Practicum I
REFLEX MOVEMENT
I. Practical Objectives
To prove the presence of muscle reflex movements, and movement of veins in the
eyes and movement of the gag reflex in a person
II. Required tools
1. Percussion mallet
2. Flashlight
3. Cotton
4. Needle
III. Practical Work Procedures
1. Abdominal skin reflex
People try lying on their backs with their arms lying straight at their sides. Scratch
the skin of the abdominal area from lateral to the umbilicus. The response that occurs is
contraction of the abdominal wall muscles.
2. Corneal reflex
Provide cotton rolled into a smooth cylinder shape. People try to move their
eyeballs laterally, that is, by looking to one side without moving their head. Carefully
touch the contralateral side of the cornea with the cotton swab. The response is rapid
eye blinking.
3. Light reflex
The flashlight falls on the pupil of one of the person's eyes. The response is
hololateral and contralateral pupil constriction. Repeat the experiment on the other eye.
4. Radial Periost Reflex
The person's forearm is half flexed at the elbow joint and the hand is slightly
pronated. Tap the periosteum at the distal end of the os radius. The response is flexion
of the forearm at the elbow and supination of the hand.
5. Ulnar Periost Reflex
The person's forearm is half flexed at the elbow joint and the hand is between
pronation and supination. Tap on the periost of the styloid process. The response is
hand pronation.
6. Stretch Reflex (Muscle Spindle Reflex=Myotatic Reflex)
a. Knee Pess Reflex (KPR)
People try sitting at a slightly higher place so that both legs hang freely or
people try lying on their back with their legs flexed at the knee joints. Tap the
patellar tendon with a hammer so that the leg extension occurs accompanied by
contraction of the quadriceps muscle.
b. Achilles Pess Reflex (ACR)
The leg is flexed at the knee joint and the foot is dorsiflexed. Tap the Achilles
tendon, causing plantar flexion of the foot and contraction of the gastronemius
muscle.
c. Biceps reflex
The person's arm is half flexed at the elbow joint. Tap the biceps tendon which
will cause flexion of the arm at the elbow and visible contraction of the biceps
muscle
d. Triceps reflex
The forearm is flexed at the elbow joint and slightly pronated. Tapping the
triceps tendon 5 cm above the elbow will cause arm extension and triceps
contraction
e. Withdrawal Reflex
The person's arm is placed on the table in an extended position. Wait while the
person is trying not to see you, carefully and quickly prick the skin of the arm with
a sterile syringe, as gently as possible so as not to injure the person trying. The
response is flexion of the arm away from the stimulus.
7. IMPORTANT TO NOTE
a. Perfect relaxation: people try to relax in any position they like. The part (limb) to
be examined must lie as passively as possible (limp) without the person trying to
maintain its position.
b. There should be optimal tension of the muscles to be examined. This can be
achieved if the position and location of people's limbs is tried to be managed
properly.
c. The examiner taps the Hammer with a flexion movement on the joint of the hand
with the same force, which can cause sufficient strain.
IV. Practical Results and Discussion
The following are the results obtained after several experiments
1. Abdominal Skin Reflex : Abdominal wall muscle contraction occurs
2. Corneal Reflex : Rapid eye blinking occurs
3. Light Reflex : Hololateral and contralateral pupil constriction occurs
4. Periost Radialis Reflex : There is flexion of the forearm at the elbow and
supination of the hand
5. Ulnar Periost Reflex : Pronation of the hand occurs
6. Knee Pess Reflex : Leg extension occurs accompanied by contraction of
the quadriceps muscles
7. Achilles Pess Reflex : There is plantar flexion of the foot and contraction of
the gastronemius muscle
8. Biceps Reflex : There is flexion of the arm at the elbow and visible
constriction of the biceps muscle
9. Triceps reflex : There is extension of the arm and constriction of the
triceps muscle
10. Withdrawl Reflex : There is flexion of the arm away from the stimulus
Reflex movements are an involuntary response of the body to external stimulation.
Reflex movements can be divided into two, namely brain reflexes and spinal cord
(medulla) reflexes. This occurs when the receptor nerve endings receive stimulation
(stimulus) and then transmit the stimulation via sensory neurons or afferent pathways to
the central nervous system, after which it is again transmitted via interneurons or
associations to motor neuron effectors in the form of the brain and glands.
After carrying out the experiment, the results we got from the first experiment were
contractions of the abdominal wall muscles. This is because when the abdomen is
stimulated by scratching, the motor neurons will transmit the impulse along the axon and
then to the abdominal muscles which are the effectors, resulting in contraction of the
abdominal wall muscles. This stimulus is not processed in the brain causing the movement
to occur quickly.
Examples of reflex movements through the brain are eye blinking and pupil
constriction when exposed to light. Touching the cotton swab to the cornea causes
spontaneous contractions of the eyeball, this is because the eye is a body organ that is very
sensitive to foreign objects, and the response in the form of rapid eye blinking is a reaction
that functions to protect the eye from foreign objects. There are sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerve fibers in the eye. Parasympathetic preganglionic fibers arise from
the Edinger-Westpal nucleus (part of the visceral nucleus of the third nerve) and then
travel in the third nerve to the ciliary ganglion located behind the eye. When the
preganglionic fibers send fibers through the ciliary nerve into the eyeball, this nerve
stimulates the iris sphincter which causes pupil constriction. On the other hand, in the
dark, this reflex is inhibited, resulting in pupil dilation. Apart from the eyes, other reflex
movements do not go through the brain but through the spinal cord.
Meanwhile, the reflex movement that occurs through the spinal cord is a muscle
stretch reflex that occurs in the knee. A jolt in the form of a sudden blow to the knee
causes the quadriceps muscles to stretch and stimulates a dynamic reflex movement which
then causes the lower leg to move forward. The function of this reflex is to counteract
changes in muscle length.
Another spinal cord reflex is the withdrawal pattern, a principle that is only used in
the limbs, because that part causes the most flexor reflexes. Painful stimulation given to
the hand will cause the flexor muscles of the upper arm to be stimulated and cause the
person to pull the hand away from the very painful stimulus.
V. Conclusion
Based on the practicum that has been carried out, there is a match between theory and
practice. It's just that there is difficulty in finding the right part of the tendon to produce
the appropriate reflex movement when providing a stimulus or hitting a percussion
hammer.
Practicum II
THE EFFECT OF CHANGES IN POSITION AND ACTIVITIES
BLOOD PRESSURE, RR, AND HEART RATE
I. Practical Objectives
After participating in this practicum, students will be able to explain the effect of
activity on heart rate and blood pressure.
II. Required tools
1. Sphygmomanometer
2. Stethoscope
3. Wooden bench
III. Practical Work Procedures
1. Ask the test person to relax
2. Count the pulse of the test person
3. Place the cuff on the upper arm
4. Pump the rubber repeatedly until the mercury in the manometer rises to 20 – 40 mmHg
above the average normal blood pressure while placing the stethoscope over the artery
below the cuff attachment.
5. Open the control valve slowly
6. Listen carefully to the sounds heard through the stethoscope
7. Determine systolic and diastolic
8. Check your blood pressure in sleeping, sitting and standing positions
9. Ask the experimenter to go up and down the stairs at a speed of 60 x / minute for 3
minutes without rest.
10. Check the test person's pulse and blood pressure again immediately after 1', 2', and 3'
of activity
IV. Practical Results and Discussion
a. Data on the Effect of Body Position on Pulse Rate, Blood Pressure and Respiration
Body Position Pulse
(....x/minute)
Systolic
Pressure
(mmHg)
Diastolic
Pressure
(mmHg)
Respiration
(....x/minute)
Lie down 60 90 60 12
Sit 60 100 70 12
Stand 62 100 80 14
b. Data on the Effect of Physical Activity on Pulse Rate, Blood Pressure and Respiration
After
activities
Pulse
(....x/minute)
Systolic
Pressure
(mmHg)
Diastolic
Pressure
(mmHg)
Respiration
(....x/minute)
1st minute 84 130 80 30
2nd minute 80 120 80 28
3rd minute 76 120 70 23
Blood pressure measurements in this practicum are carried out by auscultation on the
brachial artery, while pulse measurements are carried out on the radial artery. Based on the
results of two examinations, Yana had a low pulse and blood pressure, but Yana said that
she was used to having low blood pressure and pulse. Based on the practical results in the
table above, it can be seen that body position actually has a big influence on pulse rate,
respiration and blood pressure. This is due to the effect of earth's gravity. If the body is
lying down, the direction of blood circulation is horizontal and does not fight gravity, so
the heart does not need to pump as strongly. Then, when you are at rest or relaxed,
respiration will be less because the body does not need excessive metabolic burning
because it does not need additional energy, so oxygen to produce ATP is not needed as
much. When sitting or standing, the heart's work in pumping blood is harder because the
direction of blood circulation is against the force of gravity, so the heart rate increases.
Respiration also increases because when sitting or standing we need slightly more energy
than when just lying down, so the need for oxygen to produce ATP also increases.
In measuring blood pressure and pulse while resting, it is clear that physical activity
will increase blood pressure. Initially the average blood pressure and pulse rate when
standing was 100/80 mmHg, then after physical activity the blood pressure and pulse rate
increased. In the first minute of measurement, the practitioner's blood pressure increased
to 130/80 mmHg and his pulse rate became 84/minute. This is because during physical
exercise, the body requires a higher oxygen intake than usual. The heart will meet this
oxygen demand by increasing blood supply to skeletal muscles. In other words, there is an
increase in Cardiac Output and Heart Rate.
This increase will automatically increase blood pressure and pulse. Apart from that,
the body also needs more oxygen for metabolism to produce energy, so that respiration
also increases. In the 2nd and 3rd minutes the pulse rate gradually decreases because the
body begins to readjust to its initial state.
V. Conclusion
The results of this practicum prove that body position affects blood pressure, pulse
rate and respiration because the results vary when lying down, sitting and standing. Blood
pressure, pulse and respiration are higher when the body is standing and sitting compared
to lying down. Physical activity also causes profound changes in the circulatory and
respiratory systems. Because immediately after doing physical exercise, your pulse rate,
respiration and blood pressure rise drastically. This is all influenced by the body's efforts
to meet the need for O2 in the blood that will flow throughout the body.
Practicum III
EFFECT OF VARIOUS COVERINGS ON EVAPORATION
I. Practical Objectives
After participating in this practicum, students will be able to explain the effect of
activity on heart rate and blood pressure.
II. Required tools
1. Water thermometer
2. 3 glasses measuring 200 ml
3. Cooking oil 100 ml
4. Wool cloth for glass covers
5. Thin cotton cloth covering the glass
6. A pot filled with water and a stove for cooking
III. Practical Work Procedures
1. Heat 500 ml of water until it boils
2. Put into the three glasses each until they are 2/3 full
3. Glass I was covered with a thin cotton cloth, Glass II was covered with a wool cloth,
and in Glass III 50 ml of cooking oil was added.
4. Measure the temperature of each glass every 15 minutes for 2 hours and record the
results
IV. Practical Results and Discussion
Initial Temperature: 70 o C
Heating Time
Glass I
(wool
cloth)
Glass II
(thin
cloth)
Glass III
(oil)
¼ hour I (15
minutes) 49 o C 46 o C 42 o C
¼ hour II (30
minutes) 36.5 o C 37 o C 35 o C
¼ hour III (45
minutes) 32 o C 32 o C 32 o C
¼ hour IV (60 30 o C 29 o C 30 o C
minutes)
Practical results show that the temperature decreases more slowly in glasses covered
with wool than in other glasses, because This fabric can hold air which can conduct heat to
the surface of the water and the environment, thereby reducing heat output through
conduction from the water surface to the cold outside air. Meanwhile, the temperature of a
glass covered with a thin cloth decreases very quickly compared to other glasses. This
shows that thin fabric functions to effectively dissipate excess heat so that the temperature
drops more quickly. For glasses containing oil, the temperature should decrease no faster
than for glasses covered with thin cloth, because oil is also fat which should be able to
maintain temperature by storing heat. There may be errors caused by researchers who are
not careful in measuring temperature, such as measurements made at the wrong time.
Liquid oil has a high level of saturation, which means it contains a lot of double-bonded
fatty acids so it tends to oxidize easily.
It can be seen that fat in general can be said to fulfill basic functions for humans,
namely providing energy reserves in the form of fat cells, heat insulation, shock absorption
and other functions. Fat is a good heat insulator, the thickness of fat in the body is usually
influenced by gender and the eating habits of each individual. People with fat bodies have
a thick layer of fat in their skin, so fat people will easily overheat in high temperature
environments, but will not easily get cold in cold environments. Likewise, the opposite
happens to thin people.
V. Conclusion
The use of a cover during the evaporation process will greatly influence how much or
how little heat will be transferred to the air. Because this cover can prevent contact of the
water surface with cold outside air. The thicker the cover, the slower the heat output will
be.
Oil can also slow down the transfer of heat because according to existing theory, oil,
fat, is an insulator that can store heat. This proves that fat in the human body functions to
store heat.
Practicum IV
EFFECT OF SUGAR LEVELS BEFORE AND AFTER MEALS
(GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST)
I. Practical Objectives
After following this practicum, students will be able to explain changes in blood
glucose levels as a result of simple carbohydrate intake.
II. Required tools
1. Measuring cup
2. Liquid to drink: Sugar water (75 grams of sugar dissolved in 300 ml of drinking water)
3. Blood sugar level checking tool
4. Paper and ballpoint for taking notes
III. Practical Work Procedures
1. The 3 day diet is sufficient in carbohydrates
2. Fast 12-14 hours then check your fasting blood sugar
3. Drink sugar water (75 grams of sugar dissolved in 300 ml of drinking water) for 5
minutes (Blood sugar is checked again after 30 minutes, 1 hour and after 2 hours)
The results will show that there is impaired tolerance or impaired glucose uptake if the
examination results are: Fasting > 120 mg/dL and 2 hours after eating < 140 mg/dL
IV. Practical Results and Discussion
No Results
GDP
30
minutes
1 hour 2 hours
(after drinking 70% sugar water)
1. Tryout 1 87 mg/dl 164
mg/dl
158 mg/dl
(eat 40g bread)
120 mg/dl
2. Experiment
2
85 mg/dl 106
mg/dl
97 mg/dl 85 mg/dl
Practical results showed that while still fasting (before drinking sugar water) the blood
glucose level was very low, but still within normal limits . This is caused by limited
nutritional intake which can increase blood glucose levels. However, after drinking sugar
water, 30 minutes later the blood glucose level increased very rapidly due to the intake of
nutrients containing glucose which automatically affected the glucose level in the blood.
But this doesn't last long, because blood sugar levels will return to stable glucose levels
when fasting around 1 and 2 hours after drinking sugar water, because glucose in the body
is dynamic, not static. Glucose will be processed, broken down and processed into energy.
From the results of the blood sugar test of experimenter 1 and participant 2, it was
found that after the experimenter drank a 70% sugar solution, 30 minutes later there was a
significant increase in blood sugar. Compared with fasting blood sugar, there was an
increase of 77 points for participant 1 and 21 points for participant 2. The quite large
difference in increase between trial participants 1 and 2 occurred due to physical activity
and different body proportions. After the increase, blood sugar levels decrease gradually.
This is due to the occurrence of homeostatic mechanisms. This homeostasis process occurs
when the glucose concentration in the blood increases, the body will automatically
stabilize blood sugar to a normal state. The hormone that plays a role in this process is the
insulin hormone, as stated in theory, insulin functions to reduce blood sugar levels so that
in the experiment, the blood sugar levels of participants 1 and 2 decreased. n The
following are normal blood sugar levels in various conditions:
1. Blood Sugar Levels During Fasting : 80 mg/dL – 109 mg/dL
2. Normal Blood Sugar Levels : 70 mg/dL – 130 mg/dL
3. Blood Sugar Levels 2 Hours After Eating : 80 mg/dL – 144 mg/dL
Glucose levels in the blood are needed by the body to carry out activities. Glycogen
will be converted through the process of glycogenolysis the process of hydrolysis of
disaccharides and polysaccharides by the saccharidase enzyme which produces simple
sugars, namely glucose, galactose and fructose. This simple sugar is then absorbed in the
villi of the small intestine, enters the blood vessels and then transported via the portal vein
to the liver. Once in the liver, simple sugars enter the liver in liver cells and enzymatically
converted into glucose. This glucose will later be oxidized in tissues such as the brain and
red blood cells. ketone bodies in tissues, such as muscles and kidneys.
The largest glucose-using tissues are the muscles and brain. In muscles that are
active so energy requirements are very high, glucose will be taken up quickly and
converted into glucose 6 phosphate then with the help of enzymes converted into pyruvate
which ultimately goes through the cellular respiration system or Kreb's cycle if there is
enough oxygen, to produce energy. However, when the muscles or body as a whole are at
rest, the glucose in the liver is converted into glucose 6 phosphate, then into liver glycogen
which is used as a glucose reserve. Apart from that, triacylglycerides will also be broken
down into fatty acids and glycerol through the lipolysis process. The fatty acids will then
be oxidized in the muscles and liver. Oxidation of fatty acids in muscles will take place,
producing CO2 and H2O. Meanwhile in the liver, oxidation takes place partially,
producing ketone bodies. CO2 and H2O are only formed after oxidation.
If the fasting state continues, the liver not only produces glucose through the process
of glycogenolysis, but also by gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis is the process of
producing glucose from non-carbohydrate compounds, for example lactate, glycerol and
amino acids. When amino acids are converted into glucose, the nitrogen element will
change to urea. So to be able to enter muscle cells, glucose requires the help of insulin. If a
bond between hormones and insulin is formed, then glucose through the G protein gate
can penetrate the cell membrane for further use.
Blood glucose levels vary with absorption capacity, will be higher after eating and
will decrease if no food is consumed for several hours. Glucose levels are influenced by 3
types of hormones produced by the pancreatic gland, namely:
1. Insulin (a hormone that functions to lower blood sugar levels)
2. Glucagon (a hormone that functions to increase blood sugar levels)
3. Somatostatin (a hormone that functions to block the release of the hormones insulin and
glucagon)
V. Conclusion
The intake of simple carbohydrates can influence changes in blood sugar levels. The
value of glucose levels in the blood can be influenced by several factors such as light or
heavy physical activity, and processing glucose itself has different levels of breakdown.
But overall, the value of glucose levels in the blood is still within normal limits because it
is less than 200mg/dl. However, when blood sugar levels are considered too high,
normally the body will be able to maintain homeostasis, insulin will work, and blood sugar
levels will return to normal.
Practicum V
EFFECT OF EXCESS HYPOTONIC, ISOTONIC AND HYPERTONIC FLUID
ON URINE FORMATION
I. Practical Objectives
After following this practicum, students will be able to explain changes in blood
glucose levels as a result of simple carbohydrate intake.
II. Required tools
1. Measuring cup
2. Liquids to drink: Aqua 1 liter, NaCl 0.9% 1 liter, and Dextrose 10% 1 liter
3. Paper and ballpoint for taking notes
III. Practical Work Procedures
1. Ask 3 students to be experimenters
2. Give all three experimenters a chance to empty their bladders
3. Person in experiment I was asked to drink Aqua 1000 ml, person in experiment II drank
NaCl 0.9%, and person in experiment III drank Dextrose 10%
4. Wait ½ hour, 1 hour, and 2 hours later to empty the bladder again
5. Record the amount of each urine excreted by the three experimenters
6. Is there a difference in the amount and specific gravity of urine in the three
experimental people? why is that, explain the mechanism!
IV. Practical Results and Discussion
1. Experiment I
a. Practical Results for first participant (Drinking 1 liter of Aqua Water)
Time Urine Volume
(ml)
Urine Specific
Gravity
½ hour 220 1,006
1 hour 210 1,001
2 hours 310 1,000
Total 740 -
b. Practical Results for Contestants II (Drinking NaCl 0.9% 1 liter)
Time Urine Volume
(ml)
Urine Specific
Gravity
½ hour 200 1,005
1 hour 260 1,000
2 hours 190 1,000
Total 650 -
c. Practical Results for Convict III (Drink Dextrose 10% 1 liter)
Time Urine Volume
(ml)
Urine Specific
Gravity
½ hour 200 1,007
1 hour 250 1,001
2 hours 240 1,000
Total 690 -
2. Experiment II
a. Practical Results for first participant (Drinking 1 liter of Aqua Water)
Time Urine Volume
(ml)
Urine Specific
Gravity
½
hour
142 1,000
1 hour 215 1,000
2
hours
220 1,005
Total 577 -
b. Practical Results for Contestants II (Drinking NaCl 0.9% 1 liter)
Time Urine Volume
(ml)
Urine Specific
Gravity
½
hour
43 -
1 hour 197 1,000
2
hours
220 1,000
Total 460 -
c. Practical Results for Convict III (Drink Dextrose 10% 1 liter)
Time Urine Volume
(ml)
Urine Specific
Gravity
½ hour 20 -
1 hour 129 1,003
2
hours
175 1,003
Total 324 -
In general, the physiology of urine formation comes from blood which then enters the
kidneys to be filtrated in the glomerulus. In this glomerulus, the blood is filtered so that
large cells such as blood cells and proteins cannot penetrate the glomerular membrane so
that they remain in the bloodstream, while objects such as glucose, ions and other objects
that are smaller than the glomerular membrane can continue to exist. goes through the
filtration process and the results of the filtration are referred to as filtrate. In this filtration
process there are several factors that play a role in encouraging filtration and fighting
filtration.
Factors that can encourage filtration are hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular
capillaries and oncotic pressure in Bowman's capsule. Factors that oppose filtration are
hydrostatic pressure in Bowman's capsule and oncotic pressure of plasma proteins in
glomerular capillaries. The next step is the reabsorption process, the part responsible for
reabsorption is in the proximal tubule. Where the ions that are still used by the body (such
as sodium and potassium), calcium and glucose so that these objects are not found in the
urine. The next step is the secretion process which is the process of moving molecules
from the extra cellular fluid to the lument of the nephron tubule. Where the products
secreted are the result of metabolic waste that the body no longer needs.
In this practicum there were 2 participants, each participant drank fluids, namely 1
liter of water, 1 liter of NaCl 0.9% (Pocari Sweat), and Dextrose (sugar water) 10% 1 liter.
In the participants who drank 1 liter of water, urine results were obtained with a larger
volume than when they drank other liquids. Water is a hypotonic fluid that affects urine
output and its osmolarity decreases and will result in the movement of water from the
capillaries to the interstitial tissue, causing edema to occur and the cells to swell. This
causes ADH to be blocked and urine output should be more than normal.
Pocari sweat (NaCl 0.9%) is an isotonic solution which has the same solute
concentration (same osmotic pressure) as other solutions, so there is no water movement.
Meanwhile, 1 liter of sugar solution ( Dextrose 10%) which is a hypertonic liquid has an
effect on urine output, namely increased osmolarity, so that water is drawn into the blood
vessels and cells will shrink, resulting in an increase in ADH and urine output will be less
than normal. normal.
Based on the experiment above, it was found that the highest urine output was in
hypotonic fluids. However, this is not in accordance with existing theory because
according to theory, the highest urine output should be in participants who drink
hypertonic fluids because the nature of hypertonic fluids can increase osmolarity levels,
resulting in retained ADH and increased urine volume. Factors that influence the volume
of urine excreted are not only due to the type of substance consumed by humans, but also
due to activities carried out before urinating, food and drinks consumed before carrying
out the experiment, environmental temperature, age, as well as emotional turmoil and
stress felt by the person. try.
Meanwhile, the effect of the specific gravity of urine on the volume of urine excreted
is inversely proportional, for example, when someone does physical activity and
experiences a lot of loss of body fluids, it will cause less urine to be excreted, so that the
concentration is higher and the specific gravity is also greater. Normally the specific
gravity of a person's urine is in the range of 1.002 – 1.035, but in this practicum there was
some urine excreted from both participants who drank hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic
liquids below the normal specific gravity of a person's urine but the difference was not
much different and there was no specific gravity of urine. under 1,000.
In our opinion, we are less able to measure urine specific gravity accurately because
of our skills in using a urinometer (a tool for measuring urine specific gravity).
Differences in color changes also occur in each urine tested, in the three types of urine, on
average, the first urine excretion is a darker color, this darker urine color is identified
because the substances secreted by the body are not all dissolved in the incoming fluid,
namely hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic fluids. This can also be a measure of a person's
lack of fluids.
V. Conclusion
From the results of this practicum, it can be concluded that the participants who drank
water excreted a greater volume of urine than the other participants, because the
substances absorbed by the kidneys from water were small so that more water was
excreted, whereas in the other participants there were some substances. which is absorbed
by the kidneys so that the volume becomes smaller. The existing theory concludes that
excess hypotonic, isotonic and hypertonic fluids have an effect on urine formation,
especially on the volume of urine excreted. Several things that can influence urine output
are environmental temperature, age, as well as emotional turmoil and stress felt by the test
participants, this causes the trials of each participant with different types of fluids to be
less effective.
