Influence of Intercultural Experiences Abroad on African American

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

Experiential learning through study abroad intercultural exposure has been found

to provide learners with the opportunity to develop intercultural competency skills, to

enhance their intrapersonal and interpersonal abilities, and to foster global awareness

(Anderson & Lawton, 2011; Intolubbe-Chmil, Spreen, & Swap, 2012; Lee & Green,

2016; Olberding & Olberding, 2010; Wynveen, Kyle, & Tarrant, 2011). Despite these

benefits, African American high school students are underrepresented in study abroad

programs, and African American high school students’ lack of intercultural experiences

and international perspectives can impede their personal and professional development,

and limit their career opportunities (Luo & Jamieson-Drake, 2015; Mclellan, 2011;

Salisbury, Paulsen, & Pascarella, 2011). During the last decade, researchers have

explored the study abroad programs in higher education institutions and their impact on

college students. Also, a few studies have focused on African American students and the

rationale for their poor participation in the study abroad and immersion programs. In this

chapter, I introduce and describe my research project’s problem statement, the purpose of

the study, the research questions, the theoretical framework, the research design, the

sampling strategies, and data collection procedures and interpretation, potential

weaknesses and ethical concerns, and the implications for social change.

Background

Research on international education has found that students who participated in

intercultural experiences through study abroad or immersion programs experienced

lasting effects on academic, personal, and social growth (Braskamp, Braskamp, &

Merrill, 2009; Paige, Fry, Stallman, Josić, & Jon, 2009; Root & Ngampornchai, 2013;

Schuitema & Veugelers, 2011). Despite these benefits, African American students remain

underrepresented, less internationally oriented, and less confident in their ability to adapt

to the foreign cultures (Luo & Jamieson-Drake, 2015; Mclellan, 2011; Salisbury,

Paulsen, & Pascarella, 2011).

For global educators, the purpose of intercultural experience is the enrichment of

the participants in global education that transcends both an ethnocentric view and cultural

relativism and promotes shared values, beliefs, and respect for cultural differences

(Stoner, Tarrant, Perry, Stoner, Wearing, & Lyons, 2014). Moreover, intercultural

experience has been shown to enable students to competently interact with people from

other cultures, and live among people who share different cultures with respect,

appreciation, and understanding of their values and beliefs (Bennett, 2004; Maddux,

Adam, & Galinsky, 2013). Maddux, Adam, and Galinsky (2013) found that participants

in international and study abroad programs demonstrated more keen problem-solving

skills, and flexibility in adjusting to cultural differences than students who stayed at

home.

Olberding and Olberding (2010) also found that a 1 week immersion and

exchange program had a positive impact on the students and even greater effects on

chaperones, parents, host families, students, and teachers at host schools. These

international programs equipped students with language learning skills, multicultural

competencies, intercultural awareness, and personal development and growth (Anderson,

Hubbard, & Laweon, 2008; Stoner et al., 2014). Furthermore, previous studies have

found that students who have participated in experiential learning abroad programs

initiated and led international days in their schools and organized after-school activities to

promote respect, tolerance for diversity, and open interaction among community

members (Monaghan & Hartmann, 2014).

Problem Statement

Intercultural experiences through study abroad programs and immersion

experiences have become a vital component of the United States education system.

Previous researchers (Braskamp et al., 2009; Brown, 2009; Lee & Green, 2016; Root &

Ngampornchai, 2012; Salisbury et al., 2011; Savicki, 2013; Stebleton, Soria, & Cherney,

2013) have found study abroad and immersion programs to provide students with

enriching intercultural experiences, cognitive and intrapersonal development, and

interpersonal skills. Furthermore, other researchers have found that experiential learning

abroad can have an impact not only on the participants but also ripple effects on

chaperones, host families, and parents (Olberding & Olberding, 2010).

Despite these numerous advantages, African American high school students

remain underrepresented in study abroad programs, and some of these students are fearful

of traveling abroad and critical of their peers from foreign countries (Mclellan, 2011;

Salisbury et al., 2011; Stebleton et al., 2013). These inner city students’ lack of an

international perspective may impede their intercultural, personal, and interpersonal

development skills (Royster, Gross, & Hochbein, 2015). During the last decade,

researchers have explored the study abroad programs in higher education institutions and

their impact on college students. Additionally, a few studies have focused on African

American high school students and their rationale for not participating in the study

abroad and immersion programs. This study explored the influence of intercultural

experiences through study abroad and immersion programs on African American high

school students’ intercultural competence.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this descriptive case study was to explore the influence of inter-

cultural learning through study abroad and immersion programs on African American

high school students’ intercultural competence. This descriptive qualitative case study

was rooted in Bennett’s (2004) development model of intercultural sensitivity and Kolb’s

(2015) experiential learning theory that I explained in detail in Chapter 2.

Research Questions

This descriptive case study research project used qualitative methods to respond

to the following three questions:

1. In what ways do travel abroad and immersion programs enhance African

American high school students’ intercultural competence?

2. What aspects of experiential learning abroad do African American high school

students believe have fostered their intercultural competence?

3. How do African American high school students’ teachers and parents perceive

their children’s personal development during and after their intercultural and

experiential learning abroad?

Conceptual Framework

I considered two theories to guide my research design and help interpret the

results. My research focused on how cross-cultural experiences can influence African

American high school students’ intercultural competence, notably Kolb’s (2015)

experiential learning theory and Bennett’s (2004) development model of intercultural

sensitivity. These theories are complementary yet different regarding various aspects of

the experiential learning process.

Experiential Learning Theory

According to Kolb (2015), experiential learning is a cyclic and dynamic process

of learning based on action-reflection and experience. This developmental, experiential

learning may occur both in the formal environment and in all other areas of the learners’

lives. Kolb, who has drawn from the work of Dewey and Lewin, stated, “knowledge is

continuously gained through both personal and environmental experiences, but the

learner must be willing to be involved in the experience, reflect on it, conceptualize it,

and use new ideas gained from the experience” (p. 38). Dewey (as cited in Kolb, 2015)

echoed Kolb’s approach when Kolb indicated that the experiential learning must be

embedded by activities that compel self-reflection and keen observations. Furthermore,

these learning experiences must be built on previous experience (continuum principle)

and the interaction between the learner and the environment (interaction principle). For

Kolb,

the tendency to define learning in terms of outcomes can become a synonym of

non-learning, and the purpose of experiential learning is to stimulate inquiry and

skill in the process of gaining knowledge, not memorize knowledge. So, learning

is a process, not a product (p. 38).

Dewey (as cited in Kolb, 2015) laid the groundwork for Kolb’s approach when he argued

that “knowledge emerges only through invention and reinvention, continuing, and

hopeful inquiry in the world, with the world, and with each other” (p. 38). So, people’s

willingness to learn and reflect on their experiences with the environment can lead to

personal development if the knowledge gained is built on the previous learning

experiences and sustained through reflective practices.

According to Kolb’s (2015) approach, experiential learning is characterized by

four learning attributes, namely (a) social learning, (b) continuous learning grounded in

experiences, (c) holistic adaptation to the world, and (d) transaction between the person

and the environment. For Kolb, learners’ concrete experiences are the basis for

observations and reflection that are assimilated and distilled into abstract concept from

which the implication for action can be drawn; this implication can be actively tested and

serve as lenses in creating new experiences that may produce learners’ transformation in

three areas, notably affective, cognitive, and behavioral (p. 38). In experiential learning

through study abroad for example, the facilitator may need to ask the right questions, lead

reflective and insightful conversations, and provide opportunities for constructive

discussions before, during, and after the sojourn abroad programs. The learners can

participate in the experience, use analytical skills to conceptualize the experience, and

engage in decision-making and problem-solving skills in order to integrate the ideas

gained from the experience (Brewer & Cunningham, 2009).

Intercultural Competence

Intercultural competence is a dynamic process, an on-going process that can be

honed by well-structured and designed travel abroad and immersion programs

(Deardorff, 2009). Bennett, Hammer, and Wiseman (2004) developed the Intercultural

Development Inventory based on generic approaches to culture that is a mindset relating

to intercultural sensitivity (Taylor, 2014). In this theoretical framework, I used the

Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS) to help me understand

intercultural competence concept.

The DMIS was created as a framework to explain the observed and reported

experiences of learners in intercultural contexts such as workshops, classes, exchange,

and graduate programs (Bennett & Bennett, 2004). The participants in these experiential

learning activities confronted cultural differences as they learned to become more

culturally competent. Bennett and Bennett (2004) used grounded theory to organize the

observations in seven dynamic stages of sensitivity to the cultural difference that

represented a model of the development of the cognitive structure. The learner’s

behaviors and attitudes at each phase were indicative of a particular condition of the

underlying worldview (Bennett & Bennett, p. 152). These stages range from denial,

defense, and minimization (ethnocentrism phase) to acceptance, adaptation, and

integration (ethnorelativism phase) (Bennett & Bennett, 2004).

According to Bennett and Bennett (2004), in the denial phase, sojourners maintain

psychological and physical isolation from cross-cultural differences. In the defense phase,

sojourners tend to denigrate cultural differences, but consider their culture as the best

among other cultures. In the minimization phase, sojourners experience their culture with

universal perspectives despite differences and understand that their culture is similar to

others, whereas in the acceptance phase, sojourners are tolerant of the host country’s

values and beliefs even though they may dislike or disagree with their societal values

(Bennett & Bennett, 2004). In the adaptation phase, sojourners take their host country’s

perspectives, and engage in activities or work in their host country or share their beliefs

(Bennett & Bennett, 2004). In the integration phase, sojourners reestablish their identity

within the host country, and they broaden their views to become bicultural as they

navigate between the two cultures (Bennett & Bennett. 2004). The DMIS as explained in

Bennett’s framework illustrates a dynamic process that can lead an individual to become

interculturally competent. This framework was studied in the specific contexts of

workshops, classrooms, and graduate programs. Other factors such as family background,

gender, race, and social environment might lead to different outcomes.

Since the transition between different stages of DMIS can increase tension

between the groups and cultural anxieties for a study abroad student, the development

movement among different stages can be facilitated by emphasizing the commonality of

cultures, particularly in terms of what is generally good in all cultures (Bennett, 1993, p.

40). As Bennett (1993) argued, “adjusting to such lifestyle in a foreign country will not

be a natural disposition” (p. 15). Students will have to move from the ethnocentric stage

where only their values and culture count to ethnorelativism where they may accept,

adapt, and adjust to other people’s values and lifestyle (Bennett, 1993). Berg and Paige’s

(2012) evaluation of study abroad programs noted that multicultural education training at

home can enhance students’ experience during their sojourn abroad. For example,

education abroad educators may enhance students’ integration in the host country by

promoting cultural activities that generate discussion, simulations, independent and

intergroup research, and reflective journals that enhance students’ self-awareness and

develop cross-cultural competence skills.

I discuss the above interrelated and complementary theories through literature

review in detail in Chapter 2.

Nature of the Study

This descriptive qualitative case study explored the impact of the cross-cultural

experiences abroad on African American high school students’ intercultural competence

guided by Yin (2014)’s recommendations for case studies. I used qualitative case study

methods of data collection, notably interviews with 13 inner city students who have

traveled abroad from an international baccalaureate urban high school in the Northeast of

the United States, experiential portfolios, and field notes. Also, I supplemented these

interviews with three focus group meetings of five, four, and four students to corroborate

my findings. Also, two teacher and two parents’ individual interviews were included.

I transcribed the digital recording of the interviews into a Microsoft Word

document and used provisional codes I drew from the conceptual framework, and Excel

software to analyze interview data, seek additional codes, and identify central themes as

recommended by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014) and Patton (2015).

Definitions

The following terms, used throughout the study, are defined below:

Cultural competence: Cultural competence is the intercultural sensitivity that

respect and honor different cultures (Bennett, 2008)

Cross-cultural empathy: Cross-cultural empathy refers to an individual’s ability

to participate in another person experience, to connect emotionally, and to show

compassion for others (Deardorff, 2009).

Cross-cultural understanding: Cross-cultural understanding is “the ability to

connect with other people through a deeper sense of appreciation” (Shirae & Levy,

2015).

Culture: Culture is defined as a system of beliefs, values, and assumptions that

guide behavior of a group of people (Deardorff, 2009).

Cultural flexibility: Cultural flexibility is an individual’s capacity to replace

activities enjoyed in home country with activities in the host country (Deardorff, 2009).

Experiential learning: Experiential learning is a learning process where

knowledge is created through transformation of experience. Learner is directly in touch

with reality being considered (Kolb, 2015).

Intercultural competence: Intercultural competence refers to an individual’s

ability to understand and respect other people’s worldviews, to evaluate knowledge, and

to see from other perspectives (Savicki, 2008).

Intercultural sensitivity: Intercultural sensitivity is a mindset that focuses on

knowing and understanding other cultures, assimilating ideas and moving among

different cultures while maintaining one’s identity (Taylor, 2014).

Intercultural understanding: Intercultural understanding is how people’s abilities

to relate to and communicate across culture, interact with individuals from different

background and skills (Walton, Paradies, Priest, Wertheim, & Freeman, 2015).

Multicultural understanding: Multicultural understanding refers “to a positive and

productive relationship among culturally diverse population” (Locke & Bailey, 2013).

Sojourner: Sojourner refers to a person who stays temporarily in another place

(Merriam-Webster Dictionary).

Transcultural understanding: Transcultural understanding refers to “the

understanding of divergent cultural values” (Guan, Greenfield, & Orellana, 2014).

Assumptions

Creswell (2009), Maxwell (2013), and Patton (2015) agreed on the unavoidability

of validity threats since researchers bring their learning experiences to the research

process. Therefore, the researcher’s bias might be certain. The topic of my research

project resonated with my personal experience working in several inner-city school

districts where over 200,000 high school students who drop out of high school each year

(Stetser & Stillwell, 2014), are more likely to bully their peers, and have less learning

motivation (Jargowsky, Wood, Anglum, & Karp, 2016; U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics, 2016). In contrast, students in other developing

countries, Congo-Kinshasa, my native country for example, strive for better education

(Kongolo & Zamberia, 2016). My assumption in exploring this qualitative case study was

that the African American participants have a better recollection of their experiences

abroad than the school’s website report. Furthermore, my interview style and questions

would allow the participants to provide a reasonable perspective on their personal

development. I also assumed that the artifacts, African American students’ reflective

papers, their electronic portfolio, and their social media postings would offer an authentic

representation of students’ cognitive, personal, and personal growth during their

experiential learning abroad. Additionally, I assumed that the students’ parents would

offer their genuine perspectives on the participants’ transformation after their return

home and the faculty would provide an accurate assessment of students’ development and

their impact on the school environment.

Scope and Delimitations

The scope of this descriptive case study focused on one school, an international

baccalaureate urban high school in the Northeast region of the United States because that

school offers a global education through service learning opportunities and immersion

and exchange programs to high school students aged 16 to 19 in partnership with the

Global Citizenship Association (I used this pseudonym to maintain the confidentiality

agreement). Furthermore, the school promotes participation in students’ international

exchanges, travel abroad, and sends students to attend international and national events

organized by the Global Citizenship Association. Over a decade ago, the school joined

the International Baccalaureate Organization that fosters international travels and global

awareness. Students participate in these immersion programs during their sophomore,

junior, or senior years. The student population is diverse: 51% African American, 11%

Caucasian, 12% Asian, 20% Latino, and 6% of the students are from other ethnic groups.

While administrative challenges were not a part of the scope of this qualitative case

study, the data led to some important aspects of administrating a study abroad program

that I discuss in Chapter 5. But I delimited this study to focus on the influence of

experiential learning abroad on African American high school students’ intercultural

competence.

Limitations

As the principal investigator to this study, I assumed sole responsibility for all

data collection and subsequent analysis and reporting of findings. A qualitative case

study approach provided a complete, in-depth, and literal description of a human situation

or program using an array of sources of evidence (Miles et al., 2014; Stake, 2010; Yin,

2014). Also, this qualitative descriptive case study approach provided me with a variety

of sources of evidence that facilitated triangulation and strengthened the study’s findings.

The participants’ stress, peer pressure, and lack of self-awareness may have impeded

their willingness to participate fully in the interview process. Moreover, Bowman (2014)

and Bowman and Seifert (2011) found that college students experienced difficulty while

reporting their learning and growth on critical thinking, civic engagement, and

appreciation of diversity. However, some researchers found that African American

adolescents are comfortable and relaxed in a group setting where they can express their

feeling and convey their ideas within the peers’ culture (Holstein & Gubrium, 2003).

Therefore, I combined individual interviews with group interviews to allow the

participants to build on their peers’ talk and discuss their experiences. Also, I adapted my

interview style and process and emphasized their voluntary participation (Maxwell,

2013), and included in the list of interviewees parents and teachers who had participated

in experiential learning abroad during the last 3 years.

Maxwell (2013) suggested that researchers understand how the validity is tainted

and acknowledge his/her bias at the outset of the proposal or the conclusion. In addition

to the researcher’s reflexivity, the participants and the audience’s reviews served as a

credibility triangulation (Patton, 2015). Besides the above strategies I used to minimize

the validity threats, I read and learned from the prior qualitative researchers who have

prevented the validity threats and ensured the credibility of their findings. In Chapter 3, I

elaborate on additional strategies I used to prevent validity threats.

Significance of the Study

Nationally, reports indicate that about one-third of all students who enter high

school in the United States do not graduate on time or they do not graduate (Ricard &

Pelletier, 2016; Royster, Gross, & Hochbein, 2015; U.S. Department of Education,

National Center for Education Statistics, 2012). Also, Stetser and Stillwell (2014) noted

that over 7 % of the high school students who drop out are African Americans. According

to Statistic Brain Research (2016), over 3 million Americans between the ages of 16 and

25 have dropped out of high school without a diploma; among these students 50% are

minorities, and 7.5 % of these minorities are African Americans. In their studies on

experiential learning through study abroad programs, intercultural competence and global

citizenship. Anderson, Lorenz, and White (2016); Bell, Gibson, Tarrant, Perry III, and

Stoner (2016); Berg, Paige, and Lou, (2012); Deardorff (2014); Kolb (2015); Krishnan,

Masters, Holgate, Wang, and Calahan (2017); and Wang, Peyvandi and Coffey (2014)

found that intercultural experiences led sojourners to global awareness, enhanced their

personal growth, developed their interpersonal and their intercultural competence skills.

Additionally, Peng, Van Dyne, and Oh (2014) found that undergraduate African

American participants in study abroad envisioned alternatives to their lifestyles and

attempted to change their behaviors or took actions as a result of their exposure to the

intercultural experience.

Moreover, African Americans’ lack of international experience and foreign

language skills may deprive the United States from the social capital that they may bring

into the world stage as diplomats in the U.S. Foreign Service Department (Carlson, 2015;

Constantinou, 2016; Lu, Reddick, Dean, & Pecero, 2015; Samel, Sondergeld, Fischer, &

Patterson, 2011). The present study seeks to provide insights for support of investment in

study abroad and immersion programs that can enhance African American high school

students’ intercultural competence skills.

Summary

In Chapter 1, I described background information of this descriptive case study,

provided the problem statement, and the research questions. In the background section, I

noted the underrepresentation of African American high school students in experiential

learning abroad programs despite the numerous benefits of these experiential programs.

In the problem statement, I noted that the lack of intercultural experience impedes the

urban students’ personal development, limit their career opportunities and make them

critical of their peers from foreign countries. The research questions focused on the

influence of intercultural and experiential learning abroad on African American high

school students’ intercultural competence, the exploration of aspects of experiential

learning that enhanced sojourners’ intercultural skills, and the teachers’ and parents’

perceptions of the student participants’ personal development after their return. I included

in this Chapter 1, the conceptual framework, my assumptions and limitations, and the

significance of the study.

In the next chapter, I review the recent literature related to experiential learning

abroad and their impact on the sojourners’ intercultural competence through the lenses of

Kolb’s theory of experiential learning and Bennett’s theory of development model of

intercultural competence conceptual framework.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Previous researchers found that experiential learning abroad programs provided

participants with opportunities not only for personal growth, motivation for learning, and

intercultural sensitivity, but also challenges that enhanced their independence, their

emotional development and their leadership skills (Braskamp et al., 2009; Brown, 2009;

Lee & Green, 2016; Root & Ngampornchai, 2012; Salisbury et al., 2011; Savicki, 2013;

Stebleton et al., 2013; Travers, 2014). A holistic assessment of these experiential learning

abroad programs indicated that students’ experience during their sojourn abroad helped

them to develop in three domains: cognitive, intrapersonal and interpersonal, and civic

engagement (Kiely, 2011; Rust, Dhanatya, Furuto, & Kheiltash, 2008; Stebleton et al.,

2013). Furthermore, these developmental skills can have a lasting impact on their

personal and professional lives. Since a few studies have focused on African American

high school students’ participation in these experiential learning programs, I proposed a

qualitative descriptive case study that examines the influence of these programs on

African American high school students’ intercultural competency, and the impact these

experiential learning programs might have on their families and the school environment.

Chapter 2 commences with the search approach I used to assemble literature

related to experiential learning abroad, the long-term impact of these experiential learning

abroad opportunities on the participants’ development, and the role of administrators of

these programs in promoting experiential learning, and also the research on African

American high school students’ participation in intercultural experiences. After an

overview of research on experiential learning programs that benefited the participants and

pedagogical strategies used during these programs, I examine the main concepts of the

literature review around the conceptual framework of the study. I conclude Chapter 2

with an explanation of my decision to use a qualitative case study approach to answer the

research questions.

Literature Search Strategy

I found a broad range of scholarly peer-review journals related to experiential

learning abroad using Google Scholar. As I narrowed my research interest to focus on

African American high school students, the following databases provided me with

additional resources: Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), SAGE journals,

the EBSCO Host Business Management, Academic Search Complete, ProQuest, and

Jossey-Bass’ New Direction Series. I expanded my research to include the words

adolescence and adolescent and study abroad following the librarian’s advice. Also, I

consulted books, dissertations, and seminal articles that aligned with my research topic. I

used the following key terms to guide my queries: adolescence and adolescent, African

American, experiential learning, cross-cultural competence, cross-cultural learning,

emotional intelligence abroad, cultural curiosity, inner city students, intercultural

competence, study abroad, transformative learning, and urban high school students. As

Machi and McEvoy (2012) and Dawidowicz (2010) suggested, I scanned, and mapped

the articles’ abstracts to flesh out a planned reading list that aligned with experiential

learning abroad for African American high school students. Furthermore, I created a

bibliographic information sheet in Excel software to help manage the journal articles I

collected (Maxwell, 2013). Also, I broadened my research to include issues related to

terminology of related terms such as intercultural and cross-cultural competencies, and

experiential learning.

Terminology of Related Terms

Intercultural, cross-cultural, multicultural, transcultural, and intracultural

competence are not synonymous terms, but they are intersected by describing people’s

ability to interact, build a relationship, and learn despite their cultural differences

(Deardorff, 2009). As Taylor (2014) suggested, the increase in global communication and

migration compels people to learn how to accept, understand, respect, and interact with

other individuals who possess different values and beliefs.

Kolb and Passarelli (2012) have found that experiential learning abroad can

improve the participants’ development towards a greater level of acceptance, adaptation,

and minimization that leads to intercultural competence. In the context of intercultural

competence relationships, individuals learn and grow together; and their relationships are

shaped by other people’s experience (Taylor, 2014). Whereas in cross-cultural

relationships, people reach across cultural boundaries to build relationships and learn

with opportunity for individual transformation but the focus is not a collective integration

(Lokkesmoe, Kuchinke, & Ardichvili, 2016). For example, other people might be left

unchanged with their values and beliefs.

In contrast to gaining intercultural and cross-cultural competence from an

intercultural relationship, in a multicultural relationship, individuals might support each

other, but the interaction among members remains unidirectional and one party benefits

(Deardorff, 2009). So, intercultural competence implies building a mutual and beneficial

relationship among members of different cultures. As Hammer (2013) suggested,

intercultural competence is an individual’s capability to shift perspectives and adapt

behavior to cultural differences.

Also Lokkesmoe, Kuchinke, and Ardichvili (2016) have focused on individuals

reconciling different point of views through the understanding of challenges they

encounter during the stages leading to intercultural competence. That ability to reconcile

cultural differences and create new ways of resolving cultural dilemmas has been called

transcultural competence (Glover & Friedman, 2014), whereas the capacity to manage

various ethnic groups within teams has been identified as intracultural competence

(Trompenaars & Woolliams, 2009). As Deardorff (2009) suggested, the value of research

on competence across cultures is not only to manage the cultural differences in the short-

term but to get a better understanding of the different point of views for the wellbeing of

the whole society.

Some scholars have observed that intercultural sensitivity is not a natural human

virtue (Bloom & Miranda, 2015). For example, history demonstrates that bloodshed, war,

oppression, and domination have resulted from the contact of people from different

cultures (Olson & Kroeger, 2001). However, the global imperatives of the 21st century

compel us to meet people of different cultures, understand, respect, and assimilate their

ideas without losing one’s identify (Taylor, 2014). Bennett’s DMIS is based on his

research that demonstrates that people progress through distinct six stages of intercultural

development as they experience cultural differences (Bennett, 2008, 2004). Experiential

learning abroad programs can provide an opportunity for transformative learning to urban

high school students within an intercultural learning environment (Lee & Green, 2016;

Passarelli & Kolb, 2011). As students experience, reflect, think, and act upon unfamiliar

cultures, they might be challenged to overcome cultural dilemmas, and shift from

ethnocentrism mindset to ethnorelativism as these students progress toward intercultural

competence. As Bennett (2008) suggested, intercultural competence refers to the

individual’s ability to accept, respect, adapt, adjust, and integrate into the new culture.

Conceptual Framework

My conceptual framework combined two theories, namely Bennett’s (2004)

DMIS which I used to support the construct of intercultural competence, and Kolb’s

(2015) experiential learning theory. I discuss these complementary theories in the next

section.

Experiential Learning Theory

Experiential learning theory focuses on “the interaction between internal

characteristics and external circumstances, between personal knowledge and social

knowledge “(Kolb, 2015). This process of learning from experience is also a social

process that shapes and actualizes the learners’ development potential; therefore, the

experiential learning becomes a vehicle for human development and instrument of social

change in the society (Kolb, 2015). Among the characteristics of experiential learning

theory, Kolb cited the processes that include social learning, continuous process

grounded in experience, holistic adaptation to the world, and transaction between the

person and the environment. In the following section, I discuss the characteristics of the

Kolb’s experiential learning cycle.

Six aspects of Kolb’s experiential learning. Experiential learning is an emerging

process whose outcomes become significant and memorable (Kolb, 2015). In this

process, concepts are formed and continuously modified by experience. For Kolb (2015),

the experiential learning cycle is a learning process that stimulates inquiry and leads to

the gain of knowledge (p. 38). Dewey laid the ground work for Kolb’s approach when he

argued that knowledge results from continuing inquiries and social interactions (Dewey,

as cited in Kolb, 2015, p. 38). Experiential learning implies that all learning is relearning,

and every experience takes something from prior knowledge and adjusts in some way the

quality of the future experiences. As individuals move from one situation to another, their

world and their environment expand. It is in the interaction between expectation and

experience that learning occurs. The process of learning from experience requires “the

resolution of conflicts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world,

and learning results from the resolution of these conflicts” (Kolb, 2015, p.38). For

example, in experiential learning abroad, sojourners may experience intercultural

differences that require their critical thinking and reflective abilities. In such a

challenging situation, the sojourners can use different perspectives, reflect on their

current and prior experiences, and even create new concept to decide or solve the

problem. Kolb (2015) acknowledged the resonance between Dewey (1938), Freire

(1993), and his own work when Kolb indicated that Dewey referred to the impulse that

gives ideas their moving force and the reason that gives desire its direction. Also, Kolb

noted that Freire referred to the dialectic nature of learning that is the reflection and

action upon the world to transform it (Kolb, 2015). Dewey, Freire, and Kolb agreed that

actions and reflection are the crucial factors that drive people’s cognitive, personal, and

interpersonal development during their interaction with the environment. The conflict

that may result from their contact in the new milieu might enhance the learner’s thinking

abilities and foster their problem solving skills.

As a holistic process, experiential learning provides conceptual bridges across life

situation such as school and work, portraying learning as a continuous lifelong process.

This aspect of experiential learning is not a functioning of human cognition or perception,

“it involves the integrated functioning of the all organism, namely thinking, feeling,

perceiving, and behavior” (Kolb, 2015, p. 43). The basis of the learning experience is an

interaction among organizational members who control the flow of events to their

satisfaction (Dewey, as cited in Kolb, 2015). According to Kolb (2015), this interaction

implies that there is a fluid and interpenetrating relationship between objective conditions

of the environment and subjective experiences of the individual. In this context, both the

person and the environment are subject to change. Kolb stated that, “knowledge is a

result of the transaction between social knowledge and personal knowledge, and social

knowledge is the accumulation of the previous human cultural experience” (p. 48). He

also specified that personal knowledge is the accumulation of the individual subjective

life experiences (Kolb, 2015). The experiential learning framework as conceived by Kolb

(2015) indicates that authentic learning is a dynamic process that includes people’s

feeling, thinking, and behaviors. A learner’s willingness and disposition to gain

knowledge through personal inquiry and social interactions can build on previous

experiences and lead to an individual cognitive development. Experiential learning

abroad programs offer numerous opportunities for the sojourners to immerse in the host’s

culture while reflecting on their home culture.

Application and findings related to experiential learning abroad. As the

above characteristics demonstrate, learning from experiences is a developmental process

that is both challenging and involves emotional feelings from the facilitator and the

learner. In experiential learning through study abroad for example, the facilitator may

need to ask the right questions, lead reflective and insightful conversations, and provide

opportunities for constructive discussions before, during, and after the sojourns abroad.

The learners must participate analytically and reflectively in these experiences to enhance

their personal development and foster their cross-cultural competence skills (Kolb &

Passarelli, 2012).

According to Kolb’s theory of experiential learning, knowledge creation is a

result of the transformative experience (Kolb, 2015). Researchers have found that well-

planned activities before, during, and after the trip abroad enhanced participants’ cultural

sensibility and transformed their ethnocentric views of the world (Boateng & Thompson,

2013; Lee & Green, 2016; Rockstuhl, Seiler, Ang, Van Dyne, & Annen, 2011; Sample,

2013). Also, such experiential activities have been found to transform participants’

behaviors and enhance their intercultural competence skills (Dunn, Dotson, Cross,

Kesner, & Lundahl, 2014).

In a meta-analysis of 14 studies on service learning, Warren (2012) found that

service learning had a significant impact on students’ learning. The 14 studies were

selected based on the examination of the relationship between students’ learning and

service learning outcomes, the measurement of service learning as a dependent variable,

and the inclusion of an experiential and control or a comparison group. The 14 studies

had a cumulative student sample size of 2,129 undergraduate students and were published

or written between 1993 and 2008. The effect sizes were weighted by sample size and

combined using standard fixed effects meta-analysis procedures. Warren found that

service learning had statistically significant and positive effects on students’ learning.

Also, there was a significant heterogeneity among the studies’ outcomes that the

participants developed a higher order thinking, empathy, cultural awareness, personal and

interpersonal development, motivation to engage in social issues, to study life skills, self-

efficacy, and civic engagement (Warren, 2012). This meta-analysis study demonstrates

that experiential learning that includes civic activities and fosters intercultural reflection

can enhance sojourners’ cognitive and interpersonal skills, and foster their intercultural

awareness.

Pless, Maak, and Stahl (2011) who explored an integrated service-learning

program through study abroad for graduate students, called Ulysses, found that

experiential learning enhanced responsible global leadership competencies. The

participants’ field experiences took place in Africa (43%), Asia (29%), Latin America

(29%), and Eastern Europe (1%) (Pless et al., 2011). The researchers interviewed 70

people who participated in the Ulysses program between 2003 and 2006 (Pless et al.,

2011). Each participant was interviewed before, during, and after the assignment. Ulysses

participants reported that the program helped them to learn about themselves, adapt to a

new culture, work effectively in a multicultural community, and broaden their horizons

(Pless et al., 2011). From the survey and interviews analysis, the researchers found

evidence of cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning as a result of the experiential

assignments abroad (Pless et al., 2011). The post program narrative analysis suggested

significant learning in cultural intelligence and intercultural competence development

(Pless et al., p. 249).

Other researchers have found that well-planned programs and activities such as

study abroad internships, international research project learning, critical thinking

simulations, engaging discussions, cross-cultural courses with hands-on components,

portfolio projects, reflective papers, daily journal writing or blog to encourage personal

reflection, and support and follow-up support from administrators after the sojourners’

return home enhanced participants’ cultural sensibility and transformed their ethnocentric

views of the world (Boateng & Thompson, 2013; Rockstuhl et al., 2011; Sample, 2013;

Thomas, 2012).

Study abroad dispositions are not necessarily credit earning educationally, as they

are enhanced by incorporating activities designed to foster reflections and keen

observations (Kolb, 2015). Such experiential learning may broaden sojourners’

understanding of the world and their abilities to interact outside of their comfort zone,

and develop their intercultural competence skills (Kolb, 2015). Many educational

institutions offer experiential learning education programs such as internships, service

learning, field projects, action or team learning, and classroom experiential learning

exercises in addition to their traditional academic studies in order to build learners’

survival skills for their future global experiences. If such experiential learning programs

are embedded in the high school curriculum, particularly in urban schools, they may

inspire high school students to experience other cultures through immersion and sojourn

abroad and enhance their intercultural competence skills.

Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS)

According to the DMIS theory, individuals may progress through six stages of

intercultural development as they gain exposure to cross-cultural differences (Bennett &

Bennett, 2004). These stages range from denial, defense, reversal, and minimization

(ethnocentrism phase) to acceptance, adaptation, and integration (ethnorelativism phase)

(Bennett & Bennett, 2004). The intercultural development is based on generic approaches

to culture relating to intercultural sensitivity, and Hammer, Bennett, and Wiseman (2012)

developed the Intercultural Development Inventory based on DMIS to measure

individuals’ cultural competence (as cited in Taylor, 2014). In this study, I used the

developmental lens on the assumption that the ethnorelativism stage comes with

intercultural competence. Anderson, Hubbard, Lawton, and Rexeisen (2008) who used

the DMIS survey to collect data from 54 undergraduate students in their longitudinal

study on experiential learning abroad, found that most of the 54 undergraduate students

who participated in a semester program abroad, showed significant development of their

intercultural competence skills.

In a similarly study on experiential learning abroad, Boateng and Thompson

(2013) in their qualitative case study of 15 American undergraduate students in Ghana,

noted that their analysis of students’ answers to the interview question and reflection

papers suggested that they moved gradually from the denial, defense, and minimization

stages to the acceptance, adaptation, and integration stages gaining an understanding of

the host’s country culture and their biases and adjusting to the new ways of living at the

end of a summer experiential learning in Ghana. Other researchers have found that well-

planned activities before, during, and after the trip abroad enhanced gradually

participants’ cultural sensibility and transformed their ethnocentric views of the world

(Braskamp et al., 2009; Lee & Green, 2016; Rockstuhl et al., 2011; Sample, 2013). Such

experiential learning programs through study abroad have been found to transform

progressively participants’ behaviors and to enhance their intercultural competence skills

(Brown, 2009; Deardorff, 2009; Dunn et al., 2014). While a semester of experiential

learning in Ghana (Africa) has transformed the African American undergraduate

sojourners ethnocentric views and enhanced their personal and intercultural development

skills, African American high school students may also benefit from such opportunities if

they can participate in similar programs through immersion and sojourn abroad.

Bennett (2004) suggested that sojourners in experiential learning abroad programs

make conscious efforts to transition into ethnorelativism stages in which they could

explore a new relationship across cultural differences. Since these sojourners are at the

periphery of the host’s culture and their own, they may need to internalize the new values

and beliefs in order to move from ethnocentrism mindset to the recognition of cultural

differences (Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009).

The adjustment may not come easily for students who travel abroad, accepting,

adjusting, and adapting to a new lifestyle may require a change in students’ attitudes and

mindset (Bennett, 1993). For example, in their research on study abroad programs,

Trompenaars and Woolliams (2009) found that simply traveling abroad did not help

sojourners to develop sojourners’ ethnorelativism mindset, but the participants needed to

be prepared physically, mentally, and emotionally to confront the cultural challenges and

conflicts before, during, and after their sojourn abroad. This predeparture preparation

allowed students to get a better understanding of their host’s culture, to integrate

smoothly in the local culture, and to stay connected long after their return home for the

benefit of the global society.

Literature Review of Empirical Studies Related to Factors of

Experiential Learning Abroad

Researchers have found that participants in the experiential learning abroad

programs gained cognitive, personal, and interpersonal skills; and enhanced their civic

engagement abilities that have shaped their leadership opportunities (Allison, Davis-

Berman, & Berman, 2012; Root & Ngampornchai, 2013; Ya-Chen Su, 2011). In the

following section, I examine scholarly literature related to sojourners’ development

during their experiential learning abroad.

Sojourners’ Cognitive, Personal, Interpersonal, and Civic Development

Experiential learning abroad can empower participants to pursue opportunities

outside of their comfort zone and might increase the participants’ knowledge of the rich

opportunities to strive in life for a better future (Allison et al., 2012). In their study on a

semester experiential learning abroad of 20 undergraduate students, Root and

Ngampornchai (2013) found that the participants increased their knowledge of their host

country’s history and political system, acquired non-verbal communication skills, and

gained confidence in new language. Root and Ngampornchai noted that the use of

discovery methods such as role plays, critical thinking, and cultural simulation during the

participants’ sojourn abroad, fostered the participants’ cognitive skills. Similarly, Ya-

Chen Su (2011) who studied the use of cultural portfolios to promote intercultural

understanding with 38 undergraduate students in Taiwan, found that through active

learning abroad, students developed diversity awareness and their openness to accept

cross-cultural differences. Furthermore, Ya-Chen Su found that 90% of the participants

reported having increased their understanding and respect for English language and

culture, developed critical thinking skills and their ability to generate unconventional

ideas.

Savicki (2013) who examined the reactions of a 12-week experiential learning

program abroad on 32 undergraduate students in Argentina, found that despite challenges

and hardships during their experiential learning abroad, the participants’ anxiety,

uncertainty, and acculturation stress fostered their inner development and enhanced their

emotional intelligence. Savicki suggested that a psychological predeparture training, in-

field support, and follow-up after a sojourn abroad could help enhance interpersonal

skills. In alignment with Savicki (2013) findings, Braskamp, Braskamp, and Merrill

(2009); Schuitema and Veugelers (2011); Salisbury, Paulsen, and Pascarella (2011); and

Stebleton, Soria and Cherney (2013) found that during experiential learning abroad, the

participants not only engaged in relationship with their host, but also broadened their

worldviews, adjusted to cross-cultural differences, and acquired values, attitudes, and

beliefs that could shape their choices in life and influence their future career plans.

Other researchers have found that preparing students mentally and emotionally

through high school academic, social, and political activities, created a pathway to their

future cognitive and civic development and influenced their decision to participate in

experiential learning program abroad (Rust et al., 2008). In their study of 276,449

freshman students from 413 institutions using on-line survey, Rust et al. (2008) found

that students who were involved in their community could move beyond their local

milieu to navigate between different environments with opposing values and beliefs.

Such civic engagement fostered their cultural curiosity and mental toughness that

enhanced their leadership skills and led to intercultural competence.

Sojourners’ Intercultural Competence in Experiential Learning Abroad

The pivotal outcome of experiential learning abroad is the development of the

participants’ intercultural competence, which implies the acceptance of cross-cultural

differences, the respect of other people values and customs and a willingness to maintain

their identity (Brown, 2009; Crooks, Burleigh, Snowshoe, Lapp, Hughes, & Sisco, 2015;

Robinson, 2013). As a result of their experiential learning abroad, the researchers found

that sojourners adapted to local customs, changed their mindset, behavior, and skill sets

that are fundamental to the cross-cultural competency (Bennett, 2004; Deardorff, 2009;

Hunter, 2008; Walton et al., 2015).

In their longitudinal study on experiential learning abroad, Anderson et al. (2008)

found that 54 American college students in their junior year who participated in the

research after a semester of study in London, developed a deeper appreciation and

understanding of cross-cultural differences, races, and ethnic background. Anderson et al.

used Bennett’s DMIS and IDI to measure the participants’ progression towards

intercultural competence. Anderson et al. (2008) found no significant change in the

participants’ score at the ethnocentrism stage because of the participants’ participation in

predeparture training that prepared them to overcome the challenge of their cross-cultural

experience. In contrast, the participants showed a significant improvement in their cross-

cultural sensitivity at the more advanced ethnorelativism stage.

Similar to Anderson et al. (2008), Brown’s (2009) ethnographic study of the

transformative power of international sojourn, found that the participants’ experiential

learning abroad increased their intercultural understanding, tolerance, and respect for

other people’s values and customs. Furthermore, Brown found that the participants’

attitudes and behaviors evolved from confrontational to those with a new culture to

tolerance, respect, and adjustment.

African American high school students who participate in such experiential

learning abroad may accept and adjust to cross-cultural differences, and be more likely to

avoid bullying and stereotyping and prejudice, and seek peace with their peers

(Bernardino, Ehigiator, & Picard, 2008; Crooks, Burleigh, Snowshoe, Lapp, Hughes, &

Sisco, 2015; Epprecht & Fizzell, 2014). Allison et al. (2012) echoed Brown (2009) and

Olberding and Olberding’s (2010) recommendations when they suggested that such

experiential learning provides a “rite of passage for young people making transitions

from adolescence to young adulthood moving away from home to begin employment or

university study” (p. 489). Educational organizations can facilitate this transition while

fostering intercultural competence skills in African American high school students in

promoting pedagogical strategies that encourage intercultural learning that I will discuss

in the following section.

Pedagogical Strategies that Enhance Intercultural Competence in Experiential

Learning

The global connectivity of the modern world offers many educational

opportunities to acquire and develop intercultural competence skills (Leung & Chiu,

2010). Hence, study abroad professionals may adopt and implement pedagogical

strategies that promote study abroad programs with policies that encourage

underrepresented students to participate in their programs. In order to provide sojourners

with the intercultural skills that enhance their cultural competence during their sojourn

abroad and beyond, researchers have suggested the following learning strategies for use

before as well as during, and after sojourn abroad: service learning, internships, and

volunteer or work opportunities (Braskamp, Braskamp, & Merrill, 2009; Stebleton et al.,

2013); reflective journaling and observations (Angela & Chiu, 2010; Craig, Zou, &

Poimbeauf, 2015; Savicki, 2009; Williams, 2009); project-based learning (Singaram,

Vleuten, Stevens, & Dolmans, 2011); exchanges programs (Olberding & Olberding,

2010); on-line courses with specific assignments (Williams, 2009); communication and

internet-based technologies (Ya-Chen Su, 2011); and predeparture training and on-site

support (Savicki, 2009).

Service learning and work opportunities. In their research on students’

engagement during their sojourn abroad, Braskamp, Braskamp, and Merrill

(2009) found that providing students with the opportunity to volunteer in the host

country or to give back in the communities served to build and strengthen

partnership between the sojourners and their hosts (p. 113).

Observations and reflective journals. Williams (2009) suggested the use

of journals with open ended questions to encourage students’ reflection on their

experience and the articulation of their intrapersonal and interpersonal growth (p.

304). Also, Savicki (2013) found that reflective journals enabled students to

discuss and analyze incidents that they found frustrating or amusing (p. 8).

Project-based learning (PBL). Singaram et al. (2011) found that project-

based learning can unite people from different ethnic and racial background,

enhance interactions across diverse boundaries and foster a sense of togetherness

without prejudice. Well structured and organized projects were found to bridge

inequalities among students with different academic preparedness levels (p. 302).

Exchange projects. Study abroad professionals have also used

international exchange programs as a strategy to develop students’ intercultural

competence. Olberding and Olberding (2010) found that during an international

exchange project in the United States, students were engaged not only in

numerous activities such as field trips, research projects, and educational games,

but also attended culture nights that celebrated the customs, culture, and history of

the participant countries (pp. 75-76).

On-line courses. Williams found that students were more likely to be

engaged during their sojourn abroad if they have specific assignments and

guidelines in an on-line class that allow them to interact with the local community

(Williams, 2009, p. 304).

Modern technology with tasks. The use of modern technology such as

video-conference, internet, telephone, Skype, Twitter, blogs, and Facebook can

foster collaboration and transform the host country into a classroom. Ya-Chen-Su

(2011) suggested that students engage in a process of discovery that allows them

to create and re-create knowledge. Additionally, students can select their topic

and gather information in their host country with their instructor’s approval. That

project can be part of their portfolios that can demonstrate their learning.

Predeparture training and on-site support. Savicki (2009) suggested

that study abroad professionals use predepartures’ simulation activities, reentry,

and follow-up exercises to help sojourners bolster their psychological skills in

order to cope with culture bumps in their host country (p. 8).

In her research on study abroad assessment, Williams (2009) also found that

students gained in their cognitive domain, their acceptance of cultural differences and

emotional confidence in living far away from home (p. 107). Other researchers found that

sojourners’ reflections on their experiential learning abroad led sojourners to respect and

accept cultural differences, and to building intercultural skills that eased their integration

in the global community (Brown, 2009; Singaram et al., 2011; Schuitema & Veugelers,

2011; Ya-Chen Su, 2011). Whether the study abroad is for short or long term, the above

pedagogical strategies may spur creativity, enhance communication skills in the host

country’s language, and foster students’ cross-cultural competence (DeGraaf, Slagter,

Larsen, & Ditta, 2013; Olberding & Olberding, 2010).

Experiential Learning Programs and Intercultural Competence

Since sending students abroad may not result automatically in transformative

learning experiences, research suggests that educational administrators design

experiential learning programs and plan activities that foster collaboration, stimulate

critical thinking and encourage meaningful integration within the host community. In the

following section, I will analyze larger experiential learning programs that have used

several curricular strategies I have described in the previous section.

Curricular activities in the Study Abroad Ghana program. The Study Abroad

Ghana (SAG) was organized by the University Study Abroad Consortium (USAC) in the

United States to equip graduate and undergraduate students with professional skills to

deal with diversity and enhance their personal development (Boateng & Thompson,

2013). This SAG program included two courses (social work and service learning) that

combined class lectures and hand-on experiences in the field (Boateng & Thompson,

2013). During their social work course, the 15 students enrolled visited a hospital, an

orphanage, and a refugee camp to observe and listen to people who lived in poverty and

to talk about the government system in place to meet their needs. Additionally, students

participated in field trips, tours, internships, independent studies, had volunteer

opportunities in the local communities; maintained a weekly journal to reflect on their

experiences; and participated in group discussions to share their experiences with their

peers and mentors.

In the interviews and reflective journals analyzed by Boateng and Thompson

(2013), the participants reported an increased interest and empathy for the local

population and gained a global perspective on the social services despite their biases,

beliefs, and assumptions. The participants were concerned about social problems such as

immigration, HIV/AIDS, child labor and poverty. For the six African American

undergraduate students who participated in this experiential learning in Ghana, the trip

had a significant value. These African American students learned about the slave trade

and visited an historical monument (slave castle), and places where they gained a better

understanding of their origin as members of the African diaspora.

While adjusting to bucket baths, local foods, hand washed laundry, the

participants reported they learned through these challenges to be patient, increase their

respect for their hosts, and appreciate what they had at home. As a result of their

volunteer services within the local organizations, the participants increased their

sensibility to the global issues, become more aware of discriminatory practices and social

injustice, and were more prepared for effective leadership roles in the international

organizations. Once they returned to the United States, the participants became “Informal

International Student Ambassadors” sharing their experience within their community. As

Boateng and Thompson (2013) had found, experiential learning, with well planned

activities such as field trips, educational tours, internship, independent studies,

volunteers’ opportunities, observations, service to community, site visits, direct

observation, stimulating discussions, field presentations, independent research, reflective

questions, and community projects can have a significant transformative effect on college

students as well as high school students as echoed by Monaghan and Hartmann (2014) in

their study of the Traveling School.

The Traveling School curriculum. The Traveling School used an integrative

pedagogical approach that combined place-based content, experiences, and critical

reflection. The purpose of its curriculum was to facilitate the transformation of students

and their teachers’ attitudes, behaviors, and values (Monaghan & Hartmann, 2014). The

Traveling School took 13 female high school students [five seniors, four juniors, four

sophomores] with four female teachers to Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, and

Mexico for 16 weeks (Monaghan & Hartmann, 2014). During their mandatory

predeparture training, the students and their teachers discussed and analyzed topics and

events such as conflicts, poverty, and environmental issues, most likely to occur or be

evident during their sojourn abroad. Furthermore, teachers invited guest speakers, and

planned didactic lectures, discussions, and simulations during the orientation.

Monaghan and Hartmann (2014) noted that the participants and their teachers

were emotionally disoriented to see people living in extreme poverty during the first 4

weeks. As they analyzed daily events and reflect on the different topics, their sadness,

anger, and frustration increased. Some of the students had insomnia and wondered about

the United States’ involvement in the wars in those countries. These outdoor activities

helped turn students’ despair into advocacy, hope, and resilience. Even their teachers

expressed the same feeling of despair but tried to find uplifting activities to comfort the

students (Monaghan & Hartmann, 2014, p. 93). Through hands-on experiences,

discussions, interviews, group activities, and personal interactions, the researchers noted

the students’ capacity to ask complex questions and observed a significant change in the

students and their teachers’ behaviors, values, and attitudes. Once they returned home,

the participants were required to present a Zenith project on their experiential learning

during their trip abroad; this project fostered collaboration and allowed the students to

give back to their communities.

As this study demonstrates, the students’ behaviors and attitudes’ transformation

was not an incidental outcome; the researchers claimed that these transformations were a

result of well-planned predeparture training activities with supportive administrators and

well trained teachers. Throughout the in-field academic and emotional challenging

activities, teachers eased students’ transformation and sustained their integration once

they returned to their high school. This experiential learning enhanced the participants’

potential development as global leaders which was also the purpose of the Ulysses

experience described next.

The Ulysses experience model. The aim of the Ulysses project was to help future

managers to develop key competencies required for responsible global leadership. Its

curriculum was an integrated service-learning program that sent the participants to

Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Eastern Europe to work in partnership with non-

governmental organizations, social entrepreneurs, and international organizations (Pless,

Maak, & Stahl, 2011). The aim of the curriculum was to broaden and deepen the

perspectives the participants have on the global issues and their role in their institutions,

to enhance their moral development, and to develop a greater tolerance for diversity

(Pless et al., 2011). The 70 participants were selected among professionals who

demonstrated leadership effectiveness at the local level, the potential for senior leadership

roles, and English proficiency. The curriculum included “360 degree feedback, coaching,

team-building, project-based learning, meditation and yoga, reflective exercises, and

storytelling to achieve learning at the cognitive, affective, and behavioral levels” (Pless et

al., 2011, p. 241).

The participants passed through five phases that were part of the Ulysses’

curriculum:

 Preparation phase. The participants were selected based on their country, gender

representation, and the program chosen.

 Induction phase. The participants practiced yoga, meditation to develop the

balance of their body and mind in order to cope with emotional and challenging

situations during their sojourns.

 Field assignment phase. The participants worked in team projects with local

partners, developing their professional knowledge and helping the local

organizations to achieve their social and environmental missions.

 Debriefing phase. The participants shared project experiences and celebrated

within their groups, the cross-cultural competence gained in achieving their

learning objectives.

 Networking phase. The participants attended alumni and special interest group

meetings where topics such as diversity and poverty were discussed, and panel

discussions were organized by each research team.

From the participants’ interview analysis, the researchers found that the

participants’ experiential learning during their sojourn abroad triggered deeper reflective

thoughts and greater self-awareness, and fostered their interpersonal and communication

skills. Additionally, the researchers noted that through the experiential learning, the

participants developed a greater tolerance for ambiguity, respect, and acceptance of other

people’s values and traditions; furthermore, these experiences taught them humbleness

and the recognition of their limitations. Similar transformations through experiential

learning in the study of competence development in educational travel will be described

next.

An international internship and research project. During an international

internship, the participants lived and worked with people of the host country and they had

the opportunity to socialize and tackle real world challenges faced by the host

organization; whereas the international research project was created by the Association of

Marketing’ graduate students from the Rotterdam School of Management (Netherlands)

to allow them to conduct marketing research in a foreign country (Van’t Klooster, 2014).

In order to identify competencies and professional skills the participants

developed during their International Internship (II), Van’t Klooster surveyed 967

graduate students [501 females and 466 males] using an on-line survey. Inglehart and

Baker’s dimensional value model (as cited in Van’t Klooster, 2014) was used to measure

the psychic distance (distance between home and foreign market) and the consolidated

criteria for reporting qualitative research (COREQ) checklist for data analysis. The

researcher found that the interns adjusted easily to cultural differences regardless of the

country of destination. The participants and their parents reported an increased self-

awareness, self-confidence, and the ability to solve problems; they improved their time

management and communications skills, developed ethnorelativism views on

controversial issues, and gained knowledge of the socio-economic and political

institutions of their host country. Additionally, the researcher noted that the participants

from less developed countries adjusted easily during their internship to high income

countries whereas the participants from developed countries hardly established

meaningful interactions within their host countries. For the researcher, the influence of

the media (movies and television shows) may have influenced the participants’

perception of the values of their hosts.

During their international research project, the participants attended counseling

sessions with their academic supervisors, participated in market planning and desk

research, and presented a final project. The participants were required to reflect on their

experiential learning and to evaluate their final project. Moreover, they worked with

different personalities with various worldviews which tested their patience, and their

team-building, conflict, and management skills.

The 116 participants were required to journalize their perception of learning in

terms of management skills, cross-cultural competencies, and personal development.

Their reflective journals were analyzed and coded using the competence framework. The

researcher found that 80% of the participants mentioned an improvement in their

collaboration skills, honed their interview skills, and developed their organization skills

with the tools such as Google Docs and Dropbox. Furthermore, the participants reported

an improvement in their understandings of intercultural differences, foreign politics,

economic policies, religious and customs and the impact of these factors on the hosts’

attitudes, behaviors, and skills.

As Van’t Klooster (2014) indicated, the added value of educational travel

programs depended on the duration and the destination of the participants (p. 171), and

administrators of the educational institutions can plan, design, and select experiential

study abroad programs that foster reflective thoughts, empower the participants’ personal

and professional development, and enhanced intercultural competencies.

The Community Geographic Project. In the Community Geographic Project

(CGP), 22 American students (12 graduates and 10 undergraduates) were selected after

an interview process, to participate in experiential learning through study abroad in

Belize (Hawthorne, Atchison, & LangBruttig, 2014). The project aimed to develop

international community-based research experiences, understand the social and

environmental issues important to Belizean collaborators. Prior to their departure, the

participants met several times to learn the basic of the Geographic Information System

(GIS) data collection; and to discuss the research ethics and the expectations for the

learning experience; and different strategies for developing a partnership with the

Belizean collaborators.

During their sojourn abroad, the participants selected one project from among the

three projects that focused on economic development, transportation planning, and

tourism services and resources management. With their hosts, they mapped public

transportation across Belize, agricultural production in Stann Creek district, and reef

habitats in the South water cage.

Mapping the public transportation. Many Belizeans relied on the bus to travel

between towns and cities in search of employment or family obligations but did not

possess a comprehensive map of potential bus routes. Therefore, the participants

collected input from the community that they included in their analysis and the creation

of the final map.

Mapping the agriculture production. The participants utilized the venue of this

agriculture project to request additional funds for large scale GPS project related to

agriculture throughout Belize. Twenty-two students, eight Belizean community staff

members, and two ministry staff members collaborated and teamed up (three to four

teams) to create a database and maps for the Belizeans’ Banana Association.

Mapping the reef habitats. The participants consulted with the resort staff on the

South water cage in Belize to create a Geographic Information System (GIS) database

and map of snorkeling hotspots to guide tourists, snorkelers, and boat captains. The reef’s

map was created with strong community inputs: boat captains provided their opinions

about reef bio-diversity while snorkelers provided their perceptions of the shallow areas

to avoid.

Through the participants’ interviews and reflective journals, the researchers found

that the participants developed an appreciation of the local power actions, a genuine

understanding of their struggles, and an increased self-esteem in the participants’ ability

to impact the local communities and the government systems’ decisions. As this

community geographic project demonstrated, experiential learning through study abroad

that includes meaningful local community (academic and non-academic) collaboration

can prepare the participants for employment in the global market place, enhance their

intercultural competence, and develop their interpersonal skills.

The School of International Studies (SIS) at the University of Pacific had also

helped the participants develop cross-cultural competency but with an integrated study

abroad curriculum that is described in the following section.

The School of International Studies. The School of International Studies (SIS)

was located at the University of Pacific in the United States and had an integrated

curriculum; undergraduate students took courses in cultural adaptation as a part of their

predeparture training and spent at least a semester abroad (Sample, 2013). Then during

the next 4 years, the participants took interdisciplinary and faculty team-taught courses

such as contemporary world issues, perspectives in world history, international research

methods, and world geography. For example, an economist lectured students on poverty

whereas an anthropologist explained the meaning of poverty from people’s perspectives.

This integrated curriculum aimed to transform participants into independent

thinkers, to foster their understanding of global issues, and to develop their critical skills.

The SIS had various study abroad destinations: Sub-Sahara Africa, Latin America,

Europe, Asia, and Oceania. Fifty-three undergraduate students who enrolled in the

program from 2007 to 2010 were selected to participate in this study. The participants

had to read and write on a range of contemporary and historical issues as a part of their

course assignments and lead weekly discussions. Additionally, the participants immersed

themselves in their host countries, interacted with local people, and submitted reflective

papers on different cultural aspects (norms, values, and behaviors) of their host countries

utilizing and highlighting their observational, analytical, and reflective skills.

The researcher followed the participants for 4 years through direct observation

and direct assessment of their international and intercultural learning using the

Intercultural Development Inventory. The findings suggested that the participants

enhanced their ability to behave appropriately in cross-cultural situations, and improved

their sensibility to cultural differences. Sample (2013) noted that the experiential learning

that led to the participants’ intercultural competence, did not emerge accidently, it was a

result of an educational process that had cognitive, affective, and experiential

components. The participants were engaged cognitively and experientially through

independent readings and reflective writings, audio and visual presentations (using Skype

and smartphone) from the pre-training orientation to their experiential learning during

their sojourn abroad.

As the SIS researchers suggested, experiential learning through study abroad

included an integrative curriculum that combined lectures, hands-on experiences,

international internship and research projects, reflective questions that stimulated

thinking, immersion with a collaboration with the hosts’ staff and personal, discussions,

and visual presentations using modern technology such as Skype, Google Hangouts, and

Facebook. Whether the study abroad is for short or long term, the above pedagogical

strategies may spur creativity, enhance communication skills in the host country’s

language, and foster students’ cross-cultural competence.

Short and Long-Term Implications of Experiential Learning Abroad

African American high school students can benefit personally, academically, and

professionally during their short or long-term experiential learning abroad, and

immersion programs (DeGraaf et al., 2013; Olberding & Olberding, 2010). Student

candidates for study abroad programs may need human, social, cultural and financial

capital to guide them in their choice between short and long-term sojourns abroad

(Salisbury et al., 2011; Stone, 2014; Travers, 2014). However, Kehl and Morris (2008)

suggested that before students’ decision to choose an experiential learning abroad

program, study abroad professionals provide them with educational training on the

benefits of both short and long-term study abroad programs, and the cost that may incur.

Short versus long-term experiential learning abroad. In their study on the

differences in global mindedness between short and a semester long study abroad, Kehl

and Morris (2008) found that both short (8 weeks or less) and long-term (at least a

semester) sojourns abroad required an appropriate preparation of the participants, realistic

expectations, and participants’ training on intercultural encounters (p. 77). Out of 992

students contacted through e-mail, 520 responses were received. The analysis of data

indicated significant differences between short and long term study. The participants who

completed a semester-long program abroad scored higher in global-mindedness than

students who studied for 8 weeks or less. Similarly, Dwyer and Zorn (as cited in Kehl &

Morris, 2008) found that full academic year of study abroad experiences had more

significant and lasting effect on students’ personal and cross-cultural development than a

short-term sojourn (p. 71). The alumni of study abroad programs stated that a long-term

(a semester) allowed sojourners to increase their language fluency, to integrate in the host

culture, and to make friends (p. 70). Dwyer and Zorn found a significant correlation

between the duration of the study abroad program and the cross-cultural perspectives (p.

72).

Other researchers have found that participants’ move from their ethnocentric

mindsets to ethnorelativism took time, and in some cases, the cultural differences might

become complex for the participants to adjust; and the sojourners may experience a

transformation compelled by the need to survive or out of necessity (Beaven & Spencer-

Ovate, 2016; Brown, 2009; Evans, Blamer, Jensen, Schertz, & Kelly, 2013; Huish

&Tiessen, 2014; Robinson, 2013; Schuitema & Veugelers, 2011). For example, an

international student may express his disappointment in the United States after a semester

of study in an American college because he is unable to make friends, and then may

decide to go back home.

Despite the conflicting opinions on the most effective duration of study abroad

programs, study abroad professionals may help potential sojourners to consider many

other factors that can affect their decisions regarding choice of programs (Soria & Troisi,

2013). For example, they may examine the level of the cross-cultural immersion, the type

of housing in the host country, and the financial resources to assure that the outcomes of

their experience are achieved. The aim for both sojourners and the study abroad

administrators may be to bring a sustainable transformation into their students with social

change implication in the long-term for their communities (Anderson, Lorenz, & White,

2016; Bennett, 2008; Brewer & Cunningham, 2009; Lee & Green, 2016; Olberding &

Olberding, 2010; Perry, Stoner, & Tarrant, 2012).

Alternatives to experiential learning abroad. Internationalization at home may

be an alternative for African American high school students who lack financial resources

to support their sojourn for experiential learning abroad (Soria & Troisi, 2013). In their

study on internationalization at home, Soria and Troisi (2013) used the Students’

Experience in the Research University (SERU) survey of 213,160 undergraduate students

from nine large public universities in the United States. The participants answered

questions related to academic engagement, research experiences, sense of belonging,

satisfaction, and demographic information during their college years. Across the nine

universities, 81,135 students responded (38.1%); among the participants, there were 59%

of females, 41% males, .4% American Indian, 6.3% African American, 12.4% Hispanic,

19.6% Asian, and 61.4% White. In addition to the SERU survey forced choice questions,

the participants were asked to self-report their global, international, and intercultural

(GII) competence skills before and during their college years in the following areas: the

understanding of global issues, ability to apply global knowledge and work across

culture, and the ability to appreciate, tolerate, and understand the global diversity. The

researchers used a descriptive analysis to examine the students’ participation rate in at

home global activities and multiple linear regression to predict students’ self-reported

development in global and intercultural competencies (p. 270).

In their analysis of the students’ self-report and the SERU survey, Soria and

Troisi (2013) noted that there was significant student participation and engagement in the

formal and informal activities of the nine participant universities. For example, the

participants enrolled in a course with an international theme, connected with an

international student, or attended lectures, performances, workshops, or an international

conference with a global focus.

Participants also reported development of the global, international, and

intercultural (GII) competencies, but African American students reported statistically

significant and lower development of intercultural competencies than the average, Asia

students reported lower development in both international and intercultural competencies,

and Hispanic students reported statistically significant and higher development of global

and intercultural competencies. Female, low-income, and working class students reported

greater development in both global and intercultural skills.

The researchers suggested that formal, informal, and structural or unstructured

activities be included in the curriculum at home to enhance all the students’ global and

cross-cultural competencies (p. 273). Furthermore, Soria and Troisi (2013) noted that

educational institutions can foster collaboration between international and local

programs, promote the social engagement of the students, assist faculty in their

willingness to integrate cross-cultural experiences in their pedagogy, and incorporate

international themes in different aspects of campus life. The researchers added that these

institutions can sustain the internationalization at home through policy, funding, and

programs that support teachers and students to develop intercultural competence skills.

Overview of Key Constructs in Relationship to the Research Questions

As the above literature review demonstrates, study abroad programs can change

students’ world views, enhance intercultural development, dispel stereotypes, prejudice

and discrimination, promote language learning, and foster cognitive and intrapersonal

growth (Braskamp, Braskamp, & Merrill, 2009; Brown, 2009; Root & Ngampornchai,

2012; Salisbury et al., 2011; Savicki, 2013; Stebleton et al., 2013). Additionally, these

study abroad programs can strengthen academic abilities of the participants and their

professional skills. Moreover, students might learn to value themselves, to respect, accept

and adjust to cultural differences (Anderson, Lorenz, & White, 2016).The insights I have

obtained from the above literature will guide my reasoning during my exploration of the

influence of intercultural experiences abroad on African American high school students

(RQ1).

Unfortunately, most of the above studies related only to college level students in

affluent lifestyle even though African American high school students can also benefit

from experiential learning abroad programs and enhance their intercultural competence

skills. In this research project, I plan to focus on the influence of such intercultural

learning experience abroad on African American high school students.

For the six African American graduate students who participated in the study

abroad program in Ghana, Boateng, and Thompson (2013) noted that their reflective

essays suggested they moved gradually from the denial, defense, and minimization stages

to the acceptance, adaptation, and integration stages. The experiential learning in Ghana

was historically meaningful for the six African American students because they learned

about the ancestors’ history, visited slave castles, and accepted their identity as members

of the African diaspora. In my dissertation, I plan to listen for other factors such as the

trip destinations, the length of time abroad, and gender that might influence the

participants’ intercultural competence development (Beaven & Spencer-Oatey, 2016;

DeGraaf, Slagter, Larsen, & Ditta, 2013).

Other researchers have used pre and post trip interviews and open-ended

questions with the participants to obtain their perspectives on values, beliefs, and

perceptive transformation (Monaghan & Hartmann, 2014). I intend to use open-ended

questions during my semi-structural interviews that might invite the participants to

provide a thick description of their intercultural experiences abroad.

Intercultural experiences abroad can influence not only the participants but also

the parents, the host country’s participants, the chaperones, and the education institutions

(Braskamp, Braskamp, & Merrill, 2009; Brown, 2009; Olberding & Olberding, 2010;

Root & Ngampornchai, 2012; Salisbury et al., 2011). I plan to use the insight gained from

the ripple effects of experiential learning abroad to answer RQ3 that focuses on how the

parents and teachers perceive the participants’ personal development after their

experiential learning abroad.

As Bennett and Bennett (2008) suggested in the DMIS, acquiring intercultural

competence is a dynamic process. For example, moving from ethnocentric mindset to

ethnorelativism thinking takes time. The cultural differences might become

insurmountable and complex to accept, adapt, and adjust (Brewer & Cunningham, 2009;

Olberding & Olberding, 2010; Perry, Stoner, & Tarrant, 2012). However, well-planned

structured and unstructured activities (Bernardino, Ehigiator, & Picard, 2008; Brustein,

2009; Bunggle, Clayton, Platter, & Jones, 2009; Hall, Gray, Downey, Sheringham, Jones,

Power, & Truong, 2016; Goodall, 2013; Grimminger-Seidensticker & Möhwald, 2016;

Schuitema & Veugelers, 2011), predeparture training, and reflective practices such as

journals and portfolios have been found to enhance participants’ awareness of the global

culture and to develop their intercultural competence skills (Angela & Chiu, 2010; Craig,

Zou, & Poimbeauf, 2015; Savicki, 2009; Williams, 2009).

Monaghan and Hartmann (2014) found that high school students who have

traveled to developing countries have experienced sensitive events and conflicts that

stirred their reflection and keen observation. The power of witnessing such life

threatening obstacles as poverty, tribal conflicts, and environmental concerns can be

counted among the numerous intangibles that might transform the participants’ attitudes,

values, thinking, and enhance their intercultural competence skills (Boateng &

Thompson, 2013; Sample, 2013). As Kolb (2015) suggested in the theory of experiential

learning, learning from experience is a vehicle of human development and instrument of

social change in a society. In the conceptual framework of my research project, I plan to

use Bennett’s DMIS to explain the gradual process of developing intercultural

competence through increasing cultural sensitivity, and Kolb’s theory of experiential

learning to demonstrate the importance of reflective practices in intercultural learning

abroad.

Rexeisen (2013) who used the DMIS in his study, found that students do not carry

the benefits of their experience abroad beyond the stage of minimization. The participants

continued to have a mono-cultural view of the world whereas Boateng and Thompson

(2013) found that the participants who traveled to Ghana enhanced their sensitivity at the

acceptance and adaptation stages. Also, in their qualitative case study, Root and

Ngampornchai (2013) found that through activities that foster cultural reflections and

include ethnocentrism case studies such as prejudice and stereotype, the participants

enhanced their cultural difference approach with ethnorelativism mindset. Moreover,

Olberding and Olberding (2010) and Monaghan and Hartman (2014) found in their

qualitative case studies that reflective activities led to open- mindedness, acceptance, and

respect of other people’s values and cultures.

Since students’ interpretation of their experiences abroad may differ according to

each student’s cultural lenses, base knowledge, and emotional resilience, it might be

unrealistic to expect all students who participate in these study abroad programs, to react

the same way to their experience during or after their sojourns (Allison et al., 2012; Kehl

& Morris, 2008). Therefore, travel abroad professionals may prepare potential sojourners

emotionally and psychologically to the challenges awaiting them in the host country

(Dunn et al., 2014; Keung & Rockinson-Szapkiw, 2013; Savicki, 2013).

Summary

The review of empirical studies indicates that researchers whose studies I

reviewed are unanimous on the positive influence of intercultural experience abroad. In

these studies, undergraduate and graduate students have benefited from their sojourn

abroad in developing abilities to interact out of their comfort zone, accept cultural

differences, and adjust their ethnocentric mindsets to move gradually towards

ethnorelativism thinking. This dynamic process can be facilitated by reflective activities

that stir participants’ reflection and keen observation.

Despite the numerous advantages, African American high school students remain

underrepresented in intercultural experience abroad programs, and only a few studies

have focused on their participation in immersion and international exchanges. Their

involvement in such programs might open them to a new way of thinking, provide insight

into their values and beliefs, foster their appreciation of cultural differences, enhance

cultural sympathy and humility, tolerance for diversity, and promote peace and social

change in their education institution and the global community.

In Chapter 3, I outlined a descriptive qualitative case study approach that

examined the participants’ perceptions of the influence of the experiential learning

programs on their intercultural competence, the perceptions of their parents and

chaperons on their participants’ development. An in-depth analysis and the findings

resulting from this study may enlighten future exploration of experiential learning abroad.

Chapter 3: Research Method

The purpose of this qualitative descriptive case study was to explore the influence

of intercultural experiences through study abroad and immersion programs on African

American high school students’ intercultural competence. In Chapter 3, I discuss the

rationale for the research design, explain my role as a researcher, and describe my

methodological plan. Also, I justify the rationale for choosing a sample beyond the

targeted population and explain the participants’ selection process and the instruments of

data collection. Moreover, I outline my plan for data analysis and explain how I managed

trustworthiness issues and ethical procedures during the research process.

Research Design and Rationale

I chose a qualitative descriptive case study approach for this research project

because that approach provided a complete, in-depth, and literal description of a human

situation or program using an array sources of evidence (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana,

2014; Stake, 2010; Yin, 2012). In the following section, I restated the research questions,

identified the central phenomenon of the study, and justified the rationale of my research

design.

Research Questions

This qualitative descriptive case study research project intended to answer the

following questions:

 In what ways do travel abroad and immersion programs influence African

American high school students’ cross-cultural awareness and intercultural

competence?

 What aspects of experiential learning abroad do African American high school

students believe have fostered their intercultural competence?

 How do African American high school students’ teachers and parents perceive

their children’s personal development during and after their intercultural and

experiential learning abroad?

Case Study Rationale

In this research project, I explored the influence of intercultural experiences on

African American high school students’ intercultural competence, and the manifestation

of that competence in the school environment, and in their respective families upon the

participants’ return. I used a descriptive case study approach to analyze the perceptions of

the African American sojourners, their parents, and their chaperons after their

experiential learning abroad. Yin (2012) suggested that the use several sources of

evidence in a case study allows the researcher to analyze data in many different ways and

to avoid a premature conclusion. Also, the finding becomes more convincing and

accurate when a pattern from one source is corroborated by the evidence from other

sources. These sources of data may include field observations with diaries, interviews

with the participants, blogs and journals, physical artifacts, and archival records

(Merriam, 2009; Miles et al., 2014; Stake, 2010). Furthermore, Creswell (2009) added

that a case study is an exploration of a bounded system through detailed, and in-depth

data collection involving multiple perspectives and sources of information. For example

in this research project, I identified aspects of experiential learning abroad programs that

may have led African American high school students to intercultural competence through

interviews, focus groups of students, field notes, and the narrative part of the students’

experiential learning portfolios. Patton (2015) validated the strength of a case study

approach when he noted that this approach offers a possibility of in-depth interviews that

allows the participants to share their stories and involves greater reactivity than surveys

and tests that are used in quantitative inquiries. A descriptive case study allowed me to

obtain the participants’ perspective after their experiential learning abroad. Also, a thick

and rich description of the sojourners’ experiences using a descriptive case study

approach can allow the reader to decide on the transferability of the findings (Creswell,

2009). During the data collection process, the sojourners reported on their experience

abroad. For example, explaining how to manage stress, assumed responsibility, became

more independent thinkers, and overcame challenges of living away from their comfort

zone. I used a reflective template prompt that guided the participants’ interviews and

focus groups (Appendices A & B). According to Yin (2012), the researcher’s ability to

deal with a variety of evidence from different sources constitutes the strength of the case

study approach.

Other Qualitative Approaches Considered

Before I settled for a case study approach, I explored the phenomenological,

narratives, and the qualitative ethnographic approaches. According to Creswell (2009), a

phenomenology approach requires a broader philosophical assumption of the

participants’ values and beliefs which necessitate a hefty period of time and resources.

While the phenomenological approach focuses on what all participants have in common

as they experience the phenomenon, narrative studies are built on participants’ life

stories, a focus that can impede collection of insightful perspectives from program

administrators or other stakeholders (Creswell, 2009). Moreover, an ethnographic

approach may require a full immersion with African American high school students and a

long sojourn abroad which can become time consuming and a financial burden for the

researcher (Merriam, 2009). Some researchers have expressed concern about the lack of

rigor in adopting case study approach and the influence of equivocal evidence on the

conclusions (Patton, 2015) while other researchers have found the inability to generalize

the findings from a case study a legitimate concern (Stake, 2010). Despite these short

comings, a researcher using a case study approach can work hard to establish rigorous

procedures of data collection and analysis, report all evidence fairly, and exert greater

attention during the experiments (Yin, 2014). Furthermore, Yin (2014) suggested that

case studies experiments can also be generalizable to the theoretical proposition but not

to the population or universe.

A qualitative descriptive case study approach compensates for limitation of the

approaches I discussed above and provided me with a variety of source of evidence that

strengthened my study’s findings. My roles as data collector and analyst are discussed in

the following section.

Role of the Researcher

As a principal investigator in this study, I valued the importance of aligning the

sample with the research questions and determined if the participants were representative

of the population of the study. In this qualitative descriptive case study, I served as the

sole data collector, interviewed transcriptionist, and data analyst. I established and

maintained a working research partnership with the school administrator, and the

community partner who served as a liaison at the data collection site (Maxwell, 2013).

Furthermore, I constantly attempted to identify and recognize reflectively my biases and

personal background that would have shaped the interpretation and analysis of data. As

Maxwell (2013) suggested my eyes and ears were the tools to gather information from

casual and incidental conversations, and make sense of the data collected.

Method

In the next section, I described the school site of my analysis, the selection criteria

for participants, my plan for sampling strategies, and identified other sources of data for

my analysis.

School Site

I sought permission to collect data at an international baccalaureate high school in

the Northeast of the United States, which I called St. Marcel High School to preserve

anonymity, which offers global education through service learning opportunities,

immersion and exchange programs to high school students aged 16 to 19. In partnership

with the Global Citizenship Association, the school promotes participation in students’

international exchanges, travel abroad, and sends students to attend international and

national events organized by Global Citizenship Association. For over a decade, the

school has belonged to the International Baccalaureate Organization (IB) that fosters

international travels and global awareness. The student population is diverse: 51%

African American, 11% Caucasian, 12% Asian, 20% Latino, and 6% of the students are

from other ethnic groups.

Participant Selection

The director of the Global Citizenship Association at the international

baccalaureate high school served as my liaison with the participants. She was willing to

help post a recruitment flyer in the school to inform and invite African Americans

students, their parents, and teachers to the information sessions about the study. Also, I

planned that the director of the Global Citizenship Association at the international

baccalaureate urban high school would keep a sign-up log for the individuals who would

be interested in attending the information sessions. Only African American students, their

parents, and the teachers who participated in experiential learning program abroad during

the last 3 years were selected on the first come, first serve basis. I planned to conduct

three information sessions in the school library: one session with parents, another session

with teachers, and the last session with students. The purpose of these sessions was to

explain the purpose of the study, the benefits, and the risk of participation using the

consent and assent forms. During these sessions, the library door was closed with a “do

not disturb” sign on the door to protect the participants’ privacy and maintain

confidentiality. The participants at these information sessions had 5 days to reflect and

review the consent/assent forms before they signed and returned the forms to me at the

end of the week. The community partner signed the confidentiality agreement to protect

the participants’ privacy and parents signed the consent forms to indicate their consent

for their children’s participation. Students signed the assent forms, and parents and

teachers signed the interview release form to indicate their voluntary participation.

Sample Size

The sample size of 15 African American students, four parents, and three teachers

was expected to be representative and broad enough to reach data saturation. As Merriam

(2009) indicated, the purposeful sampling is based on the assumption that the researcher

wants to solve a problem, discover what occurs and the relationship among different

constructs. Also, the researcher needs to determine the selection criteria for choosing or

selecting the participants or the site of the study (Merriam, 2009). Patton (2015) and

Merriam (2009) added that the researcher may need to consider factors such as the

research question, what is at stake, what will have credibility, and what the researcher can

accomplish with available resources and time. Furthermore, the researchers need an

adequate number of participants, an appropriate site or activities that may help to answer

the research question until they reach the point of saturation. As Creswell (2009)

suggested, I was flexible during the data collection process. For example, the sample

changed when the participants withdrew or an unexpected event occurred. In such

instances, I used alternative participants or an interview format to reach the potential

number of participants.

Sampling Strategy

The purposeful sample for this descriptive qualitative case study included 13

African American students, two parents, and two teachers from an international

baccalaureate high school in the Northeast of the United States. As Patton (2015)

suggested, I considered the resources available, time, and the thickness of information at

the research site to ensure saturation, and to explore the influence of intercultural

exchange programs abroad on the participants. Only current African American students,

parents, teachers, and school personnel who participated in the experiential learning

programs abroad during the last 3 years participated in the study. My community partner

helped post the recruitment flyer, maintained a sign-up log for interested individuals who

were willing to attend the information sessions, and helped verify the eligibility criteria

using the school trip log.

Students. I intended to interview 15 African American students who had

participated in the immersion program and Easter trip abroad during the last 3 years. This

study was conducted in collaboration with my community partner who helped verify

possible students’ and teachers’ eligibility. The eligible students participated in the focus

group meetings and individual interviews. I expected the sample size of 15 African

American high school students to be representative and broad enough to reach saturation

for this descriptive case study.

Parents. The community partner helped post a flyer to inform parents about the

study, and invited them to the information session I conducted at the school. Also, I

planned and followed through to send an information letter with the school principal’s

support letter to inform parents about the study. If interested, parents would sign-up for

the information session at the community partner’s office. I anticipated at least four

parents of the participant African American students to attend the information session.

They would have 5 days to reflect on the study and sign the consent form before their

voluntary participation in the data collection process. The parents’ perspective was hoped

to provide insight on their expectation before and during the immersion, and what they

had observed when their children returned home.

Teachers. The community partner helped post a flyer to inform teachers and

school personnel about the study and invited them to the information session. If

interested, teachers and school personnel would sign-up at the community partner’s office

to attend the information session. The community partner would help verify the eligibility

criteria using the school trip log. I anticipated at least three teachers and school personnel

who had participated directly or indirectly in the immersion programs to offer their

perspectives on the immersion programs and comment on the students’ development

during and after their sojourn abroad. Furthermore, the teachers and school personnel

might refer to the students’ experiential learning portfolios to demonstrate the influence

of the students’ experiential learning abroad on their intercultural competence skills. This

data triangulation process might provide insight on the influence of intercultural

exchange programs on the participants and enhance the credibility of the findings (Patton,

2015).

Recruitment Procedures

The recruitment of participants was contingent upon the approval of my research

project by the St. Marc school district’s office of research and evaluation office. I

submitted a complete application form with the Institutional Review Board’s (IRB)

approval number before any field research work in the district (Walden IRB approval

number is 11-30-16-0239878). The community partner helped post a recruitment flyer

that informed and invited African American students and their parents, teachers, and

school personnel who had participated in exchange and immersion programs abroad

during the last 3 years, to attend the information sessions about the study and receive the

consent/assent forms. Following these information sessions, the participants had 5 days to

reflect and decide whether they intend to participate in the study. After 5 days, the

participants signed and returned the forms to me at the end of the week. Only participants

who completed, signed, and returned their consent forms were selected to participate in

the research project. For minor students, their parents’ consent were on file to comply

with Walden University’s requirements.

Instrumentation

I created the interview protocols for teachers and parents with the support of my

committee chair. The alignment of the interview protocols with the research questions

was detailed in Appendix A. I designed the interview questions to be an adaptation of

Bennett and Hammer’s Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) that has been tested

for validity and reliability in measuring intercultural competence and has been found to

be appropriate for high school students (Hammer, 2009, 2011). Sample (2013) and

Rexisen (2013) used quantitative approach to administer pre and posttests through the

lenses of IDI. The IDI was based on the validity of the DMIS to help understand

intercultural competence (Taylor, 2014). Boateng and Thompson (2013) used the DMIS

in their study to explain the dynamic progress of the participants towards intercultural

sensitivity. I adjusted my interview questions to the individual situation of the

participants and asked them about the skills acquired (if any) during their trip(s) abroad,

and experiential learning that might have led to intercultural competence. The interviews

were audio recorded using my Samsung Galaxy Tab 10.1 (Piper, Weibel, & Hollan,

2013). I explained my plan for data collection procedures, storage, integrity protection,

and analysis plan in the data collection and analysis sections.

Moreover, I moderated three focus groups of five students each to ascertain the

views of each participant in the group, to allow the participants to provide a fresh

commentary about their experience abroad, and to make additional comments beyond

their original responses (Merriam, 2009; Patton, 2015; Yin, 2014). However, only 13

students participated. As Yin (2014) suggested, the purpose of such a focus group was to

corroborate certain findings that the researcher had already established and to test the

genuineness of the participants’ views by checking with their peers who hold different

perspectives. The focus group protocol and sample questions are included in Appendix B.

I used triangulation and peer review to test the accuracy of my data collection. To

triangulate, I diversified the interview methods and sources, notably interviews, focus

group, and participants checking of the verbatim transcripts that created the bedrock of

my analysis (Patton, 2015). Through the face-to-face interview and the focus group I was

able to read the participants’ body language, facial expressions, and the environment, and

recorded these elements in my Livescribe note book. I planned to add to these strategies,

expert audit review (feedback from my committee members), parents’ and teachers’

feedback, and the narrative part of students’ experiential learning portfolios during my

effective data collection (Janesick, 2010).

The interviews were planned to last 30 to 45 minutes to obtain a general

perspective on the participants’ intercultural experience abroad using the semi-structured

interview. The interviews ended up taking 25 to 68 minutes. The second interview was

intended as a follow-up with the participants to provide new insights or to confirm or

clarify my early observation. I intended to conduct the follow-up interviews for

additional information where necessary, which I used two times. Also, the participants

had the option of interviewing where they felt comfortable to speak without impediment.

Data Collection

As the purpose of my study was to understand the influence of the intercultural

experiences on African American high school students, I intended to use qualitative

methods of data collection, notably interviews with African American high school

students who had traveled abroad from an international baccalaureate school in the

Northeast of the United States, focus groups of students, and students’ portfolios. These

interviews were semi-structured to allow for revision and flexibility in dealing with

unexpected events during the interview process (Patton, 2015).

Researchers found that African American adolescents are comfortable and relaxed

in a group setting where they can express their feeling and convey their ideas within the

peers’ culture (Holstein & Gubrium, 2003). Therefore, I combined individual interviews

with focus group meetings to allow the participants to build on their peers’ talk and

discuss their experiences. I intended to lead three separate focus group meetings of five

students each and individual interviews with parents and teachers. I used the school

library to conduct these meetings. In order to protect the privacy and maintain the

confidentiality of the participants, the library door was closed, and a “do not disturb” sign

was posted on the door. With the students’ permission, I reviewed their experiential

learning portfolios to corroborate their responses to the interview questions and their

statements during the focus group meetings.

Also, I needed to establish a working partnership with the participants to gain

access to their world, to get them to share their experiential learning abroad without

overstepping my boundaries. As I interviewed the participants, I decided to record and

take field notes that would inform my analysis during the coding process.

As Patton (2015) suggested, managing and protecting collected data would be

pivotal in the continuity of my research work. Therefore, I intended to create an Excel

database inventory and backup copies of all collected data and keep one master copy in a

secure place. I used a locked cabinet in the basement of my home office with a passcode

known only to myself. Creswell (2009) corroborated Patton’s suggestions, but added that

if the researcher uses software to organize and manage the data, a backup copy of the

computer files, and a master list of the types of information gathered be developed.

Following their suggestions, I used an external flash drive to create a backup copy of all

my computer files. Also, I labeled and stored collected data in a locked filing cabinet

with a duplicate key I will keep in my personal safe for 5 years after the completion of

the study. Since I would be accountable for following the ethical procedures and had

promised to protect the confidentiality of the participants, I would be obliged to take

good care of data collected as precious materials in my possession (Patton, 2015).

Exit Procedures

At the conclusion of the data collection, each student participant received a $5

Dunkin’ Donuts gift card whereas parents and teachers received $10 gift cards each with

a note of appreciation for their voluntary participation in the research process. All

participants received the gift regardless of their availability for the follow-up interview. I

was opened to any protocol existing in the school district and in collaboration with the

school administrator to determine the best way to show appreciation to the participants.

However, such protocol was inexistent. I will send a digital copy of my dissertation to the

district research and development office as requested in the collaboration contract.

Data Analysis Plan

Data I collected from the interviews of students, parents, and teachers, and

focus group meetings with students were recorded with the participants’ consent. I

transcribed the digital recording into a Word document and used the Excel software for

coding and analysis of data collected. I corroborated the transcribed interviews from

students, parents, and teachers, and field notes to identify salient themes, reoccurring

patterns, and codes based on the IDI (Hammer, 2011; Miles & Huberman, 2014; Patton,

2015; Saldana, 2016). I corroborated data collected from the interviews with focus group

meetings, field notes, and experiential portfolios to limit poor recall or inaccurate

articulation (Yin, 2014). As Patton (2015) noted, this triangulation process may require

technical, intellectual skills, and flexibility in the part of the researcher who needs

analytical skills in coding, analyzing the emerging themes for patterns, and building the

foundation for the interpretation phase.

Initially, I developed a coding structure list (figure 2) based on my conceptual

framework and research questions that I revised or changed during data collection (Miles

et al., 2014). As I reflected and thought through the interviews, focus groups, and

documents processes, I used memos to synthesize data and detected reoccurring patterns.

Then, I clustered similar codes to create a reduced number of themes that helped develop

analytic meaning for the assertions. I started coding data as soon as I collected it, to help

me sharpen my eyes and ears when I returned to the setting the next day to collect more

data. Finally, I created a matrix display that helped organize the condensed data into a

format for reflection, verification, and analysis (Miles et al., 2014; Thorne, 2016).

Issues of Trustworthiness

Since I was both the collector and the analyst of data in this descriptive case

study, there may be a concern for the credibility of the findings (Maxwell, 2009).

Therefore, I intended to increase trustworthiness of the findings by minimizing threats

such as personal bias and data saturation. I address the issues of trustworthiness in the

next subsection,

Credibility

To ensure the credibility of my conclusion, I needed to avoid any threats that may

impede the validity of the findings. Maxwell (2013) suggested the use of triangulation,

the collection of rich and thick data through an in-depth semi-structural interview,

feedback from my committee members, codes and themes that cover relevant data, and

the notes from the site visit as strategies to test the credibility of the findings. Also, Patton

(2015) suggested rigorous data collection strategies and analysis procedures. Similarly, I

planned to use various sources of data such as the participants’ interviews, my field notes,

and the students’ experiential learning abroad portfolios that would help triangulate data,

identify biases and validate the conclusion.

Transferability

Transferability or generalizability refers to the applicability of findings from one

context to another (Creswell, 2009). This descriptive case study was not intended to

generalize findings. However, its findings may add to the database of qualitative inquiry

that can enrich the experiential learning abroad in urban high school settings to illuminate

future researchers.

Dependability

Dependability refers to the integrity and reliability of the research process. For

example, data collection and analysis may evolve as I expect new insights from the

interviews and observation that can influence follow-up questions or narrow the focus of

my research (Patton, 2015). Using memo and reflective journals during the data

collection process may help establish an audit trail of this descriptive case study, whereas

my focus on the participants’ experiential learning abroad during the analysis phase, can

enhance my ability to consider all factors that may lead to alteration of the analysis

process. As Patton (2015) suggested, the “design is not a mechanical, a set in-stone plan,

but a process and a way of thinking that evolves during the research process” (p. 244).

Confirmability

Confirmability refers to a researcher’s efforts to corroborate data and affirm their

interpretation (Creswell, 2009). I planned to enhance confirmability in obtaining direct

observation and requesting feedback session(s) from the participants in school settings,

corroborating reports from different sources, providing a detailed description of the

content and purpose of the study, and maintaining an audit trail that may allow future

researchers to understand and expand the analysis. Also, I included the participants’

words from the transcripts in the Chapters 4 and 5 to maximize confirmability.

Reducing Personal Bias

The topic of my research project resonates with my personal experience working

in the inner-city school district where a high number of African American high school

students drop out of high school, bully their peers from other countries, and have less

learning motivation. My assumption in exploring this descriptive case study was that

African American high school students might demonstrate understanding, respect, and

empathy towards their peers from foreign countries after their exposure to experiential

learning abroad. Since my personal experience and background are a part of my

experiential data, Maxwell (2013) suggested the use of triangulation to minimize the

validity threat. In addition to my personal reflexivity using observation notes, the

participants’ perspectives and answers to the interview protocol (Appendix A) would

serve as a credible triangulation (Patton, 2015).

Ethical Considerations

I sought the approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) to confirm a design

and process that protect the participants. To comply with ethical practices and in

anticipation of IRB requirements, the process began with a request for cooperation letter

that was sent to the Global Citizenship Association Liaison at St. Marcel High School to

contact the participants. The confidential agreement that I signed with the participants

certified that their participation was voluntary, and no financial compensation would be

provided. I planned to hold the interview in strict confidence, and had the parents sign the

authorization form to allow their minor children to participate in the interview during the

research process. Also, each participant was planned to receive the general information

about the research project and the interview sample questions. Maxwell (2013) suggested

that researchers understand how the validity was tainted and acknowledge his/her bias at

the outset of the proposal or the conclusion. I followed Maxwell’s suggestions by

recognizing my personal bias with a declarative statement acknowledging my past

experiences working in urban schools in the conclusion of my research project.

Summary

In Chapter 3, I presented the research questions, described the research method,

the rationale for choosing the site, and the methodology for data collection, analysis, and

interpretation process. Furthermore, I outlined different strategies to minimize the

validity threats, and the procedures to follow to comply with the IRB. This qualitative

descriptive case study addressed the gap in the literature regarding African American

high school students’ experiential learning abroad. The outcome of this study may

encourage investment in experiential learning abroad for high school students,

particularly for African American in urban settings. In Chapter 4, I report my findings

and discuss the setting procedures I used for participants’ selection, data collection and

analysis, and I provide evidence of trustworthiness. Bennett’s DMIS and Kolb’s theory of

experiential learning will frame the discussion of the findings in Chapter 5.

Chapter 4: Results

In Chapter 4, I explain the findings of this qualitative descriptive case study,

describe the setting and the participants’ selection procedures. Also, I discuss the data

collection strategies and their analysis, and the evidence of trustworthiness. This study

focused on the influence of the intercultural experiential learning abroad on the African

American high school students who have participated in these exchange and immersion

programs during the last 3 years. In the following sections, I describe the research setting,

the processes of participants’ selection, data collection, and analysis, and present the

results of my findings.

Setting

I collected data from an international baccalaureate high school in the Northeast

of the United States, which I call St. Marcel, to preserve anonymity. St. Marcel offers

global education through service learning opportunities and immersion and exchange

programs to high school students aged 16 to 19. In partnership with the Global

Citizenship Association, the school promotes participation in students’ international

exchanges, travel abroad, and sends students to attend international and national events

organized by Global Citizenship Association. Since 2005, the school has belonged to the

IB that fosters international travels and global awareness within the larger international

baccalaureate mandate which is “to develop, inquiring, knowledgeable, and caring young

people who help to create a better, a more peaceful world through intercultural

understanding and respect ” (Wright & Lee, 2014). The student population is diverse:

51% African American, 11% Caucasian, 12% Asian, 20% Latino, and 6% of the students

are from other ethnic groups.

The admission at this school is very competitive. The applicant must be in the 80th

percentile on standardized tests which implies an advanced score in reading and

mathematics. Also, the applicants’ report card grades must have As and Bs in the core

courses, and excellent attendance and punctuality. Moreover, three letters of

recommendations are required from all the candidates. Once accepted, students might

take advanced placement (AP) course and exams. The AP participation is 45 % and the

graduation rate is 96%.

Besides the 22 extracurricular academic teams and cultural club activities, the

school organizes spring trips abroad and exchange programs. As a part of their

predeparture training, students attend seminars and workshop worth a .25 credit. During

the last 5 years, students traveled to China in 2017, Spain and Portugal in 2016, London

and Paris in 2015, Costa Rica in 2014, and Spain in 2012. Also, students participated in a

legislative, executive, and diplomatic tour of Washington DC, and Beijing sister students’

exchange. Many students are usually excited to participate, but their parents’ financial

hardships prevent them from making the monthly payment. So far, only 9 % of the

students have participated in these experiential trips abroad.

Participant Selection

The participants included 13 African American students, one parent, and two

chaperones (a teacher and the school principal) who participated in the intercultural

experiences abroad during the last 3 years. Among these student participants, there was a

senior female student who traveled abroad for a 2 week homestay trip organized by a

virtual school, and who transferred to the St. Marcel High School during her senior year.

The school principal helped post the recruitment flyer after we discussed the recruitment

process and I explained the voluntary aspect of the students’ participation, and the

necessity to protect the potential participants’ privacy. A week after the flyer was posted,

I received four calls from African American students who were anxious to learn more

about the project. After discussion with the principal by email and telephone, we agreed

that Wednesday morning was a convenient time because students have an extended

advisory period. So, 5 days after the flyer posting, I conducted the information sessions in

the school library with 11 African American students and in the conference room with 10

African American students and one chaperone. Among these 21 student attendees, there

were three male, two transgender, and 16 female students. Students were called to the

principal office through the school intercom. African American students who attended the

information sessions signed an attendance sheet and provided their parents’ contact

information. This attendance sheet allowed me to verify their participation eligibility and

obtain their parents’ contact information since no parents responded to my introduction

letter. I sent out another information letter to parents through their children, and I made

five follow-up calls in the evening to introduce myself and remind them of the

information session at the end of the week. On Friday afternoon, I organized another

information session for parents in the school library where two parents attended. In the

evening, I called the parents who couldn’t attend, and I emailed the study information to

other parents who were not accessible.

At the end of each information sessions, I handed the interested African American

participants the consent/assent forms, and I returned to the school site 5 days later to

collect the signed forms in the principal office where I left a yellow envelope with my

name on for the signed forms. Fifteen African American students, two chaperones, and

two parents returned the signed forms. However, two students and two parents were not

able to follow through and schedule the interview for personal reasons. But after I made

follow-up calls, they accepted to be interviewed by phone. Among the potential African

American participants, there were eight seniors, four juniors, and three sophomores, and

three chaperones. Fourteen students were females, and one student was male. In addition,

there were also two transgender senior students among the participants. One senior

student transferred from a virtual school where she had traveled abroad on scholarship

and had homestay arrangement. In all the school trips abroad, the typical gender ratio is

10% male and 90% female students.

Data Collection

For the purpose of this qualitative descriptive study, I conducted three focus

group meetings with Annie, Rose, Julie, and Marie in group A; Flore, Monique, Nadine,

and Paul in group B; and Emelie, Jeanne, Louise, and Yvonne in group C. I randomly

grouped the African American student participants, and I used pseudonyms instead of

their names to protect their privacy and preserve their anonymity. Also, I conducted

individual interviews with chaperones and parents, used field notes I took during the

interview process, and analyzed documents that include participants’ reflective papers,

travel plan application packages, photo souvenirs from the sojourners abroad that were

posted on the school Facebook page, and power point slides I collected from the

participants’ projects. I procured these presentation materials and reflective journals by

emails from the student participants. During the African American students’ information

session, I asked them to sign-up on a separate log if they had any materials or papers

related to their sojourn abroad. Three students signed-up and emailed me the slides of

their presentation and a reflective paper of their project. The African American student

participants were given projects related to their sojourn abroad during the predeparture

seminars, and it was due 3 weeks after their return.

I held the first focus group meeting in the school library in the morning with four

female African American students: two juniors and two sophomores. The meetings were

held on Wednesday morning because the school has an extended advisory period during

that time, and also to prevent the participants from missing their instructional time. The

meeting lasted 45 minutes that included 5 minutes pause during the school intercom

announcements. Two participants came 5 minutes late during the first focus group

meeting.

I conducted the second focus group meeting in the school library in the morning

with five senior African American students: four females and one male. One student

came 8 minutes late during the second focus meeting in the library. The meeting lasted

one hour and 5 minutes that included 7 minutes pause during the school intercom

announcement. The library door was closed during the two meetings with a “do not

disturb” sign posted on the door. I held the third focus group meeting a week after the

first with four African American female students: one senior and three juniors. I

conducted the meeting in the school conference room to protect the participants’ privacy.

One student entered the school conference room 13 minutes after I commenced the third

focus group meeting, and left 35 minutes later to attend one of her classes. The meeting

lasted 55 minutes. All the focus group meetings were recorded using my Dell PC Voice

Recorder, and I used an external flash drive to back up the recording.

I interviewed the first chaperone, who is the school principal, in her office for 30

minutes. The door was closed to maintain confidentiality and preserve privacy, and “do

not disturb” sign was posted on the door. I interviewed the second chaperone, who is a

teacher and the Global Citizenship Association liaison at the school, a week later after her

overseas trip for an hour in her office, at the Global Citizenship Association headquarter

conference room. The door was closed to maintain confidentiality. My tentative plan to

interview the 3rd chaperone was unproductive. All my phone calls and emails were not

returned.

Out of two parents who returned their consent forms, one parent was available for

interview. However, her work schedule did not allow for a face-to-face interview. She

accepted a telephone interview, which lasted for 25 minutes. I voice recorded all the

chaperone and parent’ interviews using my Dell PC voice recorder with an external flash

drive as a backup. I conducted the follow-up telephone interviews with two African

American student participants that lasted 18 minutes each to seek clarification on their

experience abroad.

The African American participants emailed me their reflection papers and the

slides of their PowerPoint presentation. I used these documents as a source of data for

this qualitative descriptive study. Also, the school administration included me in their

website group where photo souvenirs from the students’ trip abroad were posted. These

documents and the notes I took during the meetings with the participants enhanced the

triangulation of the findings.

The African American student participants were engaged and willing to share

their experiences. They added to their peers’ comments and built on their stories. All of

the student participants were participating in a research process for the first time and were

curious about how the process is conducted. As one of them told me: “…this process is a

source of inspiration.” I brought pastries during the meeting, and they were grateful. They

were even more appreciative to receive a handwritten thank you note and a $5 gift card as

a sign of gratitude for their participation. I asked follow-up questions and supplementary

questions to help them clarify their ideas and elaborate on the key aspects of their stories.

For the chaperones, the study process was an opportunity to speak openly about their

financial challenges in organizing the students’ trips abroad and share their enthusiasm

for the international program at their school. They were eager to read my findings and

hope that the conclusion might enlighten the path of the program renaissance.

Data Analysis

I started data analysis by reading through all my field notes and listening to the

interviews and focus group meetings. After listening to the digital recordings five times, I

transcribed these recordings and typed them into Microsoft Excel (La Pelle, 2004; Meyer,

& Avery, 2009). I used Excel Software, Microsoft Word, and the portfolio analysis and

evaluation guide (Appendix C) to facilitate my analysis. As I read each transcript, I used

a memo to write any emerging themes, and what I could do with each part of the data.

The note memo I wrote guided my analytic thinking and stimulated my reflection. I

created seven tabs in the Excel worksheet for each group of the three groups of

participants and data sources.

1. Participant group A : Annie, Julie, Rose, and Marie

2. Participant group B: Flore, Monique, Nadine, and Paul

3. Participant group C: Emelie, Jeanne, Louise, and Yvonne

4. Sojourners’ artifacts

5. Documents

6. Focus group with African American student participants and interviews with

chaperones

7. Follow-up interviews with African American student participants.

Each participant or data source had a row in the Excel worksheet tabs that

contained data. The worksheet had seven columns titled with the participants’ pseudonym

name or data source, excerpts from the data, the code title assigned to each excerpt, my

comments, and the ultimate theme.

After initial coding, I clustered codes that fit my conceptual frameworks:

Bennett’s (2004) development model of intercultural sensitivity and Kolb’s (2015) theory

of experiential learning. Also, I developed and applied a cluster of codes for a third theme

from the interview transcripts after the first reading. For instance, I fleshed out pattern

and noted more emerging codes such as impact, aspects, and challenges. I used the

coding structure list of codes (Figure 1) I created based on my initial reading of the

transcripts, the conceptual frameworks, and open coding to analyze the participants’

verbatim transcriptions and their sojourn artifacts. In addition, I used the portfolio

analysis and evaluation guide (Appendix C) to code the students’ artifacts and

documents.

Following my second reading, I renamed some of the codes that reflected the

Bennett’s DMIS and Kolb’s theory of experiential learning: defense, denial,

minimization, acceptance, adaptation, integration, actions, and reflection. After the

suggestions from my mentor, I created codes to specify the impact of travel abroad as

well as aspects of programs that fostered intercultural competence, and challenges

encountered by all the participants. I brought closure to the document analysis when I

exhausted all the sources of information, the set of codes was saturated, and further

analysis of sources led to redundancy in coding. Finally, I clustered similar codes to

create a reduced number of the following major themes that helped answer the research

questions:

 African American sojourners’ dynamic process towards intercultural

competence

 African American sojourners’ perceived program aspects that fostered

their intercultural competence

 The influence of reflective practices on the African American participants’

intercultural skills

 Travel abroad challenges for the African American sojourners

Sources, Research Questions, and Themes

Code Title

Codes

Conceptual framework - Bennett’s development

model of intercultural sensitivity

Theme related to framework and

research question 1:

African American sojourners’ dynamic process

towards intercultural competence

Denial

DEN

Defense

DEF

Minimization

MIN

Acceptance

ACC

Adaptation

ADA

Integration

INT

Conceptual framework - Kolb’s Experiential

learning

1st theme related to framework and

research question 2:

African American sojourners’ perceived program

aspects that fostered their intercultural competence

2nd theme related to framework and

research question 2:

The influence of reflective practices on the African

American sojourners’ intercultural skills

Actions

ACT

Reflection

REF

Experiences

EXP

Interactions

INTR

Stimulation

STI

These emergent codes were not clustered with

conceptual framework but are related to two themes

Themes related to research question 2:

Travel abroad challenges for the African American

sojourners

Theme related to research question 3:

Teachers’ and parents’ perception of African

American participants’ personal development

Attitudes

ATT

Behaviors

BEH

Discovery

DISC

Challenges

CHAL

Character

CHA

Empathy

EMP

Independence

IND

Knowledge

KNO

Maturity

MAT

Respect

RES

Resilience

RESI

Impact

IMP

Self-identity

SELI

Tolerance

TOL

Feeling

FEEL

Interaction

INT

Figure 1. Coding Structure List

In my initial plan, I planned to use NVivo, but the cost and the time required for

training with the newer version compelled me to opt for Microsoft Excel software (La

Pelle, 2004; Meyer, & Avery, 2009). Regardless of the tools used, the qualitative

analytical procedures remained unchanged.

Evidence of Trustworthiness

During the data collection and analysis, I used memo and reflective journals to

establish an audit trial of the study. I used triangulation to corroborate reports from

different sources, notably thick data from in-depth face-to-face and follow-up telephone

interviews, detailed field notes, students’ reflective journals, experiential learning

portfolios, trip planning documents, and photos that were taken during the participants’

sojourn abroad. Also, I increased the trustworthiness of the findings by minimizing

threats such as personal bias and data saturation. Therefore, I requested direct feedback

from the participants through emails, but only one participant responded with a few

annotations on the script.

Furthermore, I requested feedback from my committee member during the coding

process, and I used a friend researcher to review my coding during the analysis process.

Moreover, I included the African American participants’ words from their verbatim

transcription that focus only on their experiential learning abroad in the chapters four and

five to enhance confirmability.

Results

As results of data analysis guided by Bennett‘s (2009) DMIS and Kolb’s (2015)

experiential learning conceptual frameworks, the following major themes that aligned

with the three research questions emerged. In the following sections, I organized the

themes outlined in figure 2 to respond to the three research questions which address the

African American paths towards intercultural competence development, the aspects that

foster their intercultural skills, and the teachers’ and parents’ perception of the student

participants’ personal development.

Major Themes

Research Questions

Theme: African American

sojourners’ dynamic process

towards intercultural competence

Theme: African American

sojourners’ perceived program

aspects that fostered their

intercultural competence

Theme: The influence of reflective

practices on the African American

participants’ intercultural skills

Theme: Travel abroad challenges

for the African American

sojourners

Theme: Teachers’ and parents’

perception of African American

sojourners’ personal development

1. In what ways do travel abroad

and immersion programs enhance

African American high school

students’ intercultural

competence?

2. What aspects of experiential

learning abroad do African

American high school students

believe have fostered their

intercultural competence?

3. How do African American high

school students’ teachers and

parents perceive their children’s

personal development during and

after their intercultural and

experiential learning abroad?

Figure 2. Research Questions and Themes Alignment

The data analysis indicated that sojourners’ patterns of adaptation and integration in the

hosts’ culture took different trajectories according to the African American participants’

travel motivations, their prior language skills and intercultural experiences, and their

lodging accommodations. The 11 African American participants who wanted to

experience a new culture, take a break from school, and get out of their comfort zone,

enjoyed their stay, enhanced their language skills, and their prior intercultural

experiences eased their integration into the host’s culture, and they claimed to have

established a lasting friendship with their hosts. Also, the African American student who

had homestay lodging as part of her experience abroad reported a remarkable adaptation

to her host country and increased knowledge of the host’s culture. Whereas the two

African American participants whose primary motivations were to meet new friends and

had high expectations about the host’s country expressed frustration, stress, and felt

deceived.

Three of these 13 African American participants provided me with power point

slides and reflective papers that were a part of my data analysis. What I heard from the

participants, read in their reflective papers, and viewed in some of their presentation

materials suggest that the African American participants moved along Bennett’s

intercultural sensitivity continuum (Bennett & Bennett, 2004) from ethnocentric mindset

to ethnorelativism worldview.

The 11 African American participants revealed that they were humbled by their

experience abroad, became more mature, more accepting, tolerant, and more respectful to

their peers who were different from them. Also, they indicated that the predeparture

seminars, informal observation and reflection, and emotional support during their sojourn

abroad helped them to cope with stress and anxieties. Moreover, the chaperones reported

that as post trip activities, the student participants organized, planned, and led workshops

during cultural assemblies to show and share their learning from the experiential trips

abroad.

Despite the African American participants’ gain in intercultural skills, the

chaperones revealed key challenges that negatively impacted the experience overall,

including the financial challenges that resulted in a personnel shortage, the poor quality

seminars, the limited number of African American participants in the trips abroad, and a

decline in the level of service provided by the Global Citizenship Association.

I describe below how the findings of this qualitative case study relate to the three

research questions which examine ways that experiential learning abroad enhanced the

African American sojourners’ intercultural competence, program aspects that fostered

their intercultural skills, and teachers’ and parents’ perception of the student participants’

personal development. Also, I organize the themes according to my conceptual

framework, development model of intercultural sensitivity and experiential learning, and

the relevant sections of Chapter 2.

African American Sojourners’ Dynamic Process towards Intercultural Competence

The interview data indicated that the African American participants had different

motivations for traveling abroad, and all the African American participants stated that the

experience abroad exceeded their cultural learning expectations. All the African

American participants suggested that their intercultural skills depended on their

individual background and family experience. Monique stated: “I wanted to see and

experience how other people live.” While Paul said: “… because my friends were going”.

For Nadine, the trip abroad was “just a way to be away from school…take a break from

the same old things.” Whereas for Marie, she “wanted to discover a new culture.”

Besides the recreational motivation, there were also African American

participants for whom travel abroad was just an adventure. The African American

participant who had a homestay in Japan for a week had a different experience. She

stated:

I am a city child at heart, and as a matter of fact I don’t really like living in the

country because it is more difficult for me to get around. It didn’t take me very

long to get adjusted to living in Tokyo even though the streets are much cleaner,

it’s safer, and it’s much larger than Philadelphia is. Unfortunately, I seemed to

have adjusted too quickly and found myself not getting excited about much other

than the food anymore.

Even though for most of the African American sojourners, the cultural curiosity,

the strong desire to break from their daily routine and to discover the world beyond the

United States eased their path to integration in the host country, for some African

American participants, their fantasist expectations turned into a nightmare. A chaperone

reported:

Students had a romantic vision of Paris: beautiful city, people are painting, play

music, and things of that nature. They just come from London where they had an

amazing time. It was beautiful, it was great. I noticed that it started when we got

off the train from London. We found security guards everywhere in the train

station. But that student had some other issues: she was traveling by herself while

other students knew whom they were traveling with. This girl, in particular,

wanted to go just to meet new people. That’s not the norms for students to

typically go. She was senior and had no underclass friend. It was a hard time for

her. She had some really hard breakdown.

A chaperone indicated that the security concerns made travel abroad less desirable

and led the sojourners to experience homesickness in the host country. She reported:

I had a student during our trip to London /France who had a panic attack, a mental

breakdown. It was really bad. This was the first time I thought I will have to send

student home when we arrived in Paris. The student was infatuated with Paris. As

a chaperone, we did our best to make sure that students’ expectations were

realistic. We arrived only 2 months after Charlie Hebdo happened. And you had a

lot of concerns about families whether we gonna be in a safe environment.

African American participants’ comments revealed that the path to intercultural

competence was not linear for all the participants. Twelve African American participants

indicated that they adjusted and integrated easily into their host’ cultures, whereas one

African American participant had an emotional breakdown. However, she relied on her

peers, chaperones, and even called home for emotional support and survival strategies.

Louise reported:

I started to feel like I was a Spaniard. They would speak in fluent Spanish and

they would come to me…and I say, what do you do with camera in my neck? As I

was always with Emelie…she would listen and tell me what they say, and I will…

I can speak it really well [Spanish], but Emelie can understand what they are

saying.

The responses of chaperones and the African American participants’ comments

pointed out the aspects of the travel abroad program that had a significant impact on the

African American participants’ worldviews and their intercultural skills. I examine these

aspects in the following sections.

African American Sojourners’ Perceived Program Aspects that Fostered their

Intercultural Competence

The interview analysis, the focus group interaction, the African American

participants’ artifacts, and the planning trip documents indicated that the predeparture

training, homestay lodging, intercultural environment, post-sojourn practices, and

reflective practices fostered the African American participants’ intercultural competence

skills.

Predeparture seminars to manage expectations. The purpose of a predeparture

training at St. Marcel High School was to address the African American participants’

expectations and assumptions so that they knew what to expect during their travels, what

was expected of them in the host community, and understanding the assumption

regarding American youth that may be held by host country nationals they may

encounter. A chaperone referred to these seminars when she stated:

We organize international travel biweekly seminars in conjunction with the trip.

Each seminar is led by different speaker. For example, issues of safety overseas,

how to be St. Marcel’s ambassador abroad, crash course in French where students

learn basic phrases to survive in France, how to deal with different customs. Also,

students pick a project. They gather field experiences while abroad and share

them during International Day. They might choose fashion, stereotype issues,

bridge culture, compare and contrast, or specific interest in sciences and share

what they learned while abroad. There are also parents’ seminars that prepare

them to their children departure abroad.

The structure of these seminars has changed over the years as reported by the

principal of the school who was also a presenter during the seminar:

So, in the past, we actually gave them ¼ credit for this, and we had more staffing

involved from the Global Citizenship Association. The nice thing is that even

after the staffing changes, some way, we still have a template for seminars and

students who attend seminars prior going on trips. Usually, what we do is invite

students, those who traveled to these countries to come share different aspects of

cultures. There were 10 classes they had to attend. Each class had different field

and presenter. What I presented was about an ugly American in Paris. What I did

was explain what is there and here, so you don’t do anything inappropriate. We do

it on language, religion, culture norms, geography, and overview of the trip. They

get ¼ credit.

According to the principal of the school, the predeparture preparation starts half a

year before the trip. The program coordinator shops around for the trip package and

makes a decision based on the current situation of the country. All trips are submitted to

the district for approval. The trips abroad are organized during the Spring break to

prevent students from missing instructional days. Also, students attend meetings at the

Global Citizenship Association where they meet famous people and experts in their

fields.

During the focus group meetings, the African American participants barely referred

to their school predeparture seminars. For example, Jeanne stated:

I also feel like…, for example when we went to Paris someone left his book bag,

and they steal her water bottle. So I feel like…they shouldn’t experience that that

way. We should have experienced that here so when we go there…like, so I feel

like we should be prepared mentally, emotionally.

Louise added:

Actually, I think since we are international school, I think the trip should be longer

than just couple weeks. I also think that like in college, we should actually take

classes abroad or spend a semester in another country like in college…so you still

learning…we can be prepared.

Homestay versus non-homestay lodging. The African American participants’

focus group meeting, chaperones’ interviews, and the African American participants’

reflective journals revealed an advantage experienced by the African American

participant who had homestay lodging over those who did not have homestay lodging.

Among all the African American participants interviewed, only Rose participated in a

homestay lodging on scholarship from another school for 2 week period. This added

experience resulted in an increased opportunity for cultural exchange, immersion in the

local culture, and a gain in intercultural competence skills. In her reflective narrative, she

wrote:

Being in Tomakomai provided me with a very different perspective of normal

Japanese life. My host mother, Mrs. Naka, was an English teacher so I found

myself communicating with her the most. …Talking with her and being a part of

her household really made me realize that Japanese people aren’t that different

from American people. Both countries have political and social issues…one of the

highlights from my host family experience was when my house mother pulled me

into the kitchen and wanted to teach me how to make curry udon. I thought it

came out quite well and it was my first real success at cooking something. She

gave me some to take home and told me to make it for my mother. That came out

pretty well too.

On the other hand, all the 12 African American participants and the chaperones at

non-homestay found their sojourn rushed and superficial. A chaperone stated:

that was one the thing we talk to students in the seminars. You paying a lot of

money for these trips, so prepare to be tired. There is little free time build-in.

They may not understand it first, but when they get there, they had a jab leg, tired

constantly. They realized what it is like.

The Global Citizenship Association liaison at St. Marcel High School expressed

her preference for homestay lodging when she stated:

In my opinion …the way these trips are set up are surface level in terms of culture

immersion. Think about… you not doing home stay, right, you stay at European

Hotel with continental breakfast every morning, have lunch on your own, your

dinner is very much prepared for you, and you not really immersing yourself the

way you are going to immerse in home stay, and getting in that local culture that

sort of thing. I don’t think it is easy to send students in home stay if it’s the first

time. In my opinion, they get so much more and come back with so much more

where they are not doing only things like surface level trips.

In her concluding comments, the Global Citizenship Association liaison expressed

her hope to see more homestay lodging type programs included in the school voyage plan

because of their profound impact on the participants. She stated:

What I’d love to see in the future is the combination of what our travel

department does and the homestay kind of program. So that our students come

back with a more immersed experience. Because that’s what is going to change

them. Like I said it’s easy to travel but you are not learning anything. Also, we

have Youth Volunteer Corps (External partner) where students volunteer the

service hours…they went to Malawi to build houses. That’s what we call service

learning: It’s impactful. For example, when we went to Costa Rica, we brought

supplies to school and were able to see elementary school, planted the trees.

Ninety percent of the African American participants reported that they formed

strong bonds with each other, 8 % of the participants stated that they become closer

during and after their trips, and the African American participant who had homestay

lodging stayed in touch with her host after her return to the United States. As one of the

chaperones commented:

You have to realize that the best way to learn about somebody is to spend 2

weeks with him. We have the kids that go because friends are going, but they end

up making other friends. The inside joke you have with those people you

have…when they come back, they have more interaction with students they didn’t

have before.

Post sojourn practices to preserve the skills gained abroad. The African American

participants’ experience abroad had strengthened their leadership skills and transformed

their worldviews to the extent of leading cultural clubs, organizing International Days

activities and leading workshop to share their experience abroad. One of the chaperone

reported:” …also students pick a project [during their predeparture seminars], they gather

field experiences while abroad and share them during International Day.”

According to the school travel abroad program coordinator, students undergo a

rigorous selection process to be accepted in the trip cohort. Even after their return to the

United States, the expectations for participation in the program remain. She reported:

We have a very high level standard as far as who we let go on the trips. Your

teachers have to recommend you. You should not be under any type of

disciplinary action, and you should maintain a good GPA. Throughout the

process, we assign chaperones to a certain number of kids who use trips as

incentives, and when they come back, we wanna make sure they can stay at that

level, and be expected to be…they have to appear a role model for their peers, and

explain to them what that experience was like.

The student participants in the trip abroad aligned their senior project to their experience

abroad or work in groups of three or four students to present a collection of their

experience abroad. The administrator of the program reported:

you have students that have to start their senior project, and …because they

attended the trip, they are more able to use or refer to their experience abroad. We

put them in a group of 3 to 4 students where they are able to make presentation.

The school principal echoed the above comments to say:

students who traveled abroad always prepare an activity…they share. They

normally share what they experienced abroad: dance, food, arts from other

countries. They tend to share that through workshop…they organize workshop for

the school.

The experience abroad inspired the African American participants to organize and

lead club activities after their trips abroad which demonstrates the ownership of their

learning. Referring to these club activities, the school principal stated:

We have a lot of clubs. Umm, I mean what we do here is we have a lot of culture

assemblies or special programs. A lot of that will reflect the experience of

traveling abroad. We do Asia Heritage Month, we do Black History Month,

Haitian’s culture… All that comes into the play. It’s unique here. That includes

dance, music, and reflect what’s like to be there.

One African American participant who attended the homestay travel lodging

coordinated through a virtual school reported in the follow-up telephone interview that

she didn’t have a predeparture training per se, but she was given options, after her return,

to write a reflective essay or choose to research an aspect of her experience abroad. She

reported: “you had just to reflect on the experience you had abroad…I was given

option….to reflect on my experiences.”

During our focus group meeting and interviews, the African American

participants recognized many financial, structural, and organizational challenges that

impede the travel abroad program offered through the St. Marcel High school that I

describe in the following section.

Travel Abroad Program Challenges for the African American Sojourners

All the African American participants expressed concern about their comrades

who were unable to travel abroad with them for financial reasons, the chaperones worried

about the budget cut that impacted the structure of the travel programs and their

collaboration with the Global Citizenship Association, and the parents shared their

anxieties on the cost of the trip and the safety of their children when they travel to

unstable countries. A chaperone stated:

I think students are prepared but not as well as we would make them. I don’t think

the travel seminars even exist anymore. I do worry about that. It’s horrible that

these things have happened…these students are impacted by the change in the

programs…because the St. Marc School District has cut funds.

Students’ challenges. During the focus group meeting C, a sojourner stated:

“this makes me more appreciative. I was able to come here because some people

can’t, but you have families that have sacrificed.” Jeanne added:

I think there should be scholarship to help travelers. We don’t have money. But a

lot of people will say: “we should go abroad, but you have to pay for it.” You

know, I was privileged to go on trip to London and Paris…I have no problem for

that…but a lot of my friends can’t. It’s not St. Marcel fault, but the school district

has so many opportunities. We don’t have to wait until college to study abroad.

Emelie expressed sympathy for her friends who can’t afford the travel. She said:

My grandparents provided all the money, but people who can’t afford it because

of lack of money, they should make adjustment. When we went to Spain, my

mom helped make payment, but most of students start dropping out because of

money problem. So, open up to everyone …because no one can’t afford.

Jeanne who is a transgender African American participant shared her feeling and

apprehension on how she would be treated abroad. She said: “It’s the same thing when I

went to Germany…everyone is moving like in NewYork…same thing in London. People

won’t say excuse me …like the culture…see people who were gay…how they would see

me as I came from the United States.”

The Global Citizenship Association liaison at the St. Marcel High School

corroborated the sojourners’ statements about the African American participants’

hardship. During the interview, she said:

It was not easy to pay for the trip. I just had to be candid with parents up front.

They pay for the trip on a monthly basis from September to avoid high payments.

Many of these parents are single parents, single salary, multiple jobs, multiple

children, no nucleus family. So my job was also to find fundraising opportunities

whether out or inside the school. I have to work with company to explain the

hardship. I was like what is the best discount you can get. I had one student. He

has a trust set up for him, but I had also more families drop out because they

couldn’t make payment. I had 20 students set up, but I left with 15. Most parents

had senior students, and they had a lot going on.

During our interview with the school principal who has oversight over the travel

program, she also shared the similar students’ financial road block. She said:

but another thing is we need to find ways to fundraise more, so more students can

go on these trips. Right now, the kids have to put up their money for over a year

to make payment to their account. That’s a limiting factor.

Chaperones’ challenges. The budget cut and the change in the collaboration with

the Global Citizenship Association liaison were the concerns for the school principal and

the Global Citizenship Association liaison for the school. The school principal stated:

because of budget cut and change in the Global Citizenship Association, we don’t

have a level of liaison in the building as we used to have. So the liaison used to be

more visible here. That kind of shift a little bit. She [the Global Citizenship

Association liaison] previously run the seminar.

There was also a change on the collaboration structure that impacted the seminars. The

principal added:

right now, we have few meetings [seminar]. The problem is staffing. Before, we

used to have a permanent Global Citizenship Association (Rosalie) who acted as a

part of her job description. The Global Citizenship Association pulled back that

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job and we lost that. The new World Affairs Liaison (Jean) isn’t here often. His

job description changed. So there are things we have to pick up here. We need

more staff to do that.

The Global Citizenship Association liaison confirmed the principal’s financial

and structural concerns during the interview. She stated:

So I think in a way, it’s horrible that these things have happened. At the end of the

day, these students are impacted by the change in the programs. The Global

Citizenship Association has set up since the school district has cut funds. Part of

my job is to find funding to maintain the program level at St. Marcel, and the

participation of the students in our programs. So we still do the paper work,

prepare 40 pages of documents without which students can’t travel. Teachers at

St. Marcel can’t do that. They don’t have time to run a seminar, or resources for

really provide the level of servicing we did ourselves. It is the goal of the Global

Citizenship Association to bring back the program full time, but it will require a

sustained funding. We need a long-term funding to bring the position back there

full time.

Furthermore, the curriculum structure and the time for students’ reflection during

their sojourn abroad were of concern for a chaperone. She stated:

the course isn’t still there. The school was unable to fit it in the curriculum. Make

a class that is in conjunction with our goal and objectives, but not run a study hall.

So a Global study course was created to fill a void.

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The planning and the lack of down time for African American participants during their

sojourn were also among the impediments. The chaperone stated:

we took the subway from London to France, check-in in the hotel and hit on

ground. There were [sic] no down time. That was one the thing we talk to students

in the seminars. You paying a lot of money for these trips so prepare to be tired.

There is little free time built in.

On whether the African American sojourners reflected or journalized during their

sojourn, the chaperone responded:

Students had to do that as part of their seminar grade. Keep a journal, but the

point blank is that as chaperone we don’t have time to facilitate these type of

administration while overseas. I have to be more concerned about students’

health, roommates, homesick, somebody who worries about bug bites, and thinks

she is gonna die. For me, it’s something that is on paper in the seminar. But we

had it in such way that we are monitoring what they are doing while they are

there.

Moreover, one of the chaperones expressed concerns for the sojourners’ health

and safety. She stated:

I have to be more concern about students’ health …I had a student during our trip

to London/France who had a panic attack, a mental breakdown. It was really bad…

Parents’ financial challenges. Most parents were sending their children overseas

for the first time, and most of the travelers were seniors who were dealing with prom

expenses, college application and financial aid packages. However, parents were willing

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to support their children’s trip abroad. A parent confided during the telephone interview:

“…I am willing to make this kind of sacrifice for my child…because it might set her

apart from the crowd and give her an edge in the college application.” The Global

Citizenship Association liaison who conducted the parents’ seminars, and met with them

during the planning process stated:

In my opinion, I don’t think they fully understand what their investment is. For

example, they will pick the cheapest trip without knowing the destination. If I

give them the choice with all destinations, they are not looking at the quality but

the cost, unfortunately. However, we want to give them the best for their

investment. For parents, they see it as something that can define their students, set

them apart, put them in a different group of those who apply to colleges…They

want their students to get this experience because they are going to St. Marcel.

They definitely want to set their students apart. The college admission is not

going to look at itinerary…they will see a trip out of the United States.

African American Sojourners’ Teachers and Parents’ Perception of their

Personal Development

Reflective practices such as reflection papers, research projects and presentation,

journalizing during or after the sojourn abroad have helped the African American

participants to balance their expectations and reevaluate their ethnocentric worldviews.

As they navigate between the two values after their experience abroad, the African

American participants’ behaviors and attitudes might become noticeable to their teachers

and parents. I discuss the sojourners’ teachers and parents in the following sections.

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Chaperones and parents’ perceptions. One of the chaperones stated:

this is an educational opportunity to really think about what their expectations

are, their feelings going through this experience, answering their questions,

knowing their itinerary, the country they are going to. In both cases, we did a

crash course in both languages: Spanish and French even though not every student

was taking that language.

In this statement, the chaperone is referring to the seminars that are organized as a part of

the participants’ predeparture training.

The African American participants’ informal immersion and their participatory

involvement were also a part of the chaperone’s comments. She stated:

We didn’t do much in France, but in Costa Rica we did a lot of movement. …The

first was the bus tour of the city, having a guided lecture, to show us some of the

cities of the district. We visited Les Champ Elysées, Arc de Triomphe, walked

and visited Notre Dame, the same day we arrived.

While in France, the chaperone reported that the sojourners visited a local school

and a shopping center, and learned to play the Pentatesque game. That involvement gave

them an opportunity to interact with their host country’s community. She stated:

The second day, we had a guide tour of the Eiffel Tower, optional excursion to

Versailles, half of the group went to Versailles, and the other half stayed in the

city. We did some activities, some shopping, and had an authentic diner that

night. On Friday, we did an impressionist paintings, visited a school …had a nice

lesson on Art and Culture in Paris, and what else…and …on Saturday, we visited

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an important cemetery, a game of Pentatesque, a typical French game …we

learned how to play that, we play that…that was at the school…and we had an

authentic dinner that evening.

During a telephone interview with a student participant’s parents, the mother said:

“my ultimate goal is to have my child get the most out of her trip…an opportunity for her

to learn a new culture and to discover the world.” Even though 10 of the 13 of the student

participants were traveling for the first time, their parents were excited to see their

children going overseas to enrich their résumés and maximize their chance of acceptance

in a competitive college.

Student participants’ perspectives. In her reflective narrative, Rose indicated

that their immersion in the host countries created a personalization experience and a

positive emotion that led to a meaningful learning. Rose who participated in a homestay

lodging in Japan wrote:

I also found it quite striking how my Japanese host mother had a personality

similar to my actual mother. They’re even around the same age with my host

mother only being four years older. She talked about her daughter and that while

they were away at school some nights her husband had to work late as well and

she found herself very lonely. Hearing that made think of my own mother and

how she would feel when I, her youngest child, would be going away to college

next year. It made me appreciate her youngest child, would be going away to

college next year. It made me appreciate her more and want to spend more quality

time with her.

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Furthermore, Rose reported also that her interaction with her host mother

enhanced her knowledge of the Japanese’s culture and helped her balanced her stereotype

assumptions of the Japanese people and their lifestyle. She wrote:

Talking with her and being a part of her household really made me realize that

Japanese people aren’t that different from American people. For example the

topics of standardized testing is a common controversy. Just like in America there

are high school students that try their hardest and some that slack off. Even the

mentality of “if you come to America you should speak English” is the same

while their version is “if they come to Japan they should speak Japanese.” Upon

discussion I even found out that her family and I were both Buddhist. I didn’t

realize we had so much in common because I had come to Japan with the thought

that it was some strange and backwards country. I can never see any similarities

between “theirs” and “ours” but I was so very wrong.

Rose added:

we discussed a wide array of topics from American politics to Japanese ones and

in doing so we discovered that both of our countries saw each other as a reflection

of our media. I learned that normal Japanese life isn’t like Anime, and I showed

her that normal American Teenage life isn’t like Glee, and not all Americans own

guns.

During our focus group meetings, the African American participants reported that

their informal immersion and their participatory involvement fostered their intercultural

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skills and changed their negative perception of their host countries and the people who

are different from them.

Marie reported:

everything was done by hand…we were sitting on grass, and people had different

accents. We just had to navigate our ways around. I had to wake-up early and try

new food that I ate with hands…I learned not to take anything for granted because

we met many people who didn’t have what we have…what I enjoyed the most

were their food [rice], helping people, and speak the language [French].

During the focus group meeting, Paul reported that their visit at different

places such as restaurants and shopping centers offered them an intercultural

learning opportunity that stirred their thinking and fostered their openness to the

world. He stated:

While abroad, I adapted to what they were doing and I become more mature. I

become more easy going…and I wish we can extend how long we stay there. It

changes me [experience in Spain] because I remember when we went to a

restaurant in Spain, a waiter served me food with a bug in it. But calmly, I

informed the waiter and asked for the replacement without being rude. I wouldn’t

act like that in the United States…I learned to accept differences and be patient.

Louise who traveled to Spain reported:

It felt like…I didn’t like when they bump in someone…they didn’t say pardon or

excusez-moi. It was funny incident because Emelie and I were talking…and

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someone just walk pass by and they didn’t say excuse me…it probably part of

their culture.

For some African American participants, constant interaction and peer discussion

about what they were seeing and feeling fostered informal reflection that enhanced their

empathy for the host community and their intercultural skills. As Pless et al. (2011) found

in their study of the Ulysses Experience Model with graduate students, the participants

developed a greater respect, and acceptance of other people’s values and traditions, and

recognized their limitations. Sample (2013) found also that the undergraduate student

participants in the School of International Studies enhanced their cross-cultural

behaviors, and improved their sensibility to cultural differences after a semester abroad.

In this qualitative case study, the interviews and focus group meetings, the teachers’ and

students’ reflections indicated that most of the student participants progressed in their

views of cultural differences. Emelie reported:

For me, going to Spain made me realize that America is not the Golden Place.

While in Spain eating breakfast, on T.V., in the neighbor country, there were

bombings. I was like, Oh my gosh, it’s coming here…and people had all their

phone ringing...I realize that problems we have here are small compared to what

happens everywhere else. It makes me more humble… I just afford $2000 trips,

and you have people that can’t afford to go to school, and much less a meal a day.

It made me realize that I may not be as higher class, but I am still privileged to go

somewhere else than remain sucked in the bubble of Philadelphia…You get the

feeling of who you are as a person.

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Seeing people surviving with less than a dollar a day in other developing

country might make them look foolish and unwise for wasteful spending habits at

home. During my interviews, focus group meetings, and the African American

participants’ portfolios’ analysis, I noted that eight of the 13 African American

sojourners were appreciative of their American lifestyle, and expressed empathy

to less fortunate people they met in their host country who can’t afford to attend

school, and live with a less than one U.S. dollar a day. For example, Emelie

noticed that she gained a new perceptive of the world after her experience abroad

and seemed to value more educational opportunities and standard conditions of

living that the United States offers. In such learning experiences abroad, the

African American participants reflected in what they saw, heard and internalized

it which becomes a moving force and a source of new perspectives.

Summary

The data I collected and analyzed indicate that most African American

participants in the travel program abroad had enhanced their personal development, and

the travel abroad program has fostered their intercultural skills. In alignment with the

research questions, most of the sojourners had a cultural curiosity to experience a new

culture, and one female African American student who had homestay lodging

demonstrated a remarkable adjustment in her host culture (RQ1). Unfortunately, the

predeparture seminars offered at St Marcel High School were of the surface level which

might have impeded the sojourners’ experience. In addition, my analysis of the

interviews and focus group meetings with the African American participants suggested

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the sojourners’ lack of reflective time and journaling (RQ2). Teachers and parents

expressed a satisfaction to see the student participants’ maturity and their respectful

attitudes towards cultural differences (RQ3). Also, the African American sojourners’

experiences point out to the fact that the route towards intercultural competence is

dynamic and challenging and involved planned pre and post trip activities, and reflective

practices that stir the participants’ self-reflection. All the participants indicated the

financial challenges that impede the organization of such experiential learning abroad for

the school and the program curriculum.

In Chapter 5, I use the theoretical framework of Bennett & Bennett’s (2004)

development model of intercultural sensitivity and Kolb’s (2015) experiential learning to

interpret the results and make recommendations for future research.

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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, Implications

In Chapter 5, I summarize the findings of the qualitative descriptive case study

and interpret the results through the lenses of my conceptual framework and the empirical

literature. Also, I discuss the study procedures, the study’s limitations, and the

implications for social change. Additionally, I provide practical recommendations for

improving the existing experiential learning abroad programs for African American high

school students and possibilities for further exploration.

In this qualitative case study, I explored the influence of experiential learning

abroad on African American high school students’ intercultural competence through the

following three research questions:

 In what ways do travel abroad and immersion programs influence African

American high school students’ cross-cultural awareness and intercultural

competence?

 What aspects of experiential learning abroad do African American high school

students believe have fostered their intercultural competence?

 How do African American high school students’ teachers and parents perceive

their children’s personal development during and after their intercultural and

experiential learning abroad?

I collected data for this qualitative case study through three focus group meetings,

interviews with chaperones and parents, follow-up interviews with African American

participants, sojourners’ artifacts, and the travel planning program documents. I coded

two main themes, namely intercultural competence and experiential learning, and

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additional codes (Figure 1) many of which were rooted in Bennett’s (2004) DMIS and

Kolb’s (2015) theory of experiential learning, the conceptual framework I used for this

study. Three additional themes were (a) perceived program aspects that fostered African

American sojourners’ intercultural competence, (b) travel abroad challenges for the

participants, and teachers’ and (c) parents’ perception of African American participants’

personal development. Figure 2 illustrated how the themes related to the conceptual

frameworks and research questions.

The data analysis indicated that African American sojourners’ patterns of

adaptation and integration in the host’s culture took different trajectories according to

students’ travel motivations, their prior language skills and intercultural experiences, and

their lodging in hotels versus homestays. The two African American participants whose

motivations were to meet new friends and had high expectations about the host country

were more likely to report being frustrated, stressed out, and felt deceived, whereas the

11 African American participants who said they wanted to experience a new culture, take

a break from school, and get out of their comfort zone, were more likely to share that

they enjoyed their stay, enhanced their language skills, and their prior intercultural

experiences eased their integration into the host’s culture. Moreover, the one African

American participant who had homestay lodging, shared that her experience with her host

mother was a remarkable integration in the new culture and she increased her knowledge

of the host country. This student suggested having established a lasting friendship with

her host family, and seemed to have moved farther along the stages of intercultural

development, whereas 10 African American participants appear to have moved from

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ethnocentric mindset to ethnorelativism worldview, following Bennett’s (2004) stages of

intercultural development. The 11 of the 13 African American student participants

revealed that they matured, became open minded, and were willing to interact with

people outside of their comfort zone. Also, they became more respectful and tolerant of

their peers who were different from them.

Despite the African American participants’ apparent gain in intercultural skills,

the chaperones revealed the financial challenges that resulted in a personnel shortage, the

poor quality seminars, a few number of African American participants in the trips abroad,

and a decline in the level of other services provided by the Global Citizenship

Association.

Interpretation of the Findings

In Chapter 2, I reviewed literature related to intercultural competence and

different paths that led the participants in experiential learning abroad to accept, adapt,

and integrate into their host country’s culture. The researchers whose studies I reviewed

all reported on the positive influence of intercultural experience abroad. The findings

from this qualitative case study were similar to those found in all these studies. For

example, undergraduate and graduate students benefited from their sojourn abroad in

developing abilities to interact out of their comfort zone (Di Silvio, Donovan, & Malone,

2014; Lee et al., 2017), accept cultural differences (Hall et al., 2016), and adjust their

ethnocentric mindsets to move gradually towards ethnorelativism thinking (Bennett,

2014). This dynamic process was often found to be facilitated by reflective activities that

stirred participants’ reflection and keen observation. In the following sections, I describe

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how the findings of this descriptive case study relate to the previous research and theory

and organize their interpretation to answer the research questions according to the

relevant sections of Chapter 2, namely the influence of experiential learning abroad on

African American sojourners (related to RQ1), perceived aspects of experiential learning

programs that fostered African American sojourners’ intercultural competence (related to

RQ2) , and teachers’ and parents’ perception of African American participants’ personal

development (RQ3).

Influence of Experiential Learning Abroad on African American Sojourners

The analysis of the interviews, focus group meetings, reflective journals, and

documents illustrate Bennett’s development model of intercultural sensitivity, which goes

from denial, defense, and minimization to acceptance, adaptation, and integration

(Bennett, 2009). This dynamic process results in the development of sojourners’

intercultural competence skills. Using this model, Lee and Green (2016) found that

undergraduate African American students who participated in study abroad program

increased their intercultural thinking skills, had a great appreciation for diversity and

deeper engagement in the school activities. Also, Boateng and Thompson (2013) found

that the participants moved gradually, at different paths through the six stages of

intercultural competence, to gain an understanding of their host country’s culture, and to

adjust to the new way of living at the end of their experiential learning in Ghana.

During the group meetings and interviews I conducted, the African American

participants reported that the predeparture seminars prepared them to deal with cultural

differences which made their trip abroad less stressful. The photos posted on the school

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Facebook illustrated the African American participants’ excitement while traveling from

London to Paris by metro, and highlighted the extent to which the sojourners were

involved in the host countries. Eighty-five percent of the African American participants

who stayed at the hotel indicated that they visited schools and museums, tasted French

meals, and learned to play games with other high school students. However, one of the

chaperones stated: “…that immersion was of the surface level in terms of culture.” In

contrast, Rose who participated in homestay experience abroad wrote in her reflective

narrative the story of her ten days with her host family that relates to the six stages of

Bennett’s development model of intercultural sensitivity. In the following section, I use

data I collected during the interviews, focus group meetings, the reflective papers, and the

sojourners’ portfolios to illustrate ways in which the African American sojourners

progressed through the six stages of Bennett’s model of intercultural competence (RQ1).

African American sojourners’ paths towards intercultural competence. The

path towards intercultural competence is a dynamic process that takes time, and the

participants might not react the same way to their experiences during or after their

sojourn abroad, because their interpretation of these experiences may differ according to

each participant’s cultural lenses, base knowledge, and emotional resilience (Allison et

al., 2012; Deardorff, 2017; Stoner et al., 2014). For example, Boateng and Thompson

(2013) found that the undergraduate students who traveled to Ghana for a semester,

adjusted gradually to bucket baths, local foods, and hand washed laundry, and they

reported having learned to be patient, and appreciative of their home lifestyle through

those challenges.

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In this qualitative case study, I noticed during the interviews, focus group

meetings, and the sojourners’ portfolios analysis, that the evidence of passage from

ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism differed according to the African American

participants’ motivation to travel abroad, their predeparture training, their prior

intercultural experience, and their lodging arrangement in the host country. As previous

researchers indicated, these experiential learning abroad changed the sojourners’

worldviews, enhanced their language and intercultural thinking skills, and fostered their

appreciation for diversity (Acheson, Nelson, & Luna, 2015; Beaven & Spencer-Oatey,

2016; Lee & Green, 2016; Walton et al., 2015). I illustrate the African American

sojourners’ progression through the six stages of Bennett’s intercultural competence

based on their self-reported data using provisional codes in the following sections.

At the denial stage, Bennett (2014) noted that sojourners avoid other cultures and

consider their culture as the only good culture. I too found evidence of this avoidance in

African American participants’ reflection on the attitudes before the trips. For example,

Rose thought that Japan was a backward country and Emelie expected people in her host

country to be impressed by Americans’ high life style. During the focus group meetings

and follow-up interviews, most of the African American sojourners expressed similar

views and recognized that the media (movies and television) had influenced their

perceptions.

At the defense stage, participants tend to denigrate cultures differences and

consider their culture as more valuable (Bennett, 2014). During the interviews and focus

group meetings at St. Marcel High School, I did not hear any statement that denigrates

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their host’s country culture. However, five of the 13 African American sojourners

reported that they were emotionally disturbed by the miserable living conditions of their

host country. Similarly, Monaghan and Hartman (2014) found in their qualitative case

study that the 13 female undergraduate students who traveled for 6 weeks to Guatemala,

Honduras, El Salvador, and Mexico were emotionally disoriented to see people living in

extreme poverty. Also, during the focus group meetings and interviews, 10 of the 13

African American participants stated that American’s challenges are smaller than what

happens everywhere else. The majority of the African American sojourners stated that

witnessing such misery and emotionally disturbing events enhanced their cultural

empathy and fostered their appreciation for their home country’s living conditions.

At the minimization stage, Bennett (2014) found that sojourners

minimized cultural differences, and considered other people’s culture as similar to

their own. However, Rexeisen (2013) found that the student participants did not

carry the benefits of their experience abroad beyond the stage of minimization,

and they maintained a mono-cultural world’s view. Sojourners may require

conscious efforts to negotiate cultural differences, and transition into

ethnorelativism stages in which they will explore a new relationship across

cultural differences (Engberg, Jourian, & Davidson, 2016). Such effort to

negotiate cultural differences may broaden the African American sojourners’

understanding of the world and strengthen their mental toughness. My data

analysis indicated that most of the African American sojourners started their path

towards intercultural sensitivity at minimization stage because of their excitement

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and motivation to travel abroad and their cultural curiosity. So the sequential

stages towards intercultural sensitivity as stated in Bennett’s (2014) theory are

questionable for this group of African American high school sojourners.

According to Bennett (2014), at the acceptance stage sojourners have been

found to consider other cultures as part of their learning experience; they may not

agree with the values and beliefs of the host culture, but still respect the

differences in their attitudes and behaviors. Sojourners may become curious about

their host culture, recognize and explore cultural differences. Also, Savicki (2013)

found that the participants’ anxiety and acculturation stress enhanced their inner

development and their emotional skills. During data analysis, I found that the

female African American student who had homestay lodging demonstrated a

quick sense of belonging as she interacted with her host mother. I found such

intercultural skills to be out of the ordinary and suggest further analysis.

Since these sojourners are at the periphery of their hosts’ culture and their

own, they might need to internalize the new values and beliefs to move from

ethnocentrism mindset to the recognition of cultural differences (Bennett, 2014).

During my analysis of the African American sojourners’ portfolios and field

notes, I found that all African American participants had a cultural curiosity to

discover, and experience how other people live outside of the United States.

Through insightful conversations, keen observations, and critical thinking

discussions, the African American sojourners realized they had more in common

with their host countries than they had cultural differences. For example, Rose

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concluded that Japanese people are not that different from American people,

whereas Marie noted that her perception of the host country was tainted by the

media propaganda. Marie’s observation may require further analysis since the

social media seem to have reached the apotheosis for the millennials, for example

exploring the influence of social media on African American high school

students’ cultural attitudes shift towards experiential learning abroad.

During my analysis of field notes, African American sojourners’

portfolios, and literature review I found that African American sojourners who

had homestay and had time to reflect on their experiences, adjusted quickly in

their host countries. For example, Lee et al. (2017) found that two senior high

school students who spent 15 weeks in China with homestay accommodation had

many opportunities for intercultural learning at the dinner table with their host

families. One African American sojourner wrote in his diary an interesting

cultural note that he was told that it is impolite to leave any rice left in his bowl

when eating, to finish off dishes on the table, and to always leave some on it,

reflecting the value of saving food for siblings. The second student was impressed

at how much time his host mother took to understand him.

In this qualitative case study, I noted similar reaction during my analysis

of Rose’s reflective paper. For example, Rose, an African American, a senior high

school student who had a 2 week homestay sojourn, seemed to have adjusted

quickly to Japanese culture and was excited to spend more time with her host

mother. Rose’s quick adjustment made me wonder whether African American

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high school students can embrace so easily a new culture without predeparture

training. Even most of other participants seem to have started at the minimization

stage during their sojourn.

At the adaptation stage, Bennett (2014) stated that sojourners shift their

perspectives out of another culture worldviews. It is a form of empathy where the

participants internalize other culture’s realities. For example in their Study

Abroad Ghana, Boateng and Thompson (2013) found that the 15 undergraduate

students who visited a hospital, an orphanage, and a refugee camp during their

semester abroad, reported in their reflective journals an increased interest and

empathy for the local population. Also, they were concerned about social

problems such as immigration, HIV/AID, child labor, and poverty.

At the integration stage, Bennett (2014) indicated that the participants’

cultural views are expanded to include cultural differences. Participants become

capable of living and believing in multiple frames of references, a third culture

person for whom both cultures’ values and beliefs provide the frame of reference.

In this qualitative study, the teacher participants at St. Marcel High School

reported during the interviews that African American sojourners improved their

behavior in school and their attitude towards diversity, but considering the short

duration of their sojourn and the scope of the research, I was unable to confirm

the sustainability of their intercultural skills after their return to the United States.

Further study that examines the sustainability of these intercultural skills on

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African American high school sojourners using mixed methods approach may

illuminate the future investigator.

In comparing the participants’ two lodging arrangements in this study and

previous literature, I found that participants in homestays had more exposure to

the host’s culture, increased their language and intercultural skills, and forged an

enduring relationship with their host’s families (Di Silvio et al., 2014; Lee at al.,

2017; Kinginger et al., 2016). During the interview, one of the chaperones

reported that the homestay aspect offers a deeper level of immersion than other

lodging accommodation such as a hotel or luxury resort where intercultural

exposure is limited or nonexistent.

During the analysis of the focus group meetings, the sojourners’ portfolios, and

interviews at St. Marcel High School, I found that African American sojourners’

interpretation of their experiences abroad differed according to each student’s cultural

lenses, base knowledge, travel motivation and their emotional resilience. In this

qualitative case study, I noted Rose’s genuine willingness to respect, adjust, and adapt in

her host’s culture without a predeparture training. Moreover, most African American

participant sojourners did not seem to have started at the denial stage (Bennett, 2014) but

at the minimization stage because of their cultural curiosity, their venture abroad spirit,

and other factors that might be explored in the future studies. In the sections below, I

discuss different aspects of experiential learning programs that fostered African

American sojourners’ intercultural competence skills (RQ2).

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Pedagogical Strategies that Fostered African American Sojourners’ Intercultural

Competence

Having used Kolb in the second part of my conceptual framework, I will draw

from his work to explain the pedagogical strategies that have been shown to foster

African American sojourners’ intercultural skills during their sojourn abroad. According

to Kolb (2015), the learner touches all the following bases during the learning cycle:

experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting. These cycled experiences are the basis for

learning. As such, in order for the learning to occur, participants must be guided through

each of these steps, such as where “teams must create a conversational space where

members reflect on and talk about their experience together” (Tiessen & Huish, 2014;

Travers, 2014). When I compared the St. Marcel’s International School curriculum as

mentioned in the interviews, focus group meetings, and documents to Monaghan and

Hartmann (2014)’s study on the Traveling School Curriculum, I found that a similar

integrated pedagogical approach that combined the participants’ destination-based

content, experience, and critical reflection led to sojourners’ transformation of attitudes,

behaviors, and values, and increased their intercultural competence skills.

In the following sections, I review pedagogical strategies that were reported, and

I discerned from my data analysis that fostered the African American participants’

intercultural competence skills in light of the Kolb’s experiential learning theory and the

research literature.

Predeparture training, on-site and post trip supports. Several empirical

studies found that exposing sojourners to a new physical environment for example,

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airport, nature, city infrastructure, poverty, and different lifestyle, opened their eyes to

new worldviews if given an opportunity to reflect and share their experiences.

Furthermore, many of these cultural differences require critical thinking and reflective

abilities (Lee & Green, 2016; Read, Aldridge, Ala'i, Fraser, & Fozdar, 2015; Walton et

al., 2015). Also, as in Savicki (2013)’s findings, the sojourners’ participation in the

predeparture trainings with intercultural simulative activities, infield reflective practices,

and post-sojourn abroad reflective journals and workshops were more likely to enhance

the participants’ cognitive, personal, and interpersonal development, and strengthen the

student participants’ intercultural competence skills.

Other researchers stressed the importance of well planned activities before,

during, and after the trips that provide opportunity for constructive discussion and critical

thinking (Boateng & Thompson, 2013; Lee & Green, 2016; Sample, 2013; Dunn, Dotson,

Cross, Kesner, & Lundahl, 2014). Similarly, Hall et al. (2016) found that short-term

travel abroad trips that combine predeparture orientation activities, infield reflective

activities for emotional adjustment and post sojourn reflection led to a substantial

learning and sojourner’ transformation.

During the interviews and focus group meetings with the participants, I found that

the predeparture trainings were often mentioned as important element of the sojourners’

preparation, but these trainings were lacking in depth. The St. Marcel High School’s trip

application documents indicated eight mandatory seminars that the student participants

attended for a quarter credit. These seminars were organized after regular school time and

focused on team-building, fundraising, language and culture immersion, and provided a

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forum for students to complete a mandatory cultural pre-trip project related to the country

of destination. Also, the trip application document indicated that the school offered

parental workshops to encourage parents’ involvement and to manage their expectations.

The school principal indicated that the quality of these seminars had suffered

because of the budget cut and change in the form of cooperation with the Global

Citizenship Association. This lack of external financial support has impacted the quality

of the participants’ predeparture training. The Global Citizenship Association echoed

similar financial worries during the interview.

Rose who transferred from a virtual school and traveled with another high school

indicated during the interview that they didn’t attend any training seminar, but she was

thrilled to hear that such predeparture seminars were offered at the school. Moreover,

during our focus group meetings, two African American sojourners barely referred to the

predeparture seminars and wished they could have been well prepared.

As noted in the above paragraphs, the participants’ tepid reactions to the St.

Marcel High School predeparture training suggest an improvement in the structures and

the contents of these seminars is needed. Kinginger et al. (2016) suggested that asking

students to conduct projects that involve observation, participation, and reflection can

enhance the participants’ preparation before their departure abroad.

The post-sojourn abroad activities were found to motivate the participants to

reflect on their experience, and that reflection can help enhance the participants’

intercultural skills (Strange & Gibson, 2017; Wilson, Brain, Brown, Gaind, Radan, &

Redmond, 2016). Also, Travers (2014) found that when the sojourners made meaning out

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of their travel experiences and were involved in pre and post trip activities, they were

more likely to develop and maintain their intercultural skills. Moreover, during the post

trip activities, the sojourners questioned the reality of what they witnessed abroad and

reconsidered their past assumption. Similarly, Grimminger-Seidensticker and Möhwald

(2016) found that experiential learning trips stimulated the youth participants’ reactions

and their thinking about themselves and the world relations.

These post trip activities were mentioned during the interviews with the school

principal and the sojourners’ focus group meetings at St. Marcel High School. The

principal reported that the participants picked a project before their departure, and they

gathered information while abroad and shared it with the school community and parents

during the school international day. Also, the student participants planned and led

workshops inspired by their experience abroad during the school cultural assemblies. As

noted above, the predeparture workshops, keen observations, and on-site intercultural

discussions that spur critical thinking and reflective writings are among the aspects of

experiential learning abroad that are perceived to foster the African American sojourners’

intercultural skills.

Project-based learning and reflective journals. Project-based learning and

reflective journals may require structures that include a well-designed curriculum, well-

planned activities, well-prepared teachers, and supportive administrators (Monaghan &

Hartmann, 2014). In their study of the Traveling School Curriculum, Monaghan and

Hartmann (2014) found that such structures eased students’ transformation and sustained

their integration in the host culture once they returned to their high school. Also, they

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found that the experiential learning enhanced the participants’ potential development as

global leaders. These findings were echoed by Huish and Tiessen (2014) who found also

that in order to maximize learning in a short-term trip abroad, the program administrator

provided time for debriefing, journaling, group discussion, counseling or other forms of

reflection to foster the sojourners’ learning opportunities.

Other studies provided pedagogical strategies and experiential learning techniques

that stirred the sojourners’ critical thinking abilities and led to transformation such as

internship and volunteer opportunities (Stebleton et al., 2013); reflection, journaling, and

observation (Hall et al., 2016); project-based learning (Singaram et al., 2011); and

exchange programs (Olberding & Olberding, 2010; Travers, 2014).

As Kolb (2015) stressed, in order to turn the participants’ experience into

knowledge, learners must reflect on their concrete experience, comprehend the

experience, and engage in experimenting with the concept. Kolb’s experiential learning

model focuses on reflection and analysis through dialogue and collaboration. Therefore, a

balance between action and reflection was found to be vital to successful experiential

learning abroad (Hall et al., 2016; Strange & Gibson, 2017).

During the focus group meetings with African American participants and

interview with one of the chaperones at St. Marcel High School, I found that the African

American participants had informal reflection sessions while journaling, whereas the

chaperone recognized the lack of a formal reflective meeting during their sojourn. She

cited her lack of time to facilitate the reflective meetings while abroad. In contrast, Rose

who had a 2 week homestay experience in Japan, through another high school, and chose

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to write a reflective narrative as a part of her exit project, demonstrated a significant gain

in intercultural competence skills after her return home. As the above literature review

and Rose’s experience demonstrate, pedagogical strategies that are planned and

organized thoughtfully, and include reflective and insightful discussions were aspects of

the programs that fostered the African American sojourners’ intercultural skills. Teachers

and parents reported having noticed these intercultural skills and students’ personal

development during the interviews (RQ3) which I discuss in the following sections.

African American Sojourners’ Cognitive, Personal, and Interpersonal Development

According to Deardorff (2017), the socio-linguistic and ethnic knowledge

awareness and skills such as listening, observing, analyzing, interpreting, and evaluating

facilitate the participants’ adjustment in their perspectives, and enhance their empathy,

respect for others, and adaptability in a new cultural environment. Similarly, Bennett

(2014) found that knowledge, attitude, and behavior must work together for development

to occur. This combination produces a climate of respect for diversity, understanding and

appreciation of different beliefs, behaviors, and values.

In their qualitative case study of two sister schools’ cultural immersion trips in

Indonesia, Walton et al. (2015) found that sojourners adapted to local customs, changed

their worldviews and behaviors, and enhanced their language skills. Similarly, Crooks,

Burleigh, Snowshoe, Lapp, Hughes, and Sisco (2015) found that the participants were

more likely to avoid bullying, stereotyping, and prejudice, but to seek peace with their

peers. Also, Olberding and Olberding (2010) found that adolescent sojourners who

participated in the immersion and exchange experience changed their behaviors and

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attitudes towards diversity. Their attitude evolved from confrontational to tolerance,

respect, and ethnorelativism mindset.

I heard evidence of cognitive, personal, and interpersonal development in the

focus group meetings and interviews with the African American participants. For

example, during the interview with the school principal of St. Marcel High School, she

reported that the African American participants’ experience abroad had a curative effect

on their attitudes towards diversity, and their behaviors in and out of school. Once the

African American sojourners return from the trips, they exhibit more maturity, become

reflective, and accepting of people who are different from them.

As Sample (2013) noted, experiential learning that led to the participants’

intercultural competence is the result of an educational process that had cognitive,

affective, and experiential components. For example, in her study on the School of

International Studies, Sample (2013) found that the 53 undergraduate participants

immersed in their host countries, interacted with local people, and submitted reflective

papers on different cultural aspects of their host countries. As they observed, analyzed,

and reflected on their experience, the student participants were more likely to enhance

their cognitive and intercultural skills.

During the focus group meetings and interviews with the African American

sojourners at St. Marcel High School, seven of the 13 African American participants

reported that they improved their language skills, and were comfortable engaging in a

conversation in Spanish after their sojourn in Spain. I also found that the African

American participants felt that moving away from home was an emancipation, a rite of

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passage from adolescence into their adulthood. The teachers had similar reflections

during the interviews when they reported that the sojourners become mentors of first year

and junior students upon their return from trips abroad. Also, Savicki (2013) noted that

the participants’ challenges of uncertainty, and stress acculturation abroad can foster the

participants’ inner development, enhance their emotional intelligence, and their

interpersonal skills. These skills development may need interculturally competent

educators to facilitate the sojourners’ learning with pedagogical practices that may equip

them to navigate and survive in a cross-cultural context (Berg & Paige, 2012). The

sojourn that may enhance African American student participants’ intercultural

competence skills and personal development can be of short or long-term duration.

Short and Long-Term Implication of Experiential Learning Abroad

Travers (2014) found that both short and long-term sojourns abroad require an

appropriate preparation of the participants, realistic expectations, and the participants’

training on intercultural encounters. In addition, Shiveley and Misco (2015) found that a

full academic year experience abroad had more significant and lasting impact on the

sojourners’ personal and intercultural development than a short-term sojourn abroad. For

example, in a long-term sojourn, the sojourners increased their language fluency and

integrated in the host country’s culture.

Other researchers found that the sojourners’ move from the ethnocentric mindsets

to ethnorelativism took time, and in some instances the cultural differences might become

challenging for the sojourners to adjust to, but can be compelled by the need to survive or

out of necessity (Beaven & Spencer-Oatey, 2016; Brown, 2009; Evans, Blamer, Jensen,

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Schertz, & Kelly, 2013; Huish &Tiessen, 2014; Robinson, 2013; Schuitema & Veugelers,

2011). In this qualitative case study at St. Marcel High School that focuses on a short-

term trip abroad, I found during the focus group meetings and the chaperones’ interviews

that all the African American participants longed for a semester of study abroad. For

example, Louise expressed a desire to have a semester abroad to fit in the international

school curriculum.

Moreover, I also found that the African American student who spent time abroad

in homestay lodging had more exposure to the host’s culture, increased her language and

intercultural skills, connected emotionally with her host mother, and forged a lasting

relationship with her host family to a greater degree than the African American students

who stayed in the hotels. Since the lodging arrangement was not included in my literature

review but is one of experiential learning aspect that fostered one of the African

American sojourners’ intercultural competence skills, I have reviewed the literature

related to the lodging arrangements in the following section. This lodging arrangement

emerged as discrepant data based on the experience of a single participant who seemed,

because of the uniqueness of her homestay, to have made significant progress along the

stages of Bennett’s (2004) model of intercultural development.

Homestay versus Nonhomestay

In their longitudinal case studies on the homestay advantages reflected in

interviews, diaries, and photograph collected from two undergraduate students abroad,

Lee et al. (2017) found that the majority of host families offered linguistic, cultural, and

psychological support to students. These findings are echoed by Di Silvio, Donovan, and

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Malone (2014) who found homestay arrangements more likely to enhance language

proficiency and intercultural awareness than other lodging arrangements. Despite these

advantages, Kinginger, Lee, Wu, and Tan (2016) found that learning daily practices and

associated language in the homestay abroad is a challenging process, but through

collaboration these problems can become an opportunity for learning. Sojourners can

learn the speech style, culinary practices, and cultural norms of their host’s families, and

also confront the dilemma of intercultural and interpersonal discord (Kinginger et al.,

2016). For example, Roberge (2017) added food allergies and frustrations resulting from

language immersion that might impact the sojourners’ disposition towards learning and

impede their integration in the host’s culture. As Lee et al. (2017) noted, the homestay

arrangement is not only about warmth and enthusiasm, but sometimes it is characterized

by conflict and disappointments resulting from overwhelming language immersion and

mockery of host families by the sojourners.

The African American participants’ comments during the focus group meetings

revealed a sense of cultural curiosity that might have been better met by homestays than

staying in a hotel, and the chaperones’ responses indicated the need for a total immersion

through homestay in the host country. For example, Yvonne reported that contrary to her

host country’s image as portrayed in the media, the country was beautiful and the people

hospitable. Also, one of the chaperones recognized that they had organized surface level

without a deeper culture immersion.

The homestay arrangements can be a rich learning opportunity for both sojourners

and host’s communities if they collaborate to resolve homestay dilemma with a sense of

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humor, empathy, humility, and flexibility (Campbell-Price, & Duncan, 2017; Di Silvio,

Donovan, & Malone, 2014; Kinginger, Wu, Lee, & Tan, 2016; Kinginger, 2011;

McGladdery & Lubbe, 2017). Total homestay immersion is one of the aspects of

experiential learning abroad that can foster African American sojourners’ cognitive

language learning skills, spur their creativity, enhance their intrapersonal and

interpersonal skills, and help develop their intercultural competence skills.

Limitations of the Study

There are several limitations associated with this qualitative study. I anticipated

having many male African American students participate in this study, reflecting the

concerns of my research study, but only one male out of 20 students who attended the

information session returned the consent and assent forms. Two African American male

participants declined to participate. Also, many of the African American participants’

parents were unavailable to attend the information sessions or to respond to my emails or

return the telephone calls. I was able to gather information from only two parents

concerning their perceptions of their children’s personal development following their

travel abroad. In addition, the small sample size and a very distinctive and competitive

urban high school student population and culture could limit the transferability of the

results of this descriptive qualitative case study. Many of my most striking findings

centered on a single student’s experience: Rose. While her longer-term visit coupled with

a homestay provided evidence of significant impact and mirrored findings in the

literature, she was, in this study an inspirational case that needed further study to look at

the reasons for her quick adjustment in her host culture. Also, given the changing context

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and support for this program, the findings might be different if the study was replicated in

the future.

Recommendations

Based on the results of this descriptive qualitative case study, I have developed

seven recommendations for the improvement of the curriculum and experiential learning

programs abroad at St. Marcel High School and similar schools around the world, and I

have offered six suggestions for future researchers to consider. These suggestions and

recommendations are rooted in the findings related to the three research questions that

focused on ways in which experiential learning abroad enhanced African American

sojourners’ intercultural competence, fostered their intercultural skills, and their personal

development as perceived by their teachers and parents.

Curriculum and Support Recommendations

My recommendations for improving preparatory, pre-trip curriculum and

strengthening experiential learning programs abroad include the revision and

restructuring of the school curricula to provide students with more global and

intercultural knowledge and world language proficiency and ensure alignment of that

curriculum with the original mission of the international school. This mission is to

provide students with an intercultural knowledge of the world affairs and the ability to

think critically through global education. Such curriculum can incorporate reflective

practices that foster African American students’ critical analysis of intercultural issues,

keen observation of the world events, and continued development of their intercultural

competence skills.

133

Since the lack of support has impeded the quality of school predeparture

workshops and fundraising activities, I recommend the renewal of the financial and

human support for the program in collaboration with the Global Citizenship Association

to help implement and sustain the curriculum and strengthen the impact and learning

associated with the program.

Also, the international baccalaureate curriculum of St. Marcel High School may

require that the school administration provide to all teachers and school staff professional

development sessions on intercultural competence topics in collaboration with the Global

Citizenship Association. Such sessions can help embed intercultural competence skills in

the school culture, prepare students for travel, and sustain African American sojourners’

gains as they return home.

Considering the immersion advantages of the homestay accommodation such as

language proficiency, deeper cultural immersion, and intercultural competence skills,

during one African American sojourn in this study, I recommend that St. Marcel High

School promotes homestay during the trips abroad planning and encourages students and

their families to balance out the hosting experience by hosting exchange students.

As found in this qualitative case study, homestay sojourns that include

intercultural assignments that foster observation, active participation in the host country,

and well-designed reflective practices before, during, and after the student participants’

sojourn abroad can enhance the African American participants’ personal development,

tolerance and acceptance for diversity, and foster their intercultural competence skills.

134

I recommend we provide African American high school students with more reflection

space and time before, during, and after their trip abroad, and follow-up with discussions,

journals, and case studies that stir reflection, promote empathy, acceptance of cultural

differences, and the respect of other people.

Also, I recommend that St. Marcel High School create a classroom museum

where sojourners can exhibit the artifacts from their sojourn abroad to inspire potential

sojourners, visitors, and parents. This way, their experiences will be woven in the school

activities and keep their memories alive.

In this qualitative study, I found that the African American sojourners were

moved by the poverty they saw in some of their host countries. Such observations

affected their assumptions, their feelings, and their emotions. As they witnessed and

overcame these feelings, African American sojourners may develop inner strength.

Therefore, I recommend that St. Marcel High School include in its planning a diversity of

service learning experience by selecting developing country destinations in Africa, Asia,

or Latin America with students’ input during the selection process.

During the interviews with parents, they expressed concerns about their children’s

safety with the current world affairs dominated by terrorist attacks and political

instability. Also, two students reported to having experienced stress and anxieties. Such

events can impact the sojourners’ intercultural experiences. So, I recommend that St.

Marcel School’s administrators of the trips abroad include additional strategies in

emergency and contingency plans to support African American students with emotional

135

stress and homesickness or to overcome cultural shock during their sojourn abroad,

regardless of the destination.

Future Research Recommendations

Regarding future research, this study points to the potential for using

ethnographic or longitudinal study approaches to evaluate the extent of experiential

learning’s influence on African American student participants years after they graduate

from high school and enter their professional life. Also, researchers could compare and

contrast the impact of homestay lodging with other accommodation options on African

American high school sojourners’ intercultural competence.

As a result of this qualitative study, I found that only one out of 10 African

American male students in St. Marcel High School has participated in the experience

abroad. Therefore, I suggest that future researchers explore strategies for attracting and

retaining more African American male high school students in the experiential learning

abroad programs that include critical analysis and reflection and question ethnocentric

assumptions.

Furthermore, in this qualitative study, I have explored the influence of

experiential learning abroad on African American high school students’ intercultural

competence skills without focus on gender, due to the small sample size and the limited

availability of research on this subject. I suggest that future research uses mixed method

approach to examine whether study abroad through experiential learning can have a

differential impact on male, female, and transgender African American high school

students.

136

Implications for Social Change

Travel abroad programs provided African American participants with cultural

experiences that have enhanced their intercultural skills, fostered their personal growth,

expanded their worldviews, transformed their ethnocentric mindset, and made them better

students. These intercultural competence skills were not the result of a spontaneous

combustion, but more likely sparked by a direct response to the challenging and dynamic

process that commenced at different stage for each African American participant. Most of

the African American sojourners ended with a seemingly reasonable adaptation in the

host countries. Throughout this dynamic process, the African American participants were

more likely able to connect mentally and emotionally with their hosts and increased

intercultural awareness through a participatory involvement and constructive discussions

that stirred reflection.

Applying these intercultural skills in the African American participants’ lives and

interactions might promote peace in their community, prevent bullying and stereotyping,

and help them and others to avoid ethnocentric mindsets and prejudice in schools. Also,

interculturally competent African American students are more likely to be motivated to

live together, avoid perpetuating otherness, and promote respect and understanding

among their peers. Furthermore, as the African American sojourners compare their values

and beliefs to those of their hosts, they were more likely able to realize the unrealistic

assumption of their superiority. These African American sojourners are situated to accept

that we are all bonded to live and share the future together in increasing harmony and

peace.

137

In addition, travel abroad in developing countries might lead the African

American sojourners to experience a culture of poverty that cannot only foster their

empathy for the needy and the personification of poverty but also value many

opportunities the United States offer. They might realize that poverty has a face, can

smile, cry, eat, and run. That opportunity to witness tangible evidence of other people’s

struggle and lifestyle might nurture in them a humanistic heart, a burning desire, and

catharsis empowering them to better their lives and change the world. Therefore, it is the

responsibility of the study abroad program administrators to examine the level of

intercultural immersion, the country of destination, the type of lodging in the host

country, and the financial resources available to assure that the outcomes of their

experiences are achieved and sustained.

As recognized by the teachers and parents during the interviews, the African

American participants have become role models at St. Marcel High School and in their

families as well as mentors for the freshmen students. Furthermore, they have the

potential of becoming global leaders and social change agents in their communities.

Conclusion

Experiential learning through study abroad and immersion programs that can lead

African American high school students towards intercultural competence is a dynamic

process that combines reflective practices before, during, and after the sojourn abroad.

The results of this qualitative case study indicated that such experiential learning

programs enhanced most of the African American participants’ intercultural competence,

cognitive, interpersonal, and intrapersonal skills development. The African American

138

participants’ change in their attitudes, behaviors, and ethnocentric views may contribute

to them becoming role models for their school and in their community and position them

to become social change agents in the society.

Educational leaders of study abroad programs can offer African American

sojourners the support and opportunity to develop these intercultural competence skills

through a predeparture training with reflective practices, in-field support, and re-entry

counseling. Such aspects of experiential learning have demonstrated means to foster

African American participants’ cognitive, intrapersonal, and intercultural development

skills. Educational leaders cannot expect students to develop intercultural competencies

overnight, as this is a dynamic process that demands motivation, knowledge, skills, and

endurance. Inner city African American high school students likely need to be prepared

for the challenges that await them abroad and should be supported with mandatory

predeparture workshops managed by trained study abroad professionals who will follow

participants throughout their sojourn and sustain them after they return home. As African

American participants experienced unfamiliar cultures through their sojourn abroad, they

were more likely to be challenged to overcome their ethnocentric worldviews and

progress towards ethnorelativism mindset, which is the path towards intercultural

competence.

139

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