
reinforcement theory focuses on ways employees can learn desired work behavior in
accordance with their work.
