PERCEPTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
TO RAISE SITUATIONAL AWARENESS IN EMERGENCY EVENTS
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Social media was traditionally used as a platform to communicate with others,
share ideas in digital format, and in essence socialize online. With the rapid growth of
technology during the last decade, the potential uses of social media have transformed.
Social media today is used by numerous industries; it has an impact on the spread of
education, business marketing strategies, and even national security during emergencies.
Studying the use of social media by the general public during emergency events allows
emergency officials to gain a better understanding of the public’s perceptions and
expectations, and thereby allows officials to raise situational awareness and broaden their
contribution to preparedness efforts.
The following chapter provides an overview of this thesis starting with the
research question. It also provides the scope of the research, the research’s significance,
and key definitions vital to this research. In addition, this chapter will discuss the
assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the research.
1.2 Research Question
This research aimed to explore the potential effect of using social media during
emergencies. It mainly focuses on gaining a better understanding of the needs and
expectations of social media users during emergency events. The research question that
was explored is: What expectations and perceptions do Purdue University associates have
regarding the use of social media during emergencies?
1.3 Scope
This research focuses mainly on emergencies, social media, and the users of social
media. In this research no specific natural or manmade emergencies were studied.
However, perceptions and expectation regarding social media usage was explored with
respect to the users’ expectations and needs. The scope of social media in this thesis was
limited to Social Networking Sites (SNS).
To gain a better understanding of how social media is being used in emergencies,
social media users were selected to get a more personal perspective on what the users’
motivations are. However, this thesis did not explore nor analyze what the user said on
social media. Even though this research did not tap into the different cases of emergency,
it provided a general idea of the role of social media in some scenarios. Much of the
previous examined literature provided evidence that social media has become popular
during emergencies. This thesis provided insights on the personal reasons that make
people use social media during emergencies, whether it’s for raising awareness, getting
information, or connecting with family and significant others.
1.4 Significance
This research is significant due to the overwhelming growth of social media in the
past decade. Social media became a part of our daily lives and is used multiple times a
day. It is important for emergency officials as well as other authorities such as campus
security personnel, to have a better understanding regarding the use of social media by
the public. This research helped provide insights that can prepare and prevent
emergencies from affecting people if used appropriately. Moreover, this research provides
the emergency managers with the perspectives and needs of Purdue University associates
regarding the use of social media during emergency events. This knowledge can shed
some light on what should be done to make social media effective in time of need to raise
situational awareness.
1.5 Definitions
Crisis Informatics - “an emerging research area that studies how information and
communication technology (ICT) is used in emergency response” (Anderson &
Scharm, 2011, p. 844)
Emergency event – “Any event requiring increased coordination or response beyond the
routine in order to save lives, protect property, protect the public health and safety,
or lessen or avert the threat of a disaster” (Blanchard, 2008, p. 340).
Pull technologies - pulling and grabbing information from the Internet. (Kendall &
Kendall, 1999, p. 4).
Purdue University associates – Persons that are linked to Purdue University (e.g. students,
staff, and faculty).
Push technologies - describes “anything from Webcasting to selective content delivery
using sophisticated evolutionary filtering.” (Kendall & Kendall, 1999).
Social Media – “a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and
technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of
user- generated content” (Kaplan & Haenlein,2010, p. 61).
Social Networking Site (SNS) – “web-based services that allow individuals to (1)
construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a
list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse
their list of connections and those made by others within the system” (Boyd &
Ellison, 2007, p. 211).
1.6 Assumptions
The assumptions for this project include:
• Participants interviewed are honest when answering questions and/or when giving
background information about their history and experience.
• Participants are expected to recall their online contributions and their reasoning
behind them.
• The number of participants selected to be interviewed was adequate to elicit the
number of responses to facilitate this study.
• The use of a qualitative (interviewing) approach was appropriate to elicit the type
of responses necessary to answer the research question.
• Data gathered from the interviews is expected to be related to the topic of interest.
• Interviewed participants used a social networking site during an emergency.
1.7 Limitations
The limitations for this project include:
• Data was gathered from interviews only.
• Interviews were conducted via phone if necessary.
• The interviews were structured.
• Each interview lasted 30 - 45 minutes.
• The selected sample of interview participants is limited to Purdue University
associates.
• The data gathered was interpreted following a thematic analysis.
1.8 Delimitations
The delimitations for this project include:
• This thesis did not investigate data relative to any specific disaster or emergency
event.
• This thesis did not analyze any of the data collected statistically.
• This thesis did not interview non-Purdue staff and students.
• Interview participants were limited to Purdue University associates available at
West Lafayette academic campus.
• This thesis did not include people that do not use social media.
• This thesis did not ask about messages and/or emails.
1.9 Summary
This chapter presented the research question that was explored in this thesis. In
addition, it covered the research scope, significance, crucial definitions, assumptions,
limitations, and delimitations.
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides an overview of previous literature that studied the role of
social media in emergency management. The purpose of this chapter is to develop a better
understanding of the themes that emerge in past literature on the utilization of social
media in emergency situations. It also presents a rational argument for the necessity of
this particular thesis.
2.1 General Overview
Social media is a necessary tool used in the modern world. Over the past decade,
the use of the Internet has grown by 528.1% with 360,985,492 users from around the
world (“Internet usage statistics”, 2011). Advancement in technology over the past
century has completely transformed the way people communicate with each other. The
services provided by social media have made it possible to connect people that share
interests and activities across political, economic, and geographical borders with a click
of a button.
Social media can be simply defined as a “group of internet-based applications that
build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the
creation and exchange of user- generated content” (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p. 61).
Social media comes in various forms such as, virtual gaming worlds, blogs,
virtual social worlds, and most importantly, Social Networking Sites (SNSs).
Social networking sites are defined as “ web-based services that allow individuals
to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a
list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list
of connections and those made by others within the system” (Boyd & Ellison, 2007,
p.211).
2.2 Social Media’s Various Applications
Due to its overwhelming popularity amongst Internet users, social media has been
implemented in and adopted by many fields and areas. Previous literature provides
evidence that social media has been implemented in higher education (Junco, Heibergert,
& Loken, 2010; Selwyn, 2011), healthcare (Hawn, 2009), as well as the marketing and
advertising industries to reach a large number of audiences (Baruh, 2010; Syed Ahmad &
Murphy, 2010). When it comes to the role of social media in emergency information
distribution, news networks have resorted to social media, especially during disaster-
related incidents, to find witnesses online and talk to them about their story leads. (Palen,
Vieweg, Sutton, Liu, & Hughes, 2007). Moreover, the social photo-sharing website
‘Flickr’ is used by Yahoo News, KPBS, and News 8 to share eyewitness photos of
emergency events instantaneously with their viewers (Liu, Palen, Sutton, Hughes, &
Vieweg, 2008). The following paragraph demonstrates the power of social media for self-
organizing groups.
Social media and specifically social networking sites illustrated their
unprecedented power when Egyptians used them in 2011 to organize and coordinate their
protests against their president. They were also used as an outlet to tell the world what
was going on in Egypt at the time (Sangani, 2011). In addition, social networking sites are
used by many groups of people to create flash mobs as well as organize and raise
awareness of other various social, political, and educational events. The previous section
described the numerous applications of social media in general, including its use in
different fields and specifically security related situations.
2.3 Social Media & Security
Lately, social media sparked the interest of officials within the field of security. The
Federal Emergency Management Agency, FEMA, adopted social media to distribute
information and to receive feedback from the users via wall posts, incoming messages, and
polls (Lindsay, 2011). By definition, an emergency event is “Any event requiring increased
coordination or response beyond the routine in order to save lives, protect property, protect
the public health and safety, or lessen or avert the threat of a disaster”
(Blanchard, 2008).
2.3.1 Social Media & Emergency Management The following
sections discuss the use of social media in emergency management, including the use of
social media the public in emergency events, the use of social media by emergency
management organizations, and the advantages and disadvantages of social media.
2.3.1.1 Public Uses of Social Media in Emergency Events
This section describes previous literature that demonstrates how social media is
used by the public in emergency situations. Due to the generality of news media
broadcast during the Southern California Wildfires, people used social media to pull
critical local information that affected them personally and kept themselves updated
(Palen, 2008). The existing body of literature illustrates the public’s growing
embracement of social networking sites and the big role it plays in peoples’ daily lives.
The social networking site, Twitter, has shown noticeable spikes in usage during
emergency events, which makes it an exceptionally effective and fast response tool (Li &
Rao, 2010; Hughes & Palen, 2009).
Heverin and Zach’s research examined how the public used Twitter after a violent
shooting of police officers in 2009. They found that the majority of the tweets collected in
the aftermath were either information-related or opinion related, at 79% and 16.8%
respectively (Haverin & Zach, 2010). This thesis will continue to build a general
understanding of how social media users utilize these tools during emergencies and what
expectation and needs they have when using it.
Different members of the public are driven by different reasons when resorting to
social media during a crisis. Some reasons that the public might need to resort to social
networking sites is so they can provide or seek support during emergencies, to identify
victims, and to gain a better understanding of the event (Palen, Vieweg, Liu, & Hughes,
2009). According to Palen, emergency management practice and policy is continuously
affected by the public’s use of social media (2008). Many researchers looked into how
social media was used in emergency events varying from the Virginia Tech shootings to
natural disasters such as the southern California fires and destructive hurricanes.
During the 2007 Virginia Tech shootings, most of the students relied on text
messaging and instant messaging on social media websites such as Facebook, to ensure
the safety of their friends. After news outlets confirmed that 32 civilians were killed,
people all over the world began following the Virginia Tech story online via social media
websites (Palen, 2008). A study done by Palen and colleagues about the VT shooting
showed that social media overpowered regular media when the names of the victims were
gathered and posted on Wikipedia by the efforts of family members and other students on
campus. The list of names was posted a few hours before the university released an
official list. One of the main concerns related to information found on social media sites
is the reliability and integrity of that information. However, the research done by Palen
and her colleague’s claim that social media users have a sense of responsibility when
distributing crucially important information online. In fact, the Virginia Tech study shows
that the group of citizen-generated victims lists generated after the shooting were never
incorrect. Every name added to those lists was a life lost, and so information posted on
those sites was verified and critiqued by informed users to ensure accuracy (Palen,
Vieweg, Sutton, Liu, & Hughes, 2007; Palen, 2008).
Moreover, when the Southern California fires in 2007 broke out, people in the
affected region used social media to develop a better understanding of what was
happening and to cope with stress. Sutton and colleagues (2008) conducted study asked
participants about their “ICT use for keeping in touch with others during the wildfires;
evacuation experiences; information seeking for fire-related issues; and volunteering of
time, goods or services, including on-line participation and information generation”.
Research had shown that those affected by the fires found that the traditional media and
official communications were somewhat problematic because they were not
instantaneously updated, or were not specific to their area. These problems are generally
overcome when information is shared using social media tools (Sutton, Palen,&
Shklovski, 2008). The significance of social networking sites was demonstrated back in
2008 when the Sichuan earthquake hit China. Many people resorted to using Twitter as a
source of instant information and communication after the phone lines were heavily
damaged (Li & Rao, 2010). Although questions about the crisis experience and the use of
social media during the emergency situation have been asked and answered, questions
regarding the user expectations and needs when using social media haven't been asked
nor answered yet. Current research aims to answer such questions in order to provide a
better understanding of the users’ needs, perceptions, and expectations. In addition to
analyzing the use of social media by the public in emergencies, it is important to note its
use by emergency management organizations, which will be discussed in the following
section.
2.3.1.2 Emergency Organization’s Use of Social Media
Due to the public’s embracement of social media, it has become essential for
emergency management organizations to integrate and implement social media. Some of
the past literature has been dedicated to examining how emergency management
organizations have adopted social media in their line of work. For example, Latonero and
Schklovski’s (2010) research studied how public information officers of the Los Angeles
Fire Department utilized social media, and Twitter most specifically, to their advantage.
The following excerpt from their research shows an online interaction between a Twitter
user and an LAFD officer:
“@faboomama: “Hot liquid burn like fire. Just burnt the crap out of both hands
with 250 degree oil. PAIN,” 2:08 PM Sep 22
@LAFDtalk posts this public response: “@faboomama Please continue to cool
your burned hands in water (no ice!) For at least 15 minutes. No home remedies,
seek MD or 911 if doubt” 2:11 PM Sep 22nd” (p.6)
The LAFD officer responded to the Twitter user’s cry for help in just three
minutes. This level of interaction between an emergency official and a public citizen is
unimaginable using traditional forms of media. On one hand, this advancement in
communication creates a sense of trust and community between the public and
government officials. However, this enhanced sense of community could also push
tweeters to develop an unrealistic expectation that similar immediate responses are
always possible. Brian Humphrey, a LAFD Public Information Officer, suggests that
using traditional forms of media to communicate with the public can become
overwhelming when he posts the following tweet:
@BrianHumphrey: “270 voice mails and 2000+ non-spam emails expecting a
reply. Dunno how or when I'll get back to you all.” 6:47 AM Sep 28th. (p.6) This
is also applicable to responses on social media due to time limitations; it is very
difficult to respond with such vigilance and provide tweeters with constant 24
hours of individual attention every day. However, social media can be an
effective tool when communicating a public response (Latonero & Schklovski,
2010). The previous segment talked about social media’s usage by emergency
management organization, the following section discusses the pros and cons of
social media use in emergency management.
2.3.2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Social Media in Emergency Management
Like any other technology, social media has its own advantages and
disadvantages, especially when it comes to implementing it in the field of security and
emergency management. The reliability and effectiveness of social media is especially
important when the safety of peoples’ lives is at stake. Social networking sites such as,
Twitter, Facebook, MySpace, etc. are becoming popular information sharing channels
among the public. The main advantage of adopting such technologies is their ability to
notify a massive amount of people of an emergency within a short span of time. Recently
social media has been increasingly adopted by some facilities as a tool in emergency
situations, and consequently helped managers notify employees of evacuations plans and
preparedness efforts by posting videos on social media platforms
(Millàn, 2012).
While this technology is growing in popularity every day, unfortunately
miscommunication is a very common issue that arises during emergency events due to the
fear and uncertainty of those involved (Lemyre, Gibson, Zlepnig, Meyer-Macleod, &
Boutette, 2009). Despite the uncertainties that arise while communicating emergencies
via social media, it has proven to be an effective tool in many circumstances. This was
apparent after a Facebook user contacted 911 dispatchers after reading a cry for help from
a fellow gamer who suffered from Muscular Dystrophy and could not physically report a
fire that had ignited in his own home. Although the call came from across the country,
firefighters attended to the emergency immediately and managed to rescue the man from
the fires (Kim & Graham, 2012). This has triggered the interest of many researchers, and
has inspired many studies to be done regarding communication during emergency events.
According to a survey done by the American Red Cross, 44% of people that could not
contact 911 resorted to using social media to alert rescue teams (Kim & Graham, 2012).
This thesis sets itself apart from past research because it investigates the users
expectations and needs of social media and how those expectations measure up to the
implementation of social media by emergency officials.
According to Merchant, Elmer, and Lurie (2011), integrating social networking
sites into preparedness activities for emergencies can help build community resilience,
making it easier for both professional responders as well as the public to use these social
media tools in an emergency. Social networking sites can contribute greatly in raising
awareness regarding emergency events. A study done by Vieweg and colleagues provided
evidence that the social networking site, Twitter, helped raise situational awareness
regarding emergency events. By analyzing Twitter communications, the authors found
that people tried to raise awareness during emergencies by providing information
regarding geographical locations and situational updates about the emergency event
(Vieweg, Hughes, Starbird, & Palen, 2010). Another study done by Verma and colleagues
used a classifier system, which identified the existence of situational awareness content
by categorizing tweets. The study found that more than 75% of tweets regarding the
Oklahoma fire and Red River floods included information about situational awareness
(Verma, at al., 2011). A case study done by Aljohani,
Alahmari, and Aseere highlighted the importance of social networking sites during the
Saudi Arabian Floods that occurred in 2011, showing that the hashtag feature on Twitter
can collaborate the thoughts of many Twitter users during an emergency. Concluding that,
the accuracy of information associated with a hashtag tended to increase as more users
became involved in using that particular hashtag (Aljohani, Alahmari, & Aseere, 2011).
The previous section demonstrated the various advantages and disadvantages that are
associated with the use of social media in emergency events. The next section highlights
the role of Crisis Informatics and crisis communication, in addition to the communication
process when using social media in emergencies, including the process of obtaining
emergency related information.
2.4 Crisis Communication & Crisis Informatics
2.4.1 Pull & Push Communication Processes
Generally, there are two methods for obtaining emergency information; users can
either actively seek a source and ‘pull’ information from it or they can receive
information via ‘push’ notifications. Both methods allow users to work in meaningful
ways with information on the Web (Paul, Reddy, Abraham & DeFlitch, 2008). For
example, when users are sent an e-mail containing information regarding an emergency
event, it is considered to be a ‘push’ notification. According to Paul and colleagues, when
‘pulling’ information, the quality and timeliness of the information depends on the user’s
personal motivation (2008). However, when the information is ‘pushed’ to users by
credible sources such as, emergency officials, it’s usually more accurate (Paul, Reddy,
Abraham & DeFlitch, 2008). Each method has its own advantages and downfalls. Pulling
information using social media can be beneficial when a person needs the information
instantaneously and regarding a specific location. On the other hand, ‘push’ notifications
could be beneficial if the timeliness of information delivery is a priority. This type of
notification can target particular individuals and thus deliver information to people who
actually need it (Kendall & Kendall, 1999). The previous section explained the different
processes involved in obtaining emergency related information. The next sections talks
about Crisis Informatics and crisis communication.
2.4.2 Crisis Informatics
Due to its continuously evolving nature, social media is changing the pathway of
sharing emergency information. Crisis informatics spreads consideration of emergency
communication to include official responders as well as members of the general public
(Palen, Vieweg, Liu, & Hughes, 2009). Crisis informatics is a research field that studies
the flow of information during disasters (Hughes & Palen, 2009). Past research has
shown that information regarding an emergency on Twitter ‘spikes’ when the event takes
place and that many people resort to social networking sites to seek information that
complements what they had received from the officials (Starbird, & Stamberger,
2010).
2.4.3 Crisis Communication
Crisis communication is a crucial part of a public relations (PR) practitioners’ job.
The purpose of conducting crisis communication is to effectively manage the public’s
perception of a crisis and strategically minimize the amount of harm incurred. By
providing the general public and affected groups with basic information regarding the
crisis, officials can reduce uncertainty and thereby allow the public to make educated
decisions (Reynolds & Seeger, 2005). A possible public relations model that can be used
to better manage crisis communication is the RPIE model, which consists of the
following four steps: research, planning, implementation, and evaluation (Reid &
Breakell, 2004). One of the most common challenges that must be overcome when
communicating a crisis is keeping the audiences’ emotions under control. The goal of risk
communication is to increase the concern of an apathetic audience and reduce the outrage
of an audience that is irrationally fearful or angry (Sandman, 2002). The transition of
emergency communication from traditional methods to social media based methods make
it especially important that researchers improve their understanding of: 1) how these
communications occur in the first place,2)what motivates the user to resort to social
media to seek information, and 3) the technology’s advantages and limitations.
2.5 Summary
Various concepts have been explored in the past to examine the role of social
media during emergencies. Previous researchers investigated social media in relation to
emergencies to gain a better understanding of social media and emergency management
focusing on finding patterns for the types of “tweets” or posts being shared during an
emergency. However, while most researchers focused on the overall impact of social
media during emergency situations, most of them neglected the specific needs and
expectations that are experienced by users. Individuals have a variety of needs and
expectations while using social media, and so this research paper focused on gaining a
better understanding of what motivates people to use social media and what their
expectations and needs are when they resort to social networking sites to share and pull
information regarding emergencies. This chapter provided an overview of related
literature and served as a legal case for the significance and the purpose of the study.
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
This chapter covers the research framework, sampling, methodology, interview
topics, validity, and the researcher credibility. It provides an overview and an explanation
of the methods that were used in this research.
3.1 Research Framework
This study looked into the effect that social media has on raising awareness during
emergencies. This thesis specifically focused on researching and understanding the
expectations and needs of Purdue University associates regarding the use of social media
during emergency events. Although there are many studies that have measured this aspect
quantitatively, this research followed a qualitative approach. Using this approach allowed
the researcher to answer social questions that may be too complicated to solve
quantitatively. During an emergency, emotions tend to run high and so it becomes very
difficult to quantify the research participants’ thought process. Therefore, this thesis
followed the steps of previous literature that demonstrated the power of qualitative
approaches when it comes to disaster related research such as, Palen and colleagues
whom used a qualitative approach to collect data for their study by interviewing people
(Palen, Vieweg, et. al, 2007).
This thesis followed a structured approach, which allowed the researcher to ensure
the comparability of data across individuals, time, and settings, and as a result was useful
in answering various questions (Maxwell, 2005). In order to understand the role of social
media usage in emergencies and to collect data, a group of Purdue
University associates (students, faculty, and staff) were interviewed. This thesis imitated
Boyatzis’s three-step process in conducting a thematic analysis. The three steps are as
follow: 1) Deciding on sampling and design issues. 2) Developing themes and a code. 3)
Validating and using the code (Boyatzis,1998). Observing repeating patterns that emerged
from the collected data allowed the researcher to develop themes and codes to better
understand the topic being studied. A thematic analysis was a valuable part of this thesis;
it helped organize, describe, analyze and interpret the data collected regarding the
perceptions and expectations that social media users have during emergencies. A
description of the sampling process is explained in the following section.
3.2 Sampling
Interviews were conducted to better understand why people refer to social media
during emergency events and to gain a better understanding of their needs, perceptions,
and expectations regarding social media usage in emergencies. The conducted interviews
followed a structured due to the nature of the interview topics, which seek to gather
information regarding personal experiences that may differ from one person to the other.
Homogeneous and criterion sampling were the primary sampling strategies used in this
study. Homogenous sampling was used because the sample of participants had to describe
some particular subgroups in depth (Patton, 2002). Criterion sampling was appropriate
because participants had to meet certain predetermined criterions of importance. This
type of sampling was used as a strategy in “quality assurance efforts” (Patton, 2002). This
study was based on two samples of participants: a student sample, which will include
undergraduate and graduate students; and a staff and faculty sample. Participants in both
samples had to meet a number of conditions to be included in the study. They had to be
members in one or more social networking sites and they must use it at least three times a
week. Moreover, participants must have used social networking sites during an occasion
that is considered an “emergency” to the user.
Selecting an appropriate sample is crucial because it influences the themes
generated in the thematic analysis. In order to find a sample that meets the criterions of
this study, flyers were distributed on campus asking for Purdue University associates to
participate in the study (Appendix A). A portion of these flyers were displayed at focal
points on campus, while others were given to random individuals. Since this thesis has
two samples, the flyers were accessible to both students as well as Faculty and staff at
Purdue University. The flyer included the study’s title and a short message asking for
participants as well as a QR code that linked them to the qualtrics survey (Appendix B),
which helped determine whether a participant is eligible to participate in the study. The
flyer also included cut out that contain a link to the qualtrics survey.
Once participants expressed their interest to be part of this study by taking the
qualtrics survey and meeting the criterions of this study, they were contacted to schedule
a date to conduct the interview. It is important to note that qualitative research is more
concerned with the quality of information rather than the number of information per se
(Sandelowski, 1995). The size of the sample was guided by data saturation. Data
saturation refers to the point during data collection when the data becomes repetitive and
no new information is obtained (Pitney & Parker, 2009).
3.3 Methodology
This study focused on interviewing as a methodology to collect data. This
particular methodology was used following the steps of similar studies that focused on
getting student perceptions regarding a range of different topics such as campus safety
and the effects of campus shootings on graduate students (Ratti, 2010; Rutherford &
DeVaney, 2008). Also, a study done by Sutton, Palen, and Shklovski on the use of social
media during disaster events used interviewing amongst other qualitative methods to get a
better understanding of how people used social media to communicate during and after
the wildfires in Southern California (2008).
Based on the participant’s preference, interviews varied between phone interviews
and face-to-face interviews, using a set of predetermined questions (Berg, 2009).
Questions were asked regarding the use of social media during an event that is considered
an emergency to the interviewee. This differed among interviewees, whereas one person
may consider a thunder storm an emergency, others may not. This lead to better
understanding the motivations behind using social media during the emergency event as
well as the user’s perceptions and expectations when using social media. Granted
participant consent, each interview was recorded using a simple audio recorder. Doing so
facilitated data retrieval in later stages for future analysis as well as helped the researcher
focus more on the interviewee and his/her responses.
3.4 Interview Topics
The interview topics in this thesis guided the participants of the study in
communicating their perceptions and expectations of social media during emergencies.
First, general questions were asked regarding the participant’s age, and whether they met
the required criteria to conduct the study. Next a series of interview questions relevant to
the research were asked, they started very broadly and then narrowed down to focus on
the applications of social media usage in emergencies specifically. The topics that were
discussed touch up on the individuals’ expectations from social media, what motivates
them to resort to social media, as well as what their needs are when it comes to social
media. By using these topics as a foundation for the interview, the researcher developed
an effective thematic analysis on the needs and expectations of social media users in
general and how they differ during emergency events.
3.5 Validity
Validity influences the integrity and accuracy of a study, making it a common
concern for researchers. With that said, the study conducted in this thesis attempted to
control every possible factor that may threaten the research.
According to Maxwell, two types of validity threats that must be controlled are
researcher bias and reactivity (2005). The researcher bias involves two aspects that can be
considered threats to validity. First, choosing a sample that will fit the theories or
presumptions that the researcher has about the research (Maxwell, 2005). This thesis
aimed to avoid such threat by choosing a sample from a large population rather than
specifically choosing certain participants. Secondly, Maxwell stated that the selection of
data that “stand out” to the researcher could be a threat to validity as well (2005). In order
to prevent this type of threat from happening, the researcher used Boyatzis’s thematic
analysis as a guide when analyzing the collected data.
The threat of reactivity, which represents the influence that the researcher may
have on the participants in the study, cannot be completely eliminated. However, the
researcher addressed this threat by carefully choosing neutral words when asking
questions during the interview. The combination of a random sample, thematic analysis,
and clear neutral word choice proved to strengthen the validity of this research.
Triangulation is another strategy that can be followed to ensure validity. By
definition, triangulation is the collection of data from a distinct range of people using a
variety of methods (Maxwell, 2005). This thesis applied the triangulation strategy by
collecting data from two diverse samples. The methods used to collect the data varied
between face-to-face interviews and phone interviews. Rich data is another strategy to
enhance validity. Maxwell stated that the collection of data during interviews requires
exact transcripts of the interviews rather than notes on what the interviewer felt was
significant (2005). This study followed Maxwell’s strategy by recording the interviews
digitally and then transcribing them to text for further study. Respondent validation is an
essential way of ruling out the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what
participants say. Respondent validation is seeking feedback about the data and
conclusions from the participants (Maxwell, 2005). This thesis applied respondent
validation by presenting the results to some of the participants in order to ensure validity
and to avoid the misinterpretation of the collected data.
3.6 Researcher Credibility
The following section sheds light on the researcher’s credibility by demonstrating
the researcher’s biases, reflections, and experiences. From a personal perspective, I
consider myself to be the average social media user. I use social media a few times a
week not to communicate with others; rather I use it to keep up with certain topics.
Whenever I am interested in learning more about a topic, I would simply search for it on
Twitter and read its associated tweets to inform myself. Being a Middle Eastern woman,
it is important for me to keep myself informed about current events in the Middle East
while I am living abroad. For example, I used Twitter to read about the floods that took
place in Saudi Arabia back in 2011 as well as to keep up with the current civil war in
Syria. I discovered social media’s unprecedented power when I began using it to keep up
to date on such information that is specific to a country or a place rather than news media
that is general and broad. My interest in the use of social media in security was ignited
after reading about certain cases where people used social media to seek help or advice.
To me, social media became the easy and feasible way to ask for help in a casual and
informal setting.
I am an employee and a graduate assistant at the Purdue Homeland Security
Institute (PHSI), and so from a professional perspective, I have special interest in
emergency related applications. Social media triggered my interest early on in my studies
because of its use in the business and marketing industry. Ever since I became employed
by PHSI, I was intrigued by how social media can contribute to security, emergency
management, and public safety. I am a firm believer that social media is and should be
used in emergency situations as a tool to enhance response and recovery. I also believe
that it is a useful tool to pull information regarding emergency events.
Back in the beginning of 2012, I worked on the Super Bowl XLVI project, which
involved understanding and analyzing social media content that is pertaining to the big
game and the host city, Indianapolis. The project involved determining whether social
media analytical tools can be used in emergency management and public safety. The
project taught me that social media could be effectively applied not only in marketing but
also in the field of security, large event management, and emergency management. For
these reasons, I became interested in studying social media and situational awareness in
emergency events.
3.7 Summary
This chapter covered the research framework used in this thesis, the sampling
strategy, and the testing methodology. Moreover, it covered the interview topics, validity,
and the researcher credibility.
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS
The sample used for this study consisted of 10 volunteers whose ages ranged
between 20-31 years old, and was composed of 5 males and 5 females. The ratio of
participants that were students with jobs to those who were just students was 4:6. The
academic majors of the sample included: Computer Graphics Technology (CGT),
Computer and Information Technology (CNIT), Psychology, Public Relations,
Agricultural System Management, Economics, and Engineering. The cumulative time of
data recorded from interviews was around 265 minutes, with each interview recording
averaging around 26.5 minutes, and took around 60 to 75 minutes to transcribe.
Although the sample size was relatively small, data saturation was still achieved.
Towards the end of the data collection process, the researcher realized data saturation was
achieved when no new information was being presented by the participants. Moreover,
the researcher noticed that the interviews started following a pattern. With that said, four
major themes emerged during the interviews conducted for this study. Purdue University
associates clearly communicated their perceptions about the development of social media
as an effective communication tool, particularly during emergencies.
The following section discusses these themes individually, from most general to
most specific. Each major theme covers a wide range of topics, which are arranged based
on the frequency in which they were mentioned during the interviews. Some of these
topics include how the interviewees perceived the advantages and disadvantages social
media, the incentive that drives them to use social media during emergencies, the ways in
which they prefer to use this tool, and their expectations from emergency
officials.
4.1 Social Media: The New Communication Standard
When Purdue associates were first introduced to the topic of this study, an
emerging theme in their responses was that social media is an effective communication
tool. The participants generally agreed that social media is expected to be used on a daily
basis during social interactions. It is embedded into many electronic products, including
traditional communication technologies such as mobile phones. Using social media has
transformed our perception of communication. It has become the new standard when it
comes to social interactions. One participant described the integration of social media in
our daily lives by stating that this form of communication, “...is kind of the status quo, it
is what we do, it is what everyone does, and you do what everyone else does”
Participants of this study also agreed that social media is a convenient method of
communicating and sharing life events with loved ones. Most people are members of at
least one social networking site, which allows them to stay connected on a global scale.
It allows them to share their thoughts with the rest of the world and most importantly with
those they are close to.
“It seems like almost everyone has an account somewhere so it is good to get on
there and connect with people”
Social media allows the user to anonymously and frequently find information
communicated by others. Many of the participants mentioned that they use social media
to check on the status of their friends and family. This tool is especially useful when
participants would like to check on people that they don’t regularly interact with on a
personal level. One participant expressed the need to check social media regularly after
sharing a story about a friend, who announced her engagement on Facebook: “I need to
check Facebook all the time now, apparently this is how people post their life events and
I seem to be missing out on knowing these events because I don’t go on Facebook.”
Moreover, participants agreed that they tend to turn to social networking sites as a
resource in times of need. For instance, when considering a scenario where people lose
their phones, a few participants stated that they would “go to Twitter or Facebook, to get
someone’s number”. It has become commonplace to resort to social networking sites
when one needs to reach out to others. These sites serve as a modern age address book -
they hold phone numbers, email addresses, pictures, recent personalized news, and more.
In addition, these sites are accessible through various mediums. Losing one’s phone no
longer disables them from communicating with others, because they can access social
networking sites on many other devices such as computers, tablets, as well as other
people’s devices. The previous section discussed how social media is becoming the new
form of communication, and the next section will discuss how the participants use social
media.
4.2 Uses of Social Media
A distinct theme that emerged from the interviews was regarding the uses of social
media and how it is managed by the user. The interviews revealed that each social
networking site served a particular purpose. For instance, participants may use their
LinkedIn accounts to apply for new jobs and simultaneously use their Facebook accounts
to share jokes with high school friends.
A major factor that plays a big role in determining which SNS one may choose to
use is the virtual location of that person’s circle. If someone’s circle mainly exists on
MySpace, that particular user may choose MySpace rather than Facebook to be the main
SNS to use as a medium to communicate with friends and family. As one participant
explained:
“If nobody else was using Facebook I wouldn’t be using Facebook. That would be
useless. If everybody else was using MySpace right now then I would be using
MySpace as my main social networking website. So it all depends on what
everybody else is doing.”
The results that users obtain from using social media depends entirely on the
circle and network that they are connected to. The information that they retrieve is usually
from people they are connected to online. This information depends on who is in the
users’ network and what they think is important. However, some users may choose to
deviate from their own networks to gather information from people outside their own
circle.
The two major categories that have emerged from the data are that participants use
social media for formal and informal purposes.
4.2.1 Informal
The vibrancy of social media is most apparent when participants use this
communication tool informally. When using social media informally, users are more
willing to share personal pictures, stories, and other interests. A pattern that emerged
when reviewing the various informal uses of social media was that many social
networking sites such as Instagram, Pinterest, and Facebook were mostly used to connect
and “keep up” with friends and family. People usually choose to be members on SNSs so
that they remain updated on the happenings of the people around them. It is a more
modern, fast, and impersonal way of checking up on others, especially those that “you
don’t really call” everyday.
Most of the SNSs that were commonly used informally also happened to provide
a great medium for sharing photos. For example, Facebook, Pinterest and Instagram were
the main SNSs that are usually used informally. Whereas, Twitter, which is SNS that is
not primarily focused on image sharing, was often described by participants as a more
formal website that is usually used to look up and pull information from or to share
random thoughts with the world with no specific audience in mind.
A participant explained her point of view by expressing that, “Twitter is a little bit
different. Twitter is more like a personal blog, mini blog, where I just throw some
thoughts in there of what’s going on in my life and I also use it as a tool to post
information that I am interested in”.
4.2.2 Formal
Participants expressed that they used social media “formally” when connecting
with business partners or when they want to catch up on news that interests them. One
participant said that,
“Twitter is an awesome way to find out information in a short and quick way. I
mean most of my information I get about the world comes from Twitter”. Another
participant explained how social media is used as a tool or reminder for
maintaining strong networking connections, “... another reason I use social media
is to keep my contacts saved. There has been so many times where I would forget
a person even exists until I read their name online”.
The way in which social media is being used is evolving. Originally, informal uses
were the norm. However, today we find that many people visit social networking sites to
gather information from others who may or may not be in their close circle about a wide
range of topics ranging from information about a shooting that occurred at a campus to
information about a specific event that occurred across the world. Social media acts like
an intertwined web that enables a person to be connected to the whole world. In addition,
social networking sites serve as an open source of information that is constantly being
updated with new “Fresh” information posted by people around the globe. One
participant suggested that he goes on Twitter, “to find out information that is important to
[participant] and to find out what’s going on in the world”.
So far, the major themes that have emerged from the interviews revealed the
participants’ perceptions of social media as a communication tool in general and the
different types of interactions that occur on social networking sites (formal vs.
informal). The last two themes address perceptions regarding using social media in
emergency situations and expectations from emergency officials.
4.3 Social Media in Emergencies
The following sections will explain the developing role of social media in
emergencies. These sections will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of social
media in emergencies as perceived by Purdue associates, as well as the reasons and
methods in which social media is used in this context.
4.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Social Media in Emergencies
4.3.1.1 Advantages
The interviewed participants stressed that social media is especially appealing
because it is free, fast, and reliable. The number of people that use social media as a
source of information during emergencies is continuing to grow. Participants expressed
that they preferred using social media over traditional news outlets, because with social
media the news is quick, short, and straight to the point. Not many people have the luxury
of dedicating time to watch the news at a specific time on television time to sit down and
watch the news:
“… A lot of the time you’re on the go and don’t have time to sit down and watch
the news, so I go to Twitter and find out information quickly“
Social media allows its users to be up to date with the news while they’re on the
go. Technology embedded with social media is extremely accessible - in fact, it could
literally be in the user’s pocket. Participants in this study indicated that social media gives
them the freedom to “choose” when they want to hear and read about the ongoing news
around them:
“...You’re getting data right away at the moment without having to have a
newspaper or a news channel updating their website information,” said one
participant. With social media “you don’t have to wait. You can get that
information right away”
Moreover, using this technology is convenient and user friendly. In the words of
one of the participant, social media is “convenient” because, “almost everyone today has
access to a smartphone, so that gives them access to social media directly at any given
time”. Users can access an infinite amount of information in one place. Social networking
sites provide their users with up to date and “fresh” information right on the spot. Social
networking sites, such as Twitter, are used as a medium to get short strips of information
quickly. Many participants explained that going on social media, specifically Twitter, is
the “first step” they take to get quick information regarding an event of interest. This
medium also allows them to read a more detailed description of the story by providing
them with other options such as links to the primary source news article or website:
“Rather than going around to a bunch of these websites to try and see which one
has the latest information. Usually I just look at Twitter. And they usually have a
pretty good picture of what’s going on.” Another participant explained that using
social media during emergencies “helped make the events more transparent”.
The presence of officials and news companies on social media is an advantage to
users, because it makes the information they’re looking for more trustworthy. When users
are interested in learning more about an emergency event, they feel a lot more
comfortable and confident in the credibility of a reliable news source. Many emergency
officials, such as FEMA and the FBI, as well as large news corporations, like Fox News
and CNN, are using social media on a regular basis to reach out to the public. A recent
example that illustrates the discussed advantages of social media was when the Boston
Police announced the capture of the Boston Marathon bombing suspect:
The Boston Police tweeted that they caught the second suspect before it was even
announced on any news network, I thought that was pretty neat”
On a related note, the constant flow of information on social networking sites is a
great advantage during emergencies. Users can follow a live feed of any given
emergency and this social media technology allows them to get updates by the second.
People who have knowledge about the emergency, share what they know on social media
networks constantly, which in return feeds this constant flow of information.
Unlike traditional media, where usually only the most recent and relevant events
are discussed, social media allows the user to find information about almost anything.
The content shared on social media sites is unfiltered. It is raw information pushed by
other users from around the world. This is a key and unique characteristic of social media
that separates it from other media sources. One participant explained that she resorts to
social media to follow the most recent updates about an event:
“I know this is not an emergency, but like the whole thing with North Korea, I’m
following that,” said the participant explaining that she was “freaking out about
the potential nuclear attack”.
Another major advantage is that the user or consumer of the technology has
complete control over the information that they wish to share or receive. For example, a
user may decide to follow an account that just talks about a specific issue. This means
that this user will be extremely aware of any updates concerning that issue of interest. By
choosing whom to follow, users can pick and choose their news resources, and thereby
control the collection of information they wish to attain.
Many participants considered portability to be one of the biggest advantages of
the technology. The fact that social media can be used on any device with an Internet
connection makes it extremely valuable. Instead of being tied down to one’s living room
television set, radios, or newspaper, users can carry the news everywhere they go with
this technology. With social media embedded in cell phones and tablets, users constantly
have an infinite number of news articles, videos, pictures, and blogs at their fingertips:
“... The biggest thing is that social media is so portable, you can have social media
not only on your computer but you can have it on that small device that you
usually put in your pocket.” explained one participant. Social media allows users
to “have access to information just right there”.
Another participant explained the advantage that social media has over traditional
media outlets as follows, “Not everyone has a TV or computer in front of them to check
the news, but many people carry cellphones”.
Social media is portable, free, quick, and provides its users with an up to date
continuous flow of information. The combination of all the advantages discussed above
makes social networking sites extremely valuable to users during emergency events.
4.3.1.2 Disadvantages
Using social media during emergencies brings forth a number of concerns to the
participants interviewed. Some of the main disadvantages that they perceived include
misinformation, deception and rumors. These disadvantages harm the credibility of SNS
during emergencies and can be even considered as major threats when users are gathering
false information about a certain event.
One participant describes his concerns as follows, “... there is a lot of rumors and
a lot of misinformation and that is one big threat that I would say is for getting news
through those outlets”
Although, the portability of technology is usually considered to be one of its
advantages, it could also become a disadvantage during emergencies. Having social
media embedded in your cellphone and in your tablet can be extremely useful. However,
the dependability of social media on other technology becomes a disadvantage when
users are in an emergency situation where they are prohibited from using such devices or
if telecommunication services are disconnected and they cannot resort to social media.
One participant explained this point of view by sharing his friend’s experience during the
2013 Boston marathon bombing.
“... I heard rumors that they shut off all cell phone service there because they were
worried that that’s how the bombs were activated so I just assumed that he lost
service or his phone died, so in that case you won’t be able to actually
communicate right away because he didn’t have access to his social media
network”
In this scenario, it is painfully obvious that social media today is strongly tied to
cell phone technologies during emergencies. Therefore, social media during emergencies
is only as useful and reliable as the technology that it is tied to. Participants expressed
their concerns that our overdependence on technology would be harmful in a scenario
where they are disconnected from these devices due to connectivity or power issues.
“When I have no service, sometimes I am not able to reach my social media
tools”. Another participant continues this thought by saying “There may be a
situation where you can’t get alerts because you don’t have reception on your
phone”, and then explains that the reliability of this technology can “depend on
where you are”.
Although participants generally agreed that they usually turn to Twitter during
emergencies, they also expressed that a main disadvantage on this particular social
networking site is the 140-character limit. This limitation is a source of frustration for
tweeters during the chaotic moments of an emergency, when emotions and thoughts tend
to run wild. One of the participants expressed this frustration by saying, “...for Twitter
specifically I think it’s difficult to get the full impression”. During an emergency people
like to share details about the event that occurred, and similarly they also like to gather
detailed information from others about their experiences. However, with the character
limitation, it is difficult for users to express multiple opinions in a single tweet. Many
participants also expressed their annoyance with people that go on “rants” about the
emergency situation on social networking sites. Participants using social media during
emergencies are interested in a balanced discussion where the quantity of information
matches its quality.
In addition, emergencies sometimes push people to speak irrationally. Participants
agreed that people tend to exaggerate when they are in an emotional situation, which
makes it difficult to determine whether the information being broadcasted on social media
networks is true or not. In these kinds of situations, people might share a “… twisted
version of the truth”. This tends to make it difficult for users to express an unbiased point
of view:
“Sometimes it was hard to tell what was true and what was being exaggerated. I
guess when people are experiencing an emergency on a personal level, they get
emotional”.
Another major disadvantage was the inconsistency of credibility. Although there
are many official news sources broadcasting emergency related updates on social media,
there are also many more regular individuals with no journalism experience reporting
their version of the story. Nonetheless, social media is continuing to become a primary
news outlet for many of us, even though the news being shared by most users may not be
reliable:
“There is so much information out there, which might make it hard to filter
through you know what’s credible and what’s not”.
The previous sections discussed the advantages and disadvantages associated with
using social media during emergencies according to the perceptions of Purdue University
associates. The following sections will illustrate the purposes for using this technology
during emergencies.
4.3.2 Purposes for Using Social Media in Emergencies
4.3.2.1 Coping
Previous disaster related research claims that social interaction is a necessary part
of coping with the aftermath of a disaster (Smyth & Pennbaker, 1999). There are a
number of reasons why people choose to resort to social media during times of need. A
prominent reason that appeared during the interviews is that sharing and finding
information helps participants “cope” with the stress of the emergency (Sutton, Palen,
Shklovski, 2008). Participants specifically said that they resort to social media to “find
out what people are saying” and to help them “deal or cope” during stressful times.
“Because sometimes I like to see what other people say about the situations and it helps
me deal and cope or heal with the hard times”
Social media is a powerful tool that allows the user to connect to the whole world.
With this tool, users can reach out to others during emergencies. This allows them to
collect more information about the event and share their personal stories with people who
have experienced the same troubles. This social connection or activity helps the users
heal.
Another reason that drives people to turn to social media during emergencies is to
check on people they know who might have been affected by the event without having to
ask others or having to get in touch with them directly. A participant explains this
dynamic by referring to the night of the Boston Marathon bombing:
“It was like the whole world was connected to Twitter waiting on updates to come
from people who were close to the incident or on lockdown in the city.” Participating
in social media networks during times of need helps people construct a more collective
understanding of the event that happened. It also helps them cope with their feelings of
insecurity and uncertainty (Sutton, Palen, Shklovski, 2008).
4.3.2.2 Reaching a Large Crowd
Social media enables its users to reach out to a large crowd at once. With that said,
another reason that participants would want to use social media during emergencies is to
broadcast their personal condition to their entire circle at once. “Social networks gives
everyone a voice and people are becoming more comfortable with the idea of learning
about emergencies and sharing their experiences on these networks.”
This notion was expressed by one of the participants, who explains that if
someone is in an emergency situation such as the Boston Marathon bombing, then he or
she can use social media to their benefit by:
“.. Being able to tell everyone at once like you know I’m OK. “
Moreover, reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time is a very
attractive trait offered by social media. For instance, an individual can generate a tweet
to the people in his/her circle to warn them of roads they should avoid and advise them on
steps they need to take during an emergency. Several participants expressed that sending
messages to a large group of people is a critical purpose of using social media: “From
first-hand experience, I think being able to reach a large amount of people in a short
amount of time is one way that it’s useful”. Another participant continues this thought by
saying, “... It can get information to spread quickly and a lot of people are starting to use
it and also go to it to gain information about whatever they may be looking for.” While
another participant emphasized the global power of social media by saying, “It lets you
reach people all over the world at the same time”.
Another point brought up by a participant, is that by traditional means it is quite
difficult for one person to get on a news outlet and share their story. However, social
media breaks that barrier, and allows anyone to share their story.
“When it comes to news media, the information comes from a single person, well
so does social media, the difference is anyone can post, not everyone can get on
the news.”
4.3.2.3 Unfiltered Multiple Points of View
Another reason that motivates people to resort to social media is that it provides
the user with multiple points of view concerning a single event. The content that the user
is exposed to on social media is generated by hundreds of thousands of people, each
sharing their own experiences, opinions, and updates. Participants indicated that this is a
very powerful feature offered by social media, because it gives the users the freedom to
“draw their own conclusions”. Or, as one participant put it:
“You’re not only relying on one single source of information of a newspaper but
you’re also relying on the information coming from people who are reporting
their own experience “
Participants indicated that by going on social media they are getting the story
directly from the people who were affected by the emergency, rather than getting it from a
third party news crew. The findings from this study show that participants generally
believe that getting information from a first person point of view is more reliable than
traditional, sometimes bias, news channels. The fact that social media provides various
points of view is considered to enhance its “credibility”, and provides a less biased
overview of the emergency.
“With social networking you are getting the news directly from people involved in
an emergency” expressed one participant. Social media allows users to “to hear
multiple points of view from one source” explained a participant, stating that
traditional news outlets would provide “a single biased point of view”.
With that said, it is apparent that numbers carry authenticating power. Such that,
the more people share a particular piece of information related to the emergency on social
media, the more credible and authentic it becomes, regardless of whether it came from an
official source or not. “Even if it’s not from an official [source], it’s still reliable”,
explained one participant. While another participant pointed out that looking at posts
provided by different people, who may or may not be directly involved in the emergency,
on social media creates a sense of “authenticity”.
4.3.2.4 Guidance, Direction, and Better Understanding
The participants also liked using social media when they are looking for guidance
during emergencies. This is especially true when the user is directly affected by the
emergency. Participants shared that when they hear of an emergency on campus, they
access Twitter or Facebook to get instant updates and guidance on what they need to do
and what precautions need to be taken. For instance, one participant said: “In regards to
gunman on campus or tornado warnings, maybe tips or safety information on what you
should do at that time … might actually be kind of helpful”
“I believe it’s very important [social media]. By allowing people to receive alerts
about emergency evacuations, photos for identification of most wanted criminals,
and places for emergencies evacuations. I think it’s important to find out what is
going on and learn about evacuations and fine details I guess. I also think it’s
important to find out what’s going on in our country during emergencies”
The results from the previous section covered the purposes for resorting to social
media during emergencies. The next section describes the ways in which participants use
social media during emergencies.
4.3.3 How Social Media Is Used During Emergencies
The effectiveness of a tool highly depends on the method of its application. If a
user has access to a particular tool such as social networking websites, but does not have
the knowledge on how to navigate those websites during an emergency, then that tool
becomes useless. This section discusses how participants choose to use social media as a
communication tool during emergencies.
4.3.3.1 Type of Emergency: Personal vs. Public
The interviews clearly showed that the way in which people choose to interact
with social media greatly depends on the type of emergency that they are facing. The
researcher identified three main factors that define the type of emergency being studied:
1) The number of people affected by the emergency event, 2) The proximity of the
participant to the emergency, 3) The severity of the emergency. Table 4.1 below lists four
examples of emergencies that are composed of a unique combination of the discussed
factors.
Table 4.1:
Types of emergency
Number of
People
Proximity
Severity
Type of Emergency
Example
High
High
High
Catastrophic Public
Emergency –
Directly Affected
Shooting on the
participant’s campus
High
Low
High
Catastrophic Public
Emergency –
Indirectly Affected
Shooting on a foreign
campus
Low
High
Low
Non Catastrophic
Personal Emergency
Participant lost his/her
phone
Low
High
High
Catastrophic
Personal Emergency
Participant was diagnosed
with a disease
Catastrophic emergencies encompass events with high severity; however these
events vary depending on whether they are personal or public and whether the participant
is affected by the emergency. A personal catastrophic emergency could be the death of a
participant’s family member. A public catastrophic emergency might directly affect a
participant such as a local tornado warning, or it might be an emergency that indirectly
affects the participant such as a Tsunami in another country. Noncatastrophic personal
emergencies usually affect the participant directly and have low severity, such for
example losing a phone or being locked out of the house. The way in which participants
use social media to gather or share information depends on the type of emergency at
hand. For instance, one participant said:
“If it is too personal like if it is a death of a family member or something, then I
would not want to share it with the whole world, but maybe just a few select
family members or friends. On the other hand, if it is not too personal I would
definitely use social networking to get the message across”
Similarly, another participant said:
“If the information is too private then I would keep it off the grid because
everything that is shared on social network is public domain. So, it really depends
on what kind of matter or situation it is, for me to decide on what to share and
what not to share.”
As for gathering information regarding personal emergencies, participants were
attracted to a number of social media qualities such as its speed and the vast quantity of
information available on it.
“It would depend on like the type of emergency,” said one participant. Explaining,
“If it’s something that doesn’t affect me at all or anybody that I know directly it
probably wouldn’t matter to me how I heard about it. Whether it was in a
newspaper or on social media. But if it was something that affected me, I’d
probably try to know as much about it as possible you know, so I would resort to
social media”
And another participant said:
“If I was in a situation where I needed to contact someone but could not make a
phone call. Say if I was in Boston at the time they locked down the city I would
be posting and reading updates about what was going on in my area. It would
seem to me like the best way to get fast information.”
Moreover, another function of social media besides sharing and gathering
information is to connect with others during emergencies. People are interested in how
others are affected by the emergency, this is especially true during emergencies that
directly affect them or the people in their circle. One participant describes the way that he
communicates with others during an emergency by saying:
“Well it depends on the circumstance. The people that I’m closest to, I would call
personally you know. But there are people who I only connect to on Facebook, so
I would certainly use that in those cases.”
4.3.3.2 Pulling vs. Pushing Information
Most of the participants that were interviewed admitted that they usually pull
information from social media rather than push information during times of emergencies.
In the words of two participants, “I’m a user, not a giver” and “Usually, I’m more of a
consumer of information”. They tend to turn to social networking sites when they are
looking to learn more about an emergency. However, the responses of some participants
did indicate that there are several factors that motivate them to push information
regarding emergencies on social media. For instance, being directly connected/affected by
an emergency could be a motivating factor. One participant said that she wouldn’t tweet
about an emergency unless she was directly affected by it.
“It’s very unlikely of me to tweet about it [emergency event], unless I’m directly
affected by it”.
Participants also stated that they usually follow accounts of emergency and news
officials to ‘pull’ information about emergency events. By following these accredited
accounts, participants receive news updates on a regular basis, and they can ‘confirm’ any
related information shared by others. They can also stay updated on the latest news
regarding a given emergency by following “Hashtags”. The hashtag feature allows the
user to browse all the information being shared about a particular hashtagged topic. It
organizes the data that is being viewed and ensures that the user is reading the latest
things being said about a topic of interest.
“I try to follow the hashtags and see what people around Lafayette and West
Lafayette are saying”
Table 4.2 below summarizes the perception of users on whether they would pull
or push information during various circumstances.
Table 4.2:
Social media expectations across different types of emergency
Number
of People
Proximity
Severity
Type of
Emergency
Example
Social media
expectations
High
High
High
Catastrophic
Public
Emergency –
Directly
Affected
Shooting on the
participant’s campus
Push & Pull
Information
Table 4.2 Continued
High
Low
High
Catastrophic
Public
Emergency –
Indirectly
Affected
Shooting on a
foreign campus
Pull
information
Low
High
Low
Non
Catastrophic
Personal
Emergency
Participant lost
his/her phone
Rarely push
information
Low
High
High
Catastrophic
Personal
Emergency
Participant was
diagnosed with a
disease
Neither
4.3.3.3 Cross Checking Information
Another social media function that participants take advantage of during
emergencies is cross checking information. Social networking sites offer users a vast
amount of information from many different points of view. Participants filter through the
information they gather by cross checking its credibility with information from official
news sources. For instance, if a participant learns about a new development regarding an
emergency from a tweet on their newsfeed, that participant can cross check the validity of
that information on other official Twitter accounts such as those of CNN or Fox News.
“I am following the local newspaper and also WLFI so I find out about stuff that
are happening from both places [accounts].”
Another way that participants cross check information is by comparing it to news
shared by unofficial sources. These sources could be people from their social networking
circles or posts from other people who are talking about the emergency event. One
participant explains how he used this method to cross check information on Twitter
regarding a shooting emergency:
“[Updates from users at the scene] were being shared by other people and
everybody knew that these users were at that physical location. When Twitter
promotes this kind of thing it is amazing because you know that this information
is coming from a legit source”.
These results show that the collaboration of information online allows people to
cross check information, and in a sense find missing pieces of the puzzle. Thereby
allowing social media users to get a clearer picture of the emergency event as a whole.
The previous sections described the advantages and disadvantages, the purposes,
and the ways social media is used in emergencies. The next section illustrates the
expectations from emergency officials as well as perceptions regarding the current system
used at Purdue University.
4.4 Social Media Expectations and Perceptions
The following sections will explain the expectations that participants of this study
had in regards to the use of social media by emergency officials. It will also discuss the
perceptions that they have regarding the current alert system used by emergency officials
during emergencies.
4.4.1 Social Media Expectations from Emergency Officials
A portion of the interviews was dedicated to learning what participants expected
from emergency officials, such as the West Lafayette Police department and Campus
Security, during emergencies. Their responses indicated that they would like to see a
continuous presence of emergency officials online. Some explained, that they would like
to be able to resort to the university official Twitter account in times of need and retrieve
valuable information and guidance related to the emergency at hand. Participants also
expect officials to constantly keep their pages updated with the most recent emergency
related information. Another expectation is that participants should be able to retrieve
information from officials fast, and they “hope” that information includes some sort of
direction or instruction on what happened and what needs to be done next.
“If there’s an emergency going on what I want is to have a quick idea of what is
exactly happening right now. Just a quick look to be prepared for whatever is
happening at the moment and be able to react accordingly.”
Another participant explains a similar thought:
“I would expect emergency officials to broadcast public service announcements.
Like to warn the public or to advise them to take certain actions” Many
participants suggested that with the current used system; emergency officials take too
much time to inform people on campus of what's going on. The interviews also
showed that although all the participants are members of at least one social
networking site, they were unaware of whether university emergency officials, such as
the Purdue Police department, had an official profile on popular SNSs such as Twitter
and/or Facebook.
“I don’t know if Purdue police even has a Twitter account or a Facebook page but
if they do then that would be amazing because some people do not want calls or
emails or text messages from Purdue police but would like to communicate
through Twitter because it is more customizable.”
Although most Purdue associates are signed up to receive notifications from
Purdue Alerts, some participants indicated that using other mediums to share information
besides text messages and email would allow officials to notify a larger group of people
during emergencies. Other mediums such as social media, would help officials notify
people of the emergency occurring regardless of whether they attend Purdue or not.
Participants generally agreed that using other, non-traditional, mediums to spread
emergency alerts would add to the value and effectiveness of the existing system.
“If they just rely on the traditional things like texts or email then that’s good but I
also think that if they broaden the places where people can access what they’re
announcing then you know they could reach more people.”
On a related note, participants also suggested that officials should collaborate with
other credible channels within the community to create as many mediums as possible:
“They need to work with those instances within the community that are well
known to have a lot of followers so communication should not only flow through
their channel but also they need to work closely with those who can spread
information better for them.”
In regards to social media, one participant claims “it is necessary for them to
spread the information so people can get aware of things happening but they also need to
work through other channels to get the information spread as well” As for the
expectations of participants in regards to the content of the information shared during
emergencies, participants expressed that they would like to be able to see a “short blurb”
that quickly explains what happened. If emergency officials need to share a large amount
of information, participants indicated that including a link to the short summary would
be useful. In general, when participants are first notified of an event, a large amount of
information can be overwhelming. So, the information presented at first should be short
and to the point. However, if the event is considered a large scale emergency, then
participants would like to see instructions about what they need to do included in that
initial notification.
“A good explanation of what exactly is happening and then suggestions on what
you’re supposed to do? It doesn’t have to be lengthy just stay where you are or uh
try to look for shelter or lock your door if there’s a shooter on campus. Just things
like that”
Similarly, another participant says:
“If the emergency would particularly pertain to me, I would hope to find more
specific instructions to follow and/or procedures to take.”
The previous section explained the expectations that Purdue associates have in
regards to the use of social media by emergency officials. The next section describes the
perceptions they shared regarding the current emergency alert system being used at
Purdue.
4.4.2 Perceptions of the Current Alert System Although the study did
not consist of any questions that directly asked participants on their perceptions of the
current alert system used by Purdue emergency officials, many of them shared their
thoughts on this matter. Purdue associates typically receive email and text messaging
alerts during emergencies, however participants indicated that they still resorted to social
media to learn more about the situation from other users. The text and email alert system
is not always sufficient because not all associates are signed up to receive those alerts.
Also, participants explained that sorting through emails to find a single alert is not
convenient during an emergency. “My email inbox is usually always full of work and
school emails, so it’s hard to filter through it to find that particular email [regarding the
emergency]”
Moreover, participants also expressed that an issue with the current system is
timing. When a wide spread campus emergency occurs, there is an overwhelming number
of alerts that need to be sent out to the entire campus. This causes the recipient to
experience delays in receiving critical information.
“A big problem with the Purdue alert system is that it is slow”. Another
participant explains this issue with the following example, “When they have those
fake kidnappings, they’re like watch out for this person on campus that robbed
someone, or something like that. It takes so long, and you’re like I was just a
block away from that area, but that was two hours ago.”
4.5 Summary
This chapter presented the themes that have emerged from my thematic analysis.
Four major themes were identified related to social media in emergency situations. The
following chapter discusses implications, a sample emergency communication plan,
limitations, and direction for future research.
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the results from this study by interpreting the major themes
that were identified from the thematic analysis. This interpretation was then used to
inform campus emergency officials of the perceptions and expectations from Purdue
associates regarding social media during emergencies. In addition, it discusses
implications and provides a sample plan for emergency management communication
using social media. Finally, this study concludes by describing the limitations and
providing applicable suggestions for future studies on social media and emergency
management.
5.1 Overview
The main goal of this study was to inform Purdue emergency officials of the
perceptions and expectations that Purdue associates have regarding the use of social
media during emergencies. This study strived to guide the presence of Purdue emergency
officials on social media. It provided insights on taking advantage of this technology in an
effective manner to raise situational awareness during emergencies.
The results show that social media is used during emergencies for several reasons.
Prior to social media and SNS, the public heavily depended on television networks,
newspapers, and radio stations to retrieve information about emergencies.
However, only a lucky few have the opportunity to voice their opinions and
experiences using these traditional platforms. Today, social media has empowered the
public’s voice during emergencies. Communication between officials and the public is no
longer a one-way street, because with this medium, users can pull and push information
with others as frequently and as freely as they would like.
One of the main findings from this study, was that there are three primary factors
that influence whether social media is used during emergencies and how it is used. The
number of people affected by the emergency, the proximity of the social media user to the
emergency, and the severity of the emergency significantly impact how social media is
used. The results of this study showed that during personal catastrophic emergencies,
such as the death of a family member, users might be discouraged to use social media.
This is most likely due to privacy concerns, users would rather mourn this private loss
offline. However, on the other end of the spectrum, users that experience public
catastrophic emergencies are encouraged to use social media to express their opinions and
thoughts about the event. In addition, this particular type of emergency motivates users to
pull information from others, and collaborate with the online community to gain a better
understanding of what happened. With this knowledge, one can predict whether a user
will most likely use social media during an emergency event.
Once a user decides to use social media during emergencies, they can then chose
to pull or push information based on their specific needs. The results of this study showed
that coping is one of the needs that users’ have during and after disasters. This finding
confirms the Sutton, Palen, and Shklovski’s (2008) research on the role of social media
during the 2007 California wildfires. Social media enables emotional support by
permitting users to interact with each other in virtual communities, which in return
creates a sense of security. With this medium, users express their opinions and feelings,
share and retrieve information, as well as read other users’ experiences.
Not only does social media allow the user to acquire timely crisis information,
which is not available elsewhere, it also facilitates the retrieval of unfiltered points of
view from multiple sources. This unique characteristic of social media gives users the
power to freely investigate the emergency and generate their own opinions/ feelings
regarding the event. Moreover, the ability to reach large crowds at once was another need
that attracted users to use social media during emergencies. Traditional methods of
communication, such as phone calls, might limit a person’s ability to reach large crowds
at once. During emergencies, such limitations are considered inconvenient since it is
generally a priority to reach out to friends and family to ensure safety and receive
support.
In the event of an emergency, social media users interact with this technology in
three main ways: pulling information, pushing information, and/or cross checking
information. Although the way that social media is used may vary depending on the user’s
personality and background, this study provided a general understanding of the factors that
will drive users to pull, push, and/or cross check information on social media. Users
generally pull information from social media regardless of the levels of proximity, severity,
and the number of people affected. However, the amount of information being pulled
varies depending on these three factors. The more interested that users are in learning
about a given event, i.e. high severity, and high proximity, the more likely it is that they
will use social media to pull information about that event. In cases with low severity and
low proximity, users may still pull information, however it is unlikely that they will spend
time cross checking the information that they find. Cross checking information tends to
come into play when the outcomes of an emergency are severe because users need to
confirm the accuracy of the information they read online by comparing it with multiple
other social media sources. The results of the study also indicated that users are more
hesitant to push information when they are not directly affected by the emergency event.
However, social media users are more likely to push information about their experiences
and opinions when they have personal knowledge they would like to share with the online
community.
The results of this study indicated that the presence of officials on social media is
extremely welcomed. Users would benefit from emergency official social media accounts
because it is a single source of information that provides them with critical and credible
crisis information. By maintaining an official presence on such platforms, emergency
officials can meet the needs of online users and provide them with the necessary
information that they seek. During stressful and chaotic times, guidance, direction, and
better understanding of the emergency at hand are considered to be main expectations that
users require from emergency officials. The results of this study indicate that using social
media prompts the delivery of crisis information and tips regarding safety in timely
manner.
The findings of this study complement and confirm existing literature regarding
the user’s social media behavior during emergencies. However, this thesis also adds to
existing literature by providing insights regarding the thinking process of social media
users during emergency events. It delivered a better understanding about the perceptions,
expectations, and needs of social media users by identifying three factors that determine
the ways and the reasons for using social media during emergencies.
The following section demonstrates how the users’ specific expectations can be
applied to the online presence of emergency officials. It also provides a sample
emergency communication plan that was developed by the researcher.
5.2 Implications
According to Patton, small and purposeful samples can be generalized using five
core principles. The principle of interest to this study is, the principle of proximal
similarity, which states that applications that share similar “treatments, settings,
populations, outcomes, and times” can be generalized. With that said, although the results
from this study are specific to the Purdue University campus, these findings could still be
generalized and extrapolated to other similar environments. For instance, the findings
from this study can be extrapolated and applied by emergency officials in environments
with a similar: population size (~ 40,000), location (Midwest region in the
United States), and population age range.
The following section identifies several implications for Purdue emergency
officials that emerged from the study. It is also important to note that the findings of this
study could be beneficial to other emergency officials in similar university or high school
settings.
Many Purdue associates stated that they have no knowledge of existing Purdue
emergency officials’ online accounts, however, they expressed that the presence of
emergency officials would be beneficial. Social media is perceived as the new standard of
communication. It is one of the first mediums users resort to during emergencies. Purdue
officials should take advantage of this insight by creating and maintaining a strong
continuous presence on social media in order to communicate more effectively with the
university population. This helps maximize their efforts in preparing and preventing
emergencies from affecting people, improving safety, and spreading awareness.
The research findings showed that Twitter is the most preferred social media
platform to use during emergency situations. With that said, special attention should be
paid to this particular medium. Although the 140 character limit was raised as a concern
during interviews, continuously pushing “short blurbs” of information with a link to a
detailed article or story can overcome this issue.
By maintaining an official emergency account on social networking sites, officials
can reduce the risk of misinformation and exaggeration. This line of communication
provides users with a credible and dependable source of information, which in return
allows the users to filter out rumors and deceiving information. In regards to the content
that emergency officials should share, the users would like to be given clear direction and
regular updates about the emergency at hand. In order to increase situational awareness
and improve safety precautions, the information shared by officials should provide the
public with further guidance and instruction on how to respond/react to the emergency.
Social media can provide emergency officials with a tool to help prepare their followers
about various emergencies; it is also an opportunity to educate them about common safety
procedures and behaviors.
Moreover, the findings of this study indicate that the speed in which emergency
officials provide information precedes the importance of its absolute accuracy. During
emergencies, users resort to social media because of their need to learn more about the
situation immediately. Therefore, when emergency officials face the decision of providing
fast or absolutely accurate information, they should ultimately provide the public with
information in a timely manner. Inaccurate information can be corrected in proceeding
updates, and social media users tend to validate accuracy by cross-checking information.
Another major opportunity for emergency officials is to utilize social media in
recovery efforts. This broad platform allows emergency personnel to provide support to
those affected by an emergency by connecting them with external resources. For instance,
they could direct readers to counseling services and community support groups that
would help them cope with the emergency they experienced.
5.2.1 Social Media Emergency Communication Sample Plan The
following sections provide emergency officials with suggestions and recommendations
regarding the utilization of social media before, during, and after an emergency event.
5.2.1.1 Social Media before an Emergency Event (Planning)
• Create a social media strategy by defining objectives, target audience, content
strategy, networks, staff and training, monitoring and moderating, and measuring
success. Purdue University has a social media strategy template that can help
achieve such goals.
• Establish a large online social media presence by effectively marketing the social
media account to the desired target audience. Ensure that the online profile is
recognizable, easily searchable, and coincides with the target audiences’
expectations.
• Emergency officials should study and gain a better understanding of the social
media norms and cultures among their target audience. This allows officials to
provide them with a more effective message.
• Sustain a social media presence by maintaining an interactive and engaging online
environment. This can be achieved by requesting feedback, sharing other users’
content, and posting information in various formats. To maintain this presence,
the social media account should generate up to date posts, be monitored
frequently, and quickly responds to users’ questions and concerns.
• Educate the public of precautions and preparedness efforts regarding a variety of
probable emergencies.
• Generate preformatted warning notification messages for use by the dispatch
personnel responsible for spreading social media content (Appendix F).
5.2.1.2 Social Media during an Emergency (Response)
• Ensure and maintain WI-FI accessibility throughout campus so that the target
audience can receive important information and to reach the largest amount of
population possible.
• By referring to Table 4.1, emergency officials can better respond to emergencies
depending on the type of situation at hand. For instance, participants indicated
that they are likely to resort to social media to pull information during
catastrophic emergencies that directly affects them, so officials should focus on
frequently pushing information during those situations.
• Immediately provide the public with an official statement of the emergency at
hand. The retrieval of accurate information might be time consuming, and so in
those instances, emergency officials should still provide the public with quick
instant information and frequent updates and corrections when necessary.
• Commit to a continuous presence on the social media account by frequently
providing followers with updates as they come or informing them that facts are
still being confirmed.
• Provide users with tips that will instruct, guide, and direct them to safety. By
using social media features, such as the hashtag, emergency officials can ensure
that their message travels across many users and platforms.
• Monitor posts regarding the emergency, and correct rumors/misinformation when
necessary.
• Collaborate with other organizations and resources within the community, to
reach a larger crowd. For instance, the Purdue Police could retweet an official
statement from the Lafayette Police Department, to ensure that their followers are
also aware of this particular message.
• Encourage followers to spread your message to their friends and followers, buy
using a sign-off phrase such as ‘Please RT (retweet)’.
• Use software tools that help sort and organize posts regarding the emergency. For
instance, HootSuite is a tool that is designed to integrate posts across multiple
social media platforms, as well as track and organize real time posts regarding a
given emergency. This can help reduce the time that personnel spend searching
and disseminating information.
5.2.1.3 Social Media after an Emergency (Recovery)
• Educate the target audience about ways in which they can improve their response
to similar emergencies in the future.
• Use social media analytics, such as Radian6, to understand how the public reacted
to the emergency and their social media presence.
• Inform the public of various support resources that can help them heal after the
occurrence of an emergency.
5.3 Limitations
While this study attempted to gain a better understanding of the expectations and
perceptions that Purdue associates have in regards to using social media in emergencies,
the small sample selected for this study might not capture all the perceptions and
expectations of all the university associates. Moreover, the results found in this study
might not necessarily translate to other universities. It is also important to note that this
study did not collect data from any emergency officials at Purdue; thus, the perceptions
and expectations are only from the perspectives of the students. Although this research
planned on collecting data from Purdue University associates, including students, staff
and faculty, unfortunately, the volunteering sample did not include any faculty members.
Thus, this thesis was limited to understanding the perceptions and expectations of
students in a certain age group ranging from 20-32 years old. In addition, this study
collected data about emergencies in general, as the participants perceived them. Finally,
this study did not focus on a specific emergency that occurred.
5.4 Conclusion
This study’s goal was to gain a better understanding of the expectations and
perceptions that Purdue associates have regarding the use of social media as it relates to
emergencies. The set of interviews conducted in this study provided several insights into
the research question as well as direct implications for Purdue emergency officials who
seek to utilize social media during emergencies. Users are attracted to social media during
emergencies because it allows them to cope and heal by connecting with online
communities, cross check information from multiple sources, and reach large crowds.
The results of this study show that the presence of emergency officials on social media is
encouraged. This media platform would provide users with a credible source of
information that helps guide, instruct, and support them during emergencies.
5.5 Future Research
There is an opportunity for future research to explore the differences between
social networking sites during emergencies in more detail. Although, this study touched
on the preferred medium used during emergencies, much more research is needed to
justify this preference. Additionally, analyzing the perceptions and expectations with
other qualitative or quantitative methods could deliver emergency officials with new
perspectives and different insights on this subject. There is also an opportunity to explore
the use of social media analytics as a tool to gain a better understanding of the presence of
officials on social media as well as the public’s behavior during emergencies.
PERCEPTIONS AND EXPECTATIONS ABOUT THE USE OF SOCIAL MEDIA
TO RAISE SITUATIONAL AWARENESS IN EMERGENCY EVENTS
CHAPTER 1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Social media was traditionally used as a platform to communicate with others,
share ideas in digital format, and in essence socialize online. With the rapid growth of
technology during the last decade, the potential uses of social media have transformed.
Social media today is used by numerous industries; it has an impact on the spread of
education, business marketing strategies, and even national security during emergencies.
Studying the use of social media by the general public during emergency events allows
emergency officials to gain a better understanding of the public’s perceptions and
expectations, and thereby allows officials to raise situational awareness and broaden their
contribution to preparedness efforts.
The following chapter provides an overview of this thesis starting with the
research question. It also provides the scope of the research, the research’s significance,
and key definitions vital to this research. In addition, this chapter will discuss the
assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the research.
1.2 Research Question
This research aimed to explore the potential effect of using social media during
emergencies. It mainly focuses on gaining a better understanding of the needs and
expectations of social media users during emergency events. The research question that
was explored is: What expectations and perceptions do Purdue University associates have
regarding the use of social media during emergencies?
1.3 Scope
This research focuses mainly on emergencies, social media, and the users of social
media. In this research no specific natural or manmade emergencies were studied.
However, perceptions and expectation regarding social media usage was explored with
respect to the users’ expectations and needs. The scope of social media in this thesis was
limited to Social Networking Sites (SNS).
To gain a better understanding of how social media is being used in emergencies,
social media users were selected to get a more personal perspective on what the users’
motivations are. However, this thesis did not explore nor analyze what the user said on
social media. Even though this research did not tap into the different cases of emergency,
it provided a general idea of the role of social media in some scenarios. Much of the
previous examined literature provided evidence that social media has become popular
during emergencies. This thesis provided insights on the personal reasons that make
people use social media during emergencies, whether it’s for raising awareness, getting
information, or connecting with family and significant others.
1.4 Significance
This research is significant due to the overwhelming growth of social media in the
past decade. Social media became a part of our daily lives and is used multiple times a
day. It is important for emergency officials as well as other authorities such as campus
security personnel, to have a better understanding regarding the use of social media by
the public. This research helped provide insights that can prepare and prevent
emergencies from affecting people if used appropriately. Moreover, this research provides
the emergency managers with the perspectives and needs of Purdue University associates
regarding the use of social media during emergency events. This knowledge can shed
some light on what should be done to make social media effective in time of need to raise
situational awareness.
1.5 Definitions
Crisis Informatics - “an emerging research area that studies how information and
communication technology (ICT) is used in emergency response” (Anderson &
Scharm, 2011, p. 844)
Emergency event – “Any event requiring increased coordination or response beyond the
routine in order to save lives, protect property, protect the public health and safety,
or lessen or avert the threat of a disaster” (Blanchard, 2008, p. 340).
Pull technologies - pulling and grabbing information from the Internet. (Kendall &
Kendall, 1999, p. 4).
Purdue University associates – Persons that are linked to Purdue University (e.g. students,
staff, and faculty).
Push technologies - describes “anything from Webcasting to selective content delivery
using sophisticated evolutionary filtering.” (Kendall & Kendall, 1999).
Social Media – “a group of internet-based applications that build on the ideological and
technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the creation and exchange of
user- generated content” (Kaplan & Haenlein,2010, p. 61).
Social Networking Site (SNS) – “web-based services that allow individuals to (1)
construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a
list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse
their list of connections and those made by others within the system” (Boyd &
Ellison, 2007, p. 211).
1.6 Assumptions
The assumptions for this project include:
• Participants interviewed are honest when answering questions and/or when giving
background information about their history and experience.
• Participants are expected to recall their online contributions and their reasoning
behind them.
• The number of participants selected to be interviewed was adequate to elicit the
number of responses to facilitate this study.
• The use of a qualitative (interviewing) approach was appropriate to elicit the type
of responses necessary to answer the research question.
• Data gathered from the interviews is expected to be related to the topic of interest.
• Interviewed participants used a social networking site during an emergency.
1.7 Limitations
The limitations for this project include:
• Data was gathered from interviews only.
• Interviews were conducted via phone if necessary.
• The interviews were structured.
• Each interview lasted 30 - 45 minutes.
• The selected sample of interview participants is limited to Purdue University
associates.
• The data gathered was interpreted following a thematic analysis.
1.8 Delimitations
The delimitations for this project include:
• This thesis did not investigate data relative to any specific disaster or emergency
event.
• This thesis did not analyze any of the data collected statistically.
• This thesis did not interview non-Purdue staff and students.
• Interview participants were limited to Purdue University associates available at
West Lafayette academic campus.
• This thesis did not include people that do not use social media.
• This thesis did not ask about messages and/or emails.
1.9 Summary
This chapter presented the research question that was explored in this thesis. In
addition, it covered the research scope, significance, crucial definitions, assumptions,
limitations, and delimitations.
CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides an overview of previous literature that studied the role of
social media in emergency management. The purpose of this chapter is to develop a better
understanding of the themes that emerge in past literature on the utilization of social
media in emergency situations. It also presents a rational argument for the necessity of
this particular thesis.
2.1 General Overview
Social media is a necessary tool used in the modern world. Over the past decade,
the use of the Internet has grown by 528.1% with 360,985,492 users from around the
world (“Internet usage statistics”, 2011). Advancement in technology over the past
century has completely transformed the way people communicate with each other. The
services provided by social media have made it possible to connect people that share
interests and activities across political, economic, and geographical borders with a click
of a button.
Social media can be simply defined as a “group of internet-based applications that
build on the ideological and technological foundations of Web 2.0, and that allow the
creation and exchange of user- generated content” (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010, p. 61).
Social media comes in various forms such as, virtual gaming worlds, blogs,
virtual social worlds, and most importantly, Social Networking Sites (SNSs).
Social networking sites are defined as “ web-based services that allow individuals
to (1) construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, (2) articulate a
list of other users with whom they share a connection, and (3) view and traverse their list
of connections and those made by others within the system” (Boyd & Ellison, 2007,
p.211).
2.2 Social Media’s Various Applications
Due to its overwhelming popularity amongst Internet users, social media has been
implemented in and adopted by many fields and areas. Previous literature provides
evidence that social media has been implemented in higher education (Junco, Heibergert,
& Loken, 2010; Selwyn, 2011), healthcare (Hawn, 2009), as well as the marketing and
advertising industries to reach a large number of audiences (Baruh, 2010; Syed Ahmad &
Murphy, 2010). When it comes to the role of social media in emergency information
distribution, news networks have resorted to social media, especially during disaster-
related incidents, to find witnesses online and talk to them about their story leads. (Palen,
Vieweg, Sutton, Liu, & Hughes, 2007). Moreover, the social photo-sharing website
‘Flickr’ is used by Yahoo News, KPBS, and News 8 to share eyewitness photos of
emergency events instantaneously with their viewers (Liu, Palen, Sutton, Hughes, &
Vieweg, 2008). The following paragraph demonstrates the power of social media for self-
organizing groups.
Social media and specifically social networking sites illustrated their
unprecedented power when Egyptians used them in 2011 to organize and coordinate their
protests against their president. They were also used as an outlet to tell the world what
was going on in Egypt at the time (Sangani, 2011). In addition, social networking sites are
used by many groups of people to create flash mobs as well as organize and raise
awareness of other various social, political, and educational events. The previous section
described the numerous applications of social media in general, including its use in
different fields and specifically security related situations.
2.3 Social Media & Security
Lately, social media sparked the interest of officials within the field of security. The
Federal Emergency Management Agency, FEMA, adopted social media to distribute
information and to receive feedback from the users via wall posts, incoming messages, and
polls (Lindsay, 2011). By definition, an emergency event is “Any event requiring increased
coordination or response beyond the routine in order to save lives, protect property, protect
the public health and safety, or lessen or avert the threat of a disaster”
(Blanchard, 2008).
2.3.1 Social Media & Emergency Management The following
sections discuss the use of social media in emergency management, including the use of
social media the public in emergency events, the use of social media by emergency
management organizations, and the advantages and disadvantages of social media.
2.3.1.1 Public Uses of Social Media in Emergency Events
This section describes previous literature that demonstrates how social media is
used by the public in emergency situations. Due to the generality of news media
broadcast during the Southern California Wildfires, people used social media to pull
critical local information that affected them personally and kept themselves updated
(Palen, 2008). The existing body of literature illustrates the public’s growing
embracement of social networking sites and the big role it plays in peoples’ daily lives.
The social networking site, Twitter, has shown noticeable spikes in usage during
emergency events, which makes it an exceptionally effective and fast response tool (Li &
Rao, 2010; Hughes & Palen, 2009).
Heverin and Zach’s research examined how the public used Twitter after a violent
shooting of police officers in 2009. They found that the majority of the tweets collected in
the aftermath were either information-related or opinion related, at 79% and 16.8%
respectively (Haverin & Zach, 2010). This thesis will continue to build a general
understanding of how social media users utilize these tools during emergencies and what
expectation and needs they have when using it.
Different members of the public are driven by different reasons when resorting to
social media during a crisis. Some reasons that the public might need to resort to social
networking sites is so they can provide or seek support during emergencies, to identify
victims, and to gain a better understanding of the event (Palen, Vieweg, Liu, & Hughes,
2009). According to Palen, emergency management practice and policy is continuously
affected by the public’s use of social media (2008). Many researchers looked into how
social media was used in emergency events varying from the Virginia Tech shootings to
natural disasters such as the southern California fires and destructive hurricanes.
During the 2007 Virginia Tech shootings, most of the students relied on text
messaging and instant messaging on social media websites such as Facebook, to ensure
the safety of their friends. After news outlets confirmed that 32 civilians were killed,
people all over the world began following the Virginia Tech story online via social media
websites (Palen, 2008). A study done by Palen and colleagues about the VT shooting
showed that social media overpowered regular media when the names of the victims were
gathered and posted on Wikipedia by the efforts of family members and other students on
campus. The list of names was posted a few hours before the university released an
official list. One of the main concerns related to information found on social media sites
is the reliability and integrity of that information. However, the research done by Palen
and her colleague’s claim that social media users have a sense of responsibility when
distributing crucially important information online. In fact, the Virginia Tech study shows
that the group of citizen-generated victims lists generated after the shooting were never
incorrect. Every name added to those lists was a life lost, and so information posted on
those sites was verified and critiqued by informed users to ensure accuracy (Palen,
Vieweg, Sutton, Liu, & Hughes, 2007; Palen, 2008).
Moreover, when the Southern California fires in 2007 broke out, people in the
affected region used social media to develop a better understanding of what was
happening and to cope with stress. Sutton and colleagues (2008) conducted study asked
participants about their “ICT use for keeping in touch with others during the wildfires;
evacuation experiences; information seeking for fire-related issues; and volunteering of
time, goods or services, including on-line participation and information generation”.
Research had shown that those affected by the fires found that the traditional media and
official communications were somewhat problematic because they were not
instantaneously updated, or were not specific to their area. These problems are generally
overcome when information is shared using social media tools (Sutton, Palen,&
Shklovski, 2008). The significance of social networking sites was demonstrated back in
2008 when the Sichuan earthquake hit China. Many people resorted to using Twitter as a
source of instant information and communication after the phone lines were heavily
damaged (Li & Rao, 2010). Although questions about the crisis experience and the use of
social media during the emergency situation have been asked and answered, questions
regarding the user expectations and needs when using social media haven't been asked
nor answered yet. Current research aims to answer such questions in order to provide a
better understanding of the users’ needs, perceptions, and expectations. In addition to
analyzing the use of social media by the public in emergencies, it is important to note its
use by emergency management organizations, which will be discussed in the following
section.
2.3.1.2 Emergency Organization’s Use of Social Media
Due to the public’s embracement of social media, it has become essential for
emergency management organizations to integrate and implement social media. Some of
the past literature has been dedicated to examining how emergency management
organizations have adopted social media in their line of work. For example, Latonero and
Schklovski’s (2010) research studied how public information officers of the Los Angeles
Fire Department utilized social media, and Twitter most specifically, to their advantage.
The following excerpt from their research shows an online interaction between a Twitter
user and an LAFD officer:
“@faboomama: “Hot liquid burn like fire. Just burnt the crap out of both hands
with 250 degree oil. PAIN,” 2:08 PM Sep 22
@LAFDtalk posts this public response: “@faboomama Please continue to cool
your burned hands in water (no ice!) For at least 15 minutes. No home remedies,
seek MD or 911 if doubt” 2:11 PM Sep 22nd” (p.6)
The LAFD officer responded to the Twitter user’s cry for help in just three
minutes. This level of interaction between an emergency official and a public citizen is
unimaginable using traditional forms of media. On one hand, this advancement in
communication creates a sense of trust and community between the public and
government officials. However, this enhanced sense of community could also push
tweeters to develop an unrealistic expectation that similar immediate responses are
always possible. Brian Humphrey, a LAFD Public Information Officer, suggests that
using traditional forms of media to communicate with the public can become
overwhelming when he posts the following tweet:
@BrianHumphrey: “270 voice mails and 2000+ non-spam emails expecting a
reply. Dunno how or when I'll get back to you all.” 6:47 AM Sep 28th. (p.6) This
is also applicable to responses on social media due to time limitations; it is very
difficult to respond with such vigilance and provide tweeters with constant 24
hours of individual attention every day. However, social media can be an
effective tool when communicating a public response (Latonero & Schklovski,
2010). The previous segment talked about social media’s usage by emergency
management organization, the following section discusses the pros and cons of
social media use in emergency management.
2.3.2 Advantages & Disadvantages of Social Media in Emergency Management
Like any other technology, social media has its own advantages and
disadvantages, especially when it comes to implementing it in the field of security and
emergency management. The reliability and effectiveness of social media is especially
important when the safety of peoples’ lives is at stake. Social networking sites such as,
Twitter, Facebook, MySpace, etc. are becoming popular information sharing channels
among the public. The main advantage of adopting such technologies is their ability to
notify a massive amount of people of an emergency within a short span of time. Recently
social media has been increasingly adopted by some facilities as a tool in emergency
situations, and consequently helped managers notify employees of evacuations plans and
preparedness efforts by posting videos on social media platforms
(Millàn, 2012).
While this technology is growing in popularity every day, unfortunately
miscommunication is a very common issue that arises during emergency events due to the
fear and uncertainty of those involved (Lemyre, Gibson, Zlepnig, Meyer-Macleod, &
Boutette, 2009). Despite the uncertainties that arise while communicating emergencies
via social media, it has proven to be an effective tool in many circumstances. This was
apparent after a Facebook user contacted 911 dispatchers after reading a cry for help from
a fellow gamer who suffered from Muscular Dystrophy and could not physically report a
fire that had ignited in his own home. Although the call came from across the country,
firefighters attended to the emergency immediately and managed to rescue the man from
the fires (Kim & Graham, 2012). This has triggered the interest of many researchers, and
has inspired many studies to be done regarding communication during emergency events.
According to a survey done by the American Red Cross, 44% of people that could not
contact 911 resorted to using social media to alert rescue teams (Kim & Graham, 2012).
This thesis sets itself apart from past research because it investigates the users
expectations and needs of social media and how those expectations measure up to the
implementation of social media by emergency officials.
According to Merchant, Elmer, and Lurie (2011), integrating social networking
sites into preparedness activities for emergencies can help build community resilience,
making it easier for both professional responders as well as the public to use these social
media tools in an emergency. Social networking sites can contribute greatly in raising
awareness regarding emergency events. A study done by Vieweg and colleagues provided
evidence that the social networking site, Twitter, helped raise situational awareness
regarding emergency events. By analyzing Twitter communications, the authors found
that people tried to raise awareness during emergencies by providing information
regarding geographical locations and situational updates about the emergency event
(Vieweg, Hughes, Starbird, & Palen, 2010). Another study done by Verma and colleagues
used a classifier system, which identified the existence of situational awareness content
by categorizing tweets. The study found that more than 75% of tweets regarding the
Oklahoma fire and Red River floods included information about situational awareness
(Verma, at al., 2011). A case study done by Aljohani,
Alahmari, and Aseere highlighted the importance of social networking sites during the
Saudi Arabian Floods that occurred in 2011, showing that the hashtag feature on Twitter
can collaborate the thoughts of many Twitter users during an emergency. Concluding that,
the accuracy of information associated with a hashtag tended to increase as more users
became involved in using that particular hashtag (Aljohani, Alahmari, & Aseere, 2011).
The previous section demonstrated the various advantages and disadvantages that are
associated with the use of social media in emergency events. The next section highlights
the role of Crisis Informatics and crisis communication, in addition to the communication
process when using social media in emergencies, including the process of obtaining
emergency related information.
2.4 Crisis Communication & Crisis Informatics
2.4.1 Pull & Push Communication Processes
Generally, there are two methods for obtaining emergency information; users can
either actively seek a source and ‘pull’ information from it or they can receive
information via ‘push’ notifications. Both methods allow users to work in meaningful
ways with information on the Web (Paul, Reddy, Abraham & DeFlitch, 2008). For
example, when users are sent an e-mail containing information regarding an emergency
event, it is considered to be a ‘push’ notification. According to Paul and colleagues, when
‘pulling’ information, the quality and timeliness of the information depends on the user’s
personal motivation (2008). However, when the information is ‘pushed’ to users by
credible sources such as, emergency officials, it’s usually more accurate (Paul, Reddy,
Abraham & DeFlitch, 2008). Each method has its own advantages and downfalls. Pulling
information using social media can be beneficial when a person needs the information
instantaneously and regarding a specific location. On the other hand, ‘push’ notifications
could be beneficial if the timeliness of information delivery is a priority. This type of
notification can target particular individuals and thus deliver information to people who
actually need it (Kendall & Kendall, 1999). The previous section explained the different
processes involved in obtaining emergency related information. The next sections talks
about Crisis Informatics and crisis communication.
2.4.2 Crisis Informatics
Due to its continuously evolving nature, social media is changing the pathway of
sharing emergency information. Crisis informatics spreads consideration of emergency
communication to include official responders as well as members of the general public
(Palen, Vieweg, Liu, & Hughes, 2009). Crisis informatics is a research field that studies
the flow of information during disasters (Hughes & Palen, 2009). Past research has
shown that information regarding an emergency on Twitter ‘spikes’ when the event takes
place and that many people resort to social networking sites to seek information that
complements what they had received from the officials (Starbird, & Stamberger,
2010).
2.4.3 Crisis Communication
Crisis communication is a crucial part of a public relations (PR) practitioners’ job.
The purpose of conducting crisis communication is to effectively manage the public’s
perception of a crisis and strategically minimize the amount of harm incurred. By
providing the general public and affected groups with basic information regarding the
crisis, officials can reduce uncertainty and thereby allow the public to make educated
decisions (Reynolds & Seeger, 2005). A possible public relations model that can be used
to better manage crisis communication is the RPIE model, which consists of the
following four steps: research, planning, implementation, and evaluation (Reid &
Breakell, 2004). One of the most common challenges that must be overcome when
communicating a crisis is keeping the audiences’ emotions under control. The goal of risk
communication is to increase the concern of an apathetic audience and reduce the outrage
of an audience that is irrationally fearful or angry (Sandman, 2002). The transition of
emergency communication from traditional methods to social media based methods make
it especially important that researchers improve their understanding of: 1) how these
communications occur in the first place,2)what motivates the user to resort to social
media to seek information, and 3) the technology’s advantages and limitations.
2.5 Summary
Various concepts have been explored in the past to examine the role of social
media during emergencies. Previous researchers investigated social media in relation to
emergencies to gain a better understanding of social media and emergency management
focusing on finding patterns for the types of “tweets” or posts being shared during an
emergency. However, while most researchers focused on the overall impact of social
media during emergency situations, most of them neglected the specific needs and
expectations that are experienced by users. Individuals have a variety of needs and
expectations while using social media, and so this research paper focused on gaining a
better understanding of what motivates people to use social media and what their
expectations and needs are when they resort to social networking sites to share and pull
information regarding emergencies. This chapter provided an overview of related
literature and served as a legal case for the significance and the purpose of the study.
CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY
This chapter covers the research framework, sampling, methodology, interview
topics, validity, and the researcher credibility. It provides an overview and an explanation
of the methods that were used in this research.
3.1 Research Framework
This study looked into the effect that social media has on raising awareness during
emergencies. This thesis specifically focused on researching and understanding the
expectations and needs of Purdue University associates regarding the use of social media
during emergency events. Although there are many studies that have measured this aspect
quantitatively, this research followed a qualitative approach. Using this approach allowed
the researcher to answer social questions that may be too complicated to solve
quantitatively. During an emergency, emotions tend to run high and so it becomes very
difficult to quantify the research participants’ thought process. Therefore, this thesis
followed the steps of previous literature that demonstrated the power of qualitative
approaches when it comes to disaster related research such as, Palen and colleagues
whom used a qualitative approach to collect data for their study by interviewing people
(Palen, Vieweg, et. al, 2007).
This thesis followed a structured approach, which allowed the researcher to ensure
the comparability of data across individuals, time, and settings, and as a result was useful
in answering various questions (Maxwell, 2005). In order to understand the role of social
media usage in emergencies and to collect data, a group of Purdue
University associates (students, faculty, and staff) were interviewed. This thesis imitated
Boyatzis’s three-step process in conducting a thematic analysis. The three steps are as
follow: 1) Deciding on sampling and design issues. 2) Developing themes and a code. 3)
Validating and using the code (Boyatzis,1998). Observing repeating patterns that emerged
from the collected data allowed the researcher to develop themes and codes to better
understand the topic being studied. A thematic analysis was a valuable part of this thesis;
it helped organize, describe, analyze and interpret the data collected regarding the
perceptions and expectations that social media users have during emergencies. A
description of the sampling process is explained in the following section.
3.2 Sampling
Interviews were conducted to better understand why people refer to social media
during emergency events and to gain a better understanding of their needs, perceptions,
and expectations regarding social media usage in emergencies. The conducted interviews
followed a structured due to the nature of the interview topics, which seek to gather
information regarding personal experiences that may differ from one person to the other.
Homogeneous and criterion sampling were the primary sampling strategies used in this
study. Homogenous sampling was used because the sample of participants had to describe
some particular subgroups in depth (Patton, 2002). Criterion sampling was appropriate
because participants had to meet certain predetermined criterions of importance. This
type of sampling was used as a strategy in “quality assurance efforts” (Patton, 2002). This
study was based on two samples of participants: a student sample, which will include
undergraduate and graduate students; and a staff and faculty sample. Participants in both
samples had to meet a number of conditions to be included in the study. They had to be
members in one or more social networking sites and they must use it at least three times a
week. Moreover, participants must have used social networking sites during an occasion
that is considered an “emergency” to the user.
Selecting an appropriate sample is crucial because it influences the themes
generated in the thematic analysis. In order to find a sample that meets the criterions of
this study, flyers were distributed on campus asking for Purdue University associates to
participate in the study (Appendix A). A portion of these flyers were displayed at focal
points on campus, while others were given to random individuals. Since this thesis has
two samples, the flyers were accessible to both students as well as Faculty and staff at
Purdue University. The flyer included the study’s title and a short message asking for
participants as well as a QR code that linked them to the qualtrics survey (Appendix B),
which helped determine whether a participant is eligible to participate in the study. The
flyer also included cut out that contain a link to the qualtrics survey.
Once participants expressed their interest to be part of this study by taking the
qualtrics survey and meeting the criterions of this study, they were contacted to schedule
a date to conduct the interview. It is important to note that qualitative research is more
concerned with the quality of information rather than the number of information per se
(Sandelowski, 1995). The size of the sample was guided by data saturation. Data
saturation refers to the point during data collection when the data becomes repetitive and
no new information is obtained (Pitney & Parker, 2009).
3.3 Methodology
This study focused on interviewing as a methodology to collect data. This
particular methodology was used following the steps of similar studies that focused on
getting student perceptions regarding a range of different topics such as campus safety
and the effects of campus shootings on graduate students (Ratti, 2010; Rutherford &
DeVaney, 2008). Also, a study done by Sutton, Palen, and Shklovski on the use of social
media during disaster events used interviewing amongst other qualitative methods to get a
better understanding of how people used social media to communicate during and after
the wildfires in Southern California (2008).
Based on the participant’s preference, interviews varied between phone interviews
and face-to-face interviews, using a set of predetermined questions (Berg, 2009).
Questions were asked regarding the use of social media during an event that is considered
an emergency to the interviewee. This differed among interviewees, whereas one person
may consider a thunder storm an emergency, others may not. This lead to better
understanding the motivations behind using social media during the emergency event as
well as the user’s perceptions and expectations when using social media. Granted
participant consent, each interview was recorded using a simple audio recorder. Doing so
facilitated data retrieval in later stages for future analysis as well as helped the researcher
focus more on the interviewee and his/her responses.
3.4 Interview Topics
The interview topics in this thesis guided the participants of the study in
communicating their perceptions and expectations of social media during emergencies.
First, general questions were asked regarding the participant’s age, and whether they met
the required criteria to conduct the study. Next a series of interview questions relevant to
the research were asked, they started very broadly and then narrowed down to focus on
the applications of social media usage in emergencies specifically. The topics that were
discussed touch up on the individuals’ expectations from social media, what motivates
them to resort to social media, as well as what their needs are when it comes to social
media. By using these topics as a foundation for the interview, the researcher developed
an effective thematic analysis on the needs and expectations of social media users in
general and how they differ during emergency events.
3.5 Validity
Validity influences the integrity and accuracy of a study, making it a common
concern for researchers. With that said, the study conducted in this thesis attempted to
control every possible factor that may threaten the research.
According to Maxwell, two types of validity threats that must be controlled are
researcher bias and reactivity (2005). The researcher bias involves two aspects that can be
considered threats to validity. First, choosing a sample that will fit the theories or
presumptions that the researcher has about the research (Maxwell, 2005). This thesis
aimed to avoid such threat by choosing a sample from a large population rather than
specifically choosing certain participants. Secondly, Maxwell stated that the selection of
data that “stand out” to the researcher could be a threat to validity as well (2005). In order
to prevent this type of threat from happening, the researcher used Boyatzis’s thematic
analysis as a guide when analyzing the collected data.
The threat of reactivity, which represents the influence that the researcher may
have on the participants in the study, cannot be completely eliminated. However, the
researcher addressed this threat by carefully choosing neutral words when asking
questions during the interview. The combination of a random sample, thematic analysis,
and clear neutral word choice proved to strengthen the validity of this research.
Triangulation is another strategy that can be followed to ensure validity. By
definition, triangulation is the collection of data from a distinct range of people using a
variety of methods (Maxwell, 2005). This thesis applied the triangulation strategy by
collecting data from two diverse samples. The methods used to collect the data varied
between face-to-face interviews and phone interviews. Rich data is another strategy to
enhance validity. Maxwell stated that the collection of data during interviews requires
exact transcripts of the interviews rather than notes on what the interviewer felt was
significant (2005). This study followed Maxwell’s strategy by recording the interviews
digitally and then transcribing them to text for further study. Respondent validation is an
essential way of ruling out the possibility of misinterpreting the meaning of what
participants say. Respondent validation is seeking feedback about the data and
conclusions from the participants (Maxwell, 2005). This thesis applied respondent
validation by presenting the results to some of the participants in order to ensure validity
and to avoid the misinterpretation of the collected data.
3.6 Researcher Credibility
The following section sheds light on the researcher’s credibility by demonstrating
the researcher’s biases, reflections, and experiences. From a personal perspective, I
consider myself to be the average social media user. I use social media a few times a
week not to communicate with others; rather I use it to keep up with certain topics.
Whenever I am interested in learning more about a topic, I would simply search for it on
Twitter and read its associated tweets to inform myself. Being a Middle Eastern woman,
it is important for me to keep myself informed about current events in the Middle East
while I am living abroad. For example, I used Twitter to read about the floods that took
place in Saudi Arabia back in 2011 as well as to keep up with the current civil war in
Syria. I discovered social media’s unprecedented power when I began using it to keep up
to date on such information that is specific to a country or a place rather than news media
that is general and broad. My interest in the use of social media in security was ignited
after reading about certain cases where people used social media to seek help or advice.
To me, social media became the easy and feasible way to ask for help in a casual and
informal setting.
I am an employee and a graduate assistant at the Purdue Homeland Security
Institute (PHSI), and so from a professional perspective, I have special interest in
emergency related applications. Social media triggered my interest early on in my studies
because of its use in the business and marketing industry. Ever since I became employed
by PHSI, I was intrigued by how social media can contribute to security, emergency
management, and public safety. I am a firm believer that social media is and should be
used in emergency situations as a tool to enhance response and recovery. I also believe
that it is a useful tool to pull information regarding emergency events.
Back in the beginning of 2012, I worked on the Super Bowl XLVI project, which
involved understanding and analyzing social media content that is pertaining to the big
game and the host city, Indianapolis. The project involved determining whether social
media analytical tools can be used in emergency management and public safety. The
project taught me that social media could be effectively applied not only in marketing but
also in the field of security, large event management, and emergency management. For
these reasons, I became interested in studying social media and situational awareness in
emergency events.
3.7 Summary
This chapter covered the research framework used in this thesis, the sampling
strategy, and the testing methodology. Moreover, it covered the interview topics, validity,
and the researcher credibility.
CHAPTER 4. RESULTS
The sample used for this study consisted of 10 volunteers whose ages ranged
between 20-31 years old, and was composed of 5 males and 5 females. The ratio of
participants that were students with jobs to those who were just students was 4:6. The
academic majors of the sample included: Computer Graphics Technology (CGT),
Computer and Information Technology (CNIT), Psychology, Public Relations,
Agricultural System Management, Economics, and Engineering. The cumulative time of
data recorded from interviews was around 265 minutes, with each interview recording
averaging around 26.5 minutes, and took around 60 to 75 minutes to transcribe.
Although the sample size was relatively small, data saturation was still achieved.
Towards the end of the data collection process, the researcher realized data saturation was
achieved when no new information was being presented by the participants. Moreover,
the researcher noticed that the interviews started following a pattern. With that said, four
major themes emerged during the interviews conducted for this study. Purdue University
associates clearly communicated their perceptions about the development of social media
as an effective communication tool, particularly during emergencies.
The following section discusses these themes individually, from most general to
most specific. Each major theme covers a wide range of topics, which are arranged based
on the frequency in which they were mentioned during the interviews. Some of these
topics include how the interviewees perceived the advantages and disadvantages social
media, the incentive that drives them to use social media during emergencies, the ways in
which they prefer to use this tool, and their expectations from emergency
officials.
4.1 Social Media: The New Communication Standard
When Purdue associates were first introduced to the topic of this study, an
emerging theme in their responses was that social media is an effective communication
tool. The participants generally agreed that social media is expected to be used on a daily
basis during social interactions. It is embedded into many electronic products, including
traditional communication technologies such as mobile phones. Using social media has
transformed our perception of communication. It has become the new standard when it
comes to social interactions. One participant described the integration of social media in
our daily lives by stating that this form of communication, “...is kind of the status quo, it
is what we do, it is what everyone does, and you do what everyone else does”
Participants of this study also agreed that social media is a convenient method of
communicating and sharing life events with loved ones. Most people are members of at
least one social networking site, which allows them to stay connected on a global scale.
It allows them to share their thoughts with the rest of the world and most importantly with
those they are close to.
“It seems like almost everyone has an account somewhere so it is good to get on
there and connect with people”
Social media allows the user to anonymously and frequently find information
communicated by others. Many of the participants mentioned that they use social media
to check on the status of their friends and family. This tool is especially useful when
participants would like to check on people that they don’t regularly interact with on a
personal level. One participant expressed the need to check social media regularly after
sharing a story about a friend, who announced her engagement on Facebook: “I need to
check Facebook all the time now, apparently this is how people post their life events and
I seem to be missing out on knowing these events because I don’t go on Facebook.”
Moreover, participants agreed that they tend to turn to social networking sites as a
resource in times of need. For instance, when considering a scenario where people lose
their phones, a few participants stated that they would “go to Twitter or Facebook, to get
someone’s number”. It has become commonplace to resort to social networking sites
when one needs to reach out to others. These sites serve as a modern age address book -
they hold phone numbers, email addresses, pictures, recent personalized news, and more.
In addition, these sites are accessible through various mediums. Losing one’s phone no
longer disables them from communicating with others, because they can access social
networking sites on many other devices such as computers, tablets, as well as other
people’s devices. The previous section discussed how social media is becoming the new
form of communication, and the next section will discuss how the participants use social
media.
4.2 Uses of Social Media
A distinct theme that emerged from the interviews was regarding the uses of social
media and how it is managed by the user. The interviews revealed that each social
networking site served a particular purpose. For instance, participants may use their
LinkedIn accounts to apply for new jobs and simultaneously use their Facebook accounts
to share jokes with high school friends.
A major factor that plays a big role in determining which SNS one may choose to
use is the virtual location of that person’s circle. If someone’s circle mainly exists on
MySpace, that particular user may choose MySpace rather than Facebook to be the main
SNS to use as a medium to communicate with friends and family. As one participant
explained:
“If nobody else was using Facebook I wouldn’t be using Facebook. That would be
useless. If everybody else was using MySpace right now then I would be using
MySpace as my main social networking website. So it all depends on what
everybody else is doing.”
The results that users obtain from using social media depends entirely on the
circle and network that they are connected to. The information that they retrieve is usually
from people they are connected to online. This information depends on who is in the
users’ network and what they think is important. However, some users may choose to
deviate from their own networks to gather information from people outside their own
circle.
The two major categories that have emerged from the data are that participants use
social media for formal and informal purposes.
4.2.1 Informal
The vibrancy of social media is most apparent when participants use this
communication tool informally. When using social media informally, users are more
willing to share personal pictures, stories, and other interests. A pattern that emerged
when reviewing the various informal uses of social media was that many social
networking sites such as Instagram, Pinterest, and Facebook were mostly used to connect
and “keep up” with friends and family. People usually choose to be members on SNSs so
that they remain updated on the happenings of the people around them. It is a more
modern, fast, and impersonal way of checking up on others, especially those that “you
don’t really call” everyday.
Most of the SNSs that were commonly used informally also happened to provide
a great medium for sharing photos. For example, Facebook, Pinterest and Instagram were
the main SNSs that are usually used informally. Whereas, Twitter, which is SNS that is
not primarily focused on image sharing, was often described by participants as a more
formal website that is usually used to look up and pull information from or to share
random thoughts with the world with no specific audience in mind.
A participant explained her point of view by expressing that, “Twitter is a little bit
different. Twitter is more like a personal blog, mini blog, where I just throw some
thoughts in there of what’s going on in my life and I also use it as a tool to post
information that I am interested in”.
4.2.2 Formal
Participants expressed that they used social media “formally” when connecting
with business partners or when they want to catch up on news that interests them. One
participant said that,
“Twitter is an awesome way to find out information in a short and quick way. I
mean most of my information I get about the world comes from Twitter”. Another
participant explained how social media is used as a tool or reminder for
maintaining strong networking connections, “... another reason I use social media
is to keep my contacts saved. There has been so many times where I would forget
a person even exists until I read their name online”.
The way in which social media is being used is evolving. Originally, informal uses
were the norm. However, today we find that many people visit social networking sites to
gather information from others who may or may not be in their close circle about a wide
range of topics ranging from information about a shooting that occurred at a campus to
information about a specific event that occurred across the world. Social media acts like
an intertwined web that enables a person to be connected to the whole world. In addition,
social networking sites serve as an open source of information that is constantly being
updated with new “Fresh” information posted by people around the globe. One
participant suggested that he goes on Twitter, “to find out information that is important to
[participant] and to find out what’s going on in the world”.
So far, the major themes that have emerged from the interviews revealed the
participants’ perceptions of social media as a communication tool in general and the
different types of interactions that occur on social networking sites (formal vs.
informal). The last two themes address perceptions regarding using social media in
emergency situations and expectations from emergency officials.
4.3 Social Media in Emergencies
The following sections will explain the developing role of social media in
emergencies. These sections will discuss the advantages and disadvantages of social
media in emergencies as perceived by Purdue associates, as well as the reasons and
methods in which social media is used in this context.
4.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Social Media in Emergencies
4.3.1.1 Advantages
The interviewed participants stressed that social media is especially appealing
because it is free, fast, and reliable. The number of people that use social media as a
source of information during emergencies is continuing to grow. Participants expressed
that they preferred using social media over traditional news outlets, because with social
media the news is quick, short, and straight to the point. Not many people have the luxury
of dedicating time to watch the news at a specific time on television time to sit down and
watch the news:
“… A lot of the time you’re on the go and don’t have time to sit down and watch
the news, so I go to Twitter and find out information quickly“
Social media allows its users to be up to date with the news while they’re on the
go. Technology embedded with social media is extremely accessible - in fact, it could
literally be in the user’s pocket. Participants in this study indicated that social media gives
them the freedom to “choose” when they want to hear and read about the ongoing news
around them:
“...You’re getting data right away at the moment without having to have a
newspaper or a news channel updating their website information,” said one
participant. With social media “you don’t have to wait. You can get that
information right away”
Moreover, using this technology is convenient and user friendly. In the words of
one of the participant, social media is “convenient” because, “almost everyone today has
access to a smartphone, so that gives them access to social media directly at any given
time”. Users can access an infinite amount of information in one place. Social networking
sites provide their users with up to date and “fresh” information right on the spot. Social
networking sites, such as Twitter, are used as a medium to get short strips of information
quickly. Many participants explained that going on social media, specifically Twitter, is
the “first step” they take to get quick information regarding an event of interest. This
medium also allows them to read a more detailed description of the story by providing
them with other options such as links to the primary source news article or website:
“Rather than going around to a bunch of these websites to try and see which one
has the latest information. Usually I just look at Twitter. And they usually have a
pretty good picture of what’s going on.” Another participant explained that using
social media during emergencies “helped make the events more transparent”.
The presence of officials and news companies on social media is an advantage to
users, because it makes the information they’re looking for more trustworthy. When users
are interested in learning more about an emergency event, they feel a lot more
comfortable and confident in the credibility of a reliable news source. Many emergency
officials, such as FEMA and the FBI, as well as large news corporations, like Fox News
and CNN, are using social media on a regular basis to reach out to the public. A recent
example that illustrates the discussed advantages of social media was when the Boston
Police announced the capture of the Boston Marathon bombing suspect:
The Boston Police tweeted that they caught the second suspect before it was even
announced on any news network, I thought that was pretty neat”
On a related note, the constant flow of information on social networking sites is a
great advantage during emergencies. Users can follow a live feed of any given
emergency and this social media technology allows them to get updates by the second.
People who have knowledge about the emergency, share what they know on social media
networks constantly, which in return feeds this constant flow of information.
Unlike traditional media, where usually only the most recent and relevant events
are discussed, social media allows the user to find information about almost anything.
The content shared on social media sites is unfiltered. It is raw information pushed by
other users from around the world. This is a key and unique characteristic of social media
that separates it from other media sources. One participant explained that she resorts to
social media to follow the most recent updates about an event:
“I know this is not an emergency, but like the whole thing with North Korea, I’m
following that,” said the participant explaining that she was “freaking out about
the potential nuclear attack”.
Another major advantage is that the user or consumer of the technology has
complete control over the information that they wish to share or receive. For example, a
user may decide to follow an account that just talks about a specific issue. This means
that this user will be extremely aware of any updates concerning that issue of interest. By
choosing whom to follow, users can pick and choose their news resources, and thereby
control the collection of information they wish to attain.
Many participants considered portability to be one of the biggest advantages of
the technology. The fact that social media can be used on any device with an Internet
connection makes it extremely valuable. Instead of being tied down to one’s living room
television set, radios, or newspaper, users can carry the news everywhere they go with
this technology. With social media embedded in cell phones and tablets, users constantly
have an infinite number of news articles, videos, pictures, and blogs at their fingertips:
“... The biggest thing is that social media is so portable, you can have social media
not only on your computer but you can have it on that small device that you
usually put in your pocket.” explained one participant. Social media allows users
to “have access to information just right there”.
Another participant explained the advantage that social media has over traditional
media outlets as follows, “Not everyone has a TV or computer in front of them to check
the news, but many people carry cellphones”.
Social media is portable, free, quick, and provides its users with an up to date
continuous flow of information. The combination of all the advantages discussed above
makes social networking sites extremely valuable to users during emergency events.
4.3.1.2 Disadvantages
Using social media during emergencies brings forth a number of concerns to the
participants interviewed. Some of the main disadvantages that they perceived include
misinformation, deception and rumors. These disadvantages harm the credibility of SNS
during emergencies and can be even considered as major threats when users are gathering
false information about a certain event.
One participant describes his concerns as follows, “... there is a lot of rumors and
a lot of misinformation and that is one big threat that I would say is for getting news
through those outlets”
Although, the portability of technology is usually considered to be one of its
advantages, it could also become a disadvantage during emergencies. Having social
media embedded in your cellphone and in your tablet can be extremely useful. However,
the dependability of social media on other technology becomes a disadvantage when
users are in an emergency situation where they are prohibited from using such devices or
if telecommunication services are disconnected and they cannot resort to social media.
One participant explained this point of view by sharing his friend’s experience during the
2013 Boston marathon bombing.
“... I heard rumors that they shut off all cell phone service there because they were
worried that that’s how the bombs were activated so I just assumed that he lost
service or his phone died, so in that case you won’t be able to actually
communicate right away because he didn’t have access to his social media
network”
In this scenario, it is painfully obvious that social media today is strongly tied to
cell phone technologies during emergencies. Therefore, social media during emergencies
is only as useful and reliable as the technology that it is tied to. Participants expressed
their concerns that our overdependence on technology would be harmful in a scenario
where they are disconnected from these devices due to connectivity or power issues.
“When I have no service, sometimes I am not able to reach my social media
tools”. Another participant continues this thought by saying “There may be a
situation where you can’t get alerts because you don’t have reception on your
phone”, and then explains that the reliability of this technology can “depend on
where you are”.
Although participants generally agreed that they usually turn to Twitter during
emergencies, they also expressed that a main disadvantage on this particular social
networking site is the 140-character limit. This limitation is a source of frustration for
tweeters during the chaotic moments of an emergency, when emotions and thoughts tend
to run wild. One of the participants expressed this frustration by saying, “...for Twitter
specifically I think it’s difficult to get the full impression”. During an emergency people
like to share details about the event that occurred, and similarly they also like to gather
detailed information from others about their experiences. However, with the character
limitation, it is difficult for users to express multiple opinions in a single tweet. Many
participants also expressed their annoyance with people that go on “rants” about the
emergency situation on social networking sites. Participants using social media during
emergencies are interested in a balanced discussion where the quantity of information
matches its quality.
In addition, emergencies sometimes push people to speak irrationally. Participants
agreed that people tend to exaggerate when they are in an emotional situation, which
makes it difficult to determine whether the information being broadcasted on social media
networks is true or not. In these kinds of situations, people might share a “… twisted
version of the truth”. This tends to make it difficult for users to express an unbiased point
of view:
“Sometimes it was hard to tell what was true and what was being exaggerated. I
guess when people are experiencing an emergency on a personal level, they get
emotional”.
Another major disadvantage was the inconsistency of credibility. Although there
are many official news sources broadcasting emergency related updates on social media,
there are also many more regular individuals with no journalism experience reporting
their version of the story. Nonetheless, social media is continuing to become a primary
news outlet for many of us, even though the news being shared by most users may not be
reliable:
“There is so much information out there, which might make it hard to filter
through you know what’s credible and what’s not”.
The previous sections discussed the advantages and disadvantages associated with
using social media during emergencies according to the perceptions of Purdue University
associates. The following sections will illustrate the purposes for using this technology
during emergencies.
4.3.2 Purposes for Using Social Media in Emergencies
4.3.2.1 Coping
Previous disaster related research claims that social interaction is a necessary part
of coping with the aftermath of a disaster (Smyth & Pennbaker, 1999). There are a
number of reasons why people choose to resort to social media during times of need. A
prominent reason that appeared during the interviews is that sharing and finding
information helps participants “cope” with the stress of the emergency (Sutton, Palen,
Shklovski, 2008). Participants specifically said that they resort to social media to “find
out what people are saying” and to help them “deal or cope” during stressful times.
“Because sometimes I like to see what other people say about the situations and it helps
me deal and cope or heal with the hard times”
Social media is a powerful tool that allows the user to connect to the whole world.
With this tool, users can reach out to others during emergencies. This allows them to
collect more information about the event and share their personal stories with people who
have experienced the same troubles. This social connection or activity helps the users
heal.
Another reason that drives people to turn to social media during emergencies is to
check on people they know who might have been affected by the event without having to
ask others or having to get in touch with them directly. A participant explains this
dynamic by referring to the night of the Boston Marathon bombing:
“It was like the whole world was connected to Twitter waiting on updates to come
from people who were close to the incident or on lockdown in the city.” Participating
in social media networks during times of need helps people construct a more collective
understanding of the event that happened. It also helps them cope with their feelings of
insecurity and uncertainty (Sutton, Palen, Shklovski, 2008).
4.3.2.2 Reaching a Large Crowd
Social media enables its users to reach out to a large crowd at once. With that said,
another reason that participants would want to use social media during emergencies is to
broadcast their personal condition to their entire circle at once. “Social networks gives
everyone a voice and people are becoming more comfortable with the idea of learning
about emergencies and sharing their experiences on these networks.”
This notion was expressed by one of the participants, who explains that if
someone is in an emergency situation such as the Boston Marathon bombing, then he or
she can use social media to their benefit by:
“.. Being able to tell everyone at once like you know I’m OK. “
Moreover, reaching a large number of people in a short amount of time is a very
attractive trait offered by social media. For instance, an individual can generate a tweet
to the people in his/her circle to warn them of roads they should avoid and advise them on
steps they need to take during an emergency. Several participants expressed that sending
messages to a large group of people is a critical purpose of using social media: “From
first-hand experience, I think being able to reach a large amount of people in a short
amount of time is one way that it’s useful”. Another participant continues this thought by
saying, “... It can get information to spread quickly and a lot of people are starting to use
it and also go to it to gain information about whatever they may be looking for.” While
another participant emphasized the global power of social media by saying, “It lets you
reach people all over the world at the same time”.
Another point brought up by a participant, is that by traditional means it is quite
difficult for one person to get on a news outlet and share their story. However, social
media breaks that barrier, and allows anyone to share their story.
“When it comes to news media, the information comes from a single person, well
so does social media, the difference is anyone can post, not everyone can get on
the news.”
4.3.2.3 Unfiltered Multiple Points of View
Another reason that motivates people to resort to social media is that it provides
the user with multiple points of view concerning a single event. The content that the user
is exposed to on social media is generated by hundreds of thousands of people, each
sharing their own experiences, opinions, and updates. Participants indicated that this is a
very powerful feature offered by social media, because it gives the users the freedom to
“draw their own conclusions”. Or, as one participant put it:
“You’re not only relying on one single source of information of a newspaper but
you’re also relying on the information coming from people who are reporting
their own experience “
Participants indicated that by going on social media they are getting the story
directly from the people who were affected by the emergency, rather than getting it from a
third party news crew. The findings from this study show that participants generally
believe that getting information from a first person point of view is more reliable than
traditional, sometimes bias, news channels. The fact that social media provides various
points of view is considered to enhance its “credibility”, and provides a less biased
overview of the emergency.
“With social networking you are getting the news directly from people involved in
an emergency” expressed one participant. Social media allows users to “to hear
multiple points of view from one source” explained a participant, stating that
traditional news outlets would provide “a single biased point of view”.
With that said, it is apparent that numbers carry authenticating power. Such that,
the more people share a particular piece of information related to the emergency on social
media, the more credible and authentic it becomes, regardless of whether it came from an
official source or not. “Even if it’s not from an official [source], it’s still reliable”,
explained one participant. While another participant pointed out that looking at posts
provided by different people, who may or may not be directly involved in the emergency,
on social media creates a sense of “authenticity”.
4.3.2.4 Guidance, Direction, and Better Understanding
The participants also liked using social media when they are looking for guidance
during emergencies. This is especially true when the user is directly affected by the
emergency. Participants shared that when they hear of an emergency on campus, they
access Twitter or Facebook to get instant updates and guidance on what they need to do
and what precautions need to be taken. For instance, one participant said: “In regards to
gunman on campus or tornado warnings, maybe tips or safety information on what you
should do at that time … might actually be kind of helpful”
“I believe it’s very important [social media]. By allowing people to receive alerts
about emergency evacuations, photos for identification of most wanted criminals,
and places for emergencies evacuations. I think it’s important to find out what is
going on and learn about evacuations and fine details I guess. I also think it’s
important to find out what’s going on in our country during emergencies”
The results from the previous section covered the purposes for resorting to social
media during emergencies. The next section describes the ways in which participants use
social media during emergencies.
4.3.3 How Social Media Is Used During Emergencies
The effectiveness of a tool highly depends on the method of its application. If a
user has access to a particular tool such as social networking websites, but does not have
the knowledge on how to navigate those websites during an emergency, then that tool
becomes useless. This section discusses how participants choose to use social media as a
communication tool during emergencies.
4.3.3.1 Type of Emergency: Personal vs. Public
The interviews clearly showed that the way in which people choose to interact
with social media greatly depends on the type of emergency that they are facing. The
researcher identified three main factors that define the type of emergency being studied:
1) The number of people affected by the emergency event, 2) The proximity of the
participant to the emergency, 3) The severity of the emergency. Table 4.1 below lists four
examples of emergencies that are composed of a unique combination of the discussed
factors.
Table 4.1:
Types of emergency
Number of
People
Proximity
Severity
Type of Emergency
Example
High
High
High
Catastrophic Public
Emergency –
Directly Affected
Shooting on the
participant’s campus
High
Low
High
Catastrophic Public
Emergency –
Indirectly Affected
Shooting on a foreign
campus
Low
High
Low
Non Catastrophic
Personal Emergency
Participant lost his/her
phone
Low
High
High
Catastrophic
Personal Emergency
Participant was diagnosed
with a disease
Catastrophic emergencies encompass events with high severity; however these
events vary depending on whether they are personal or public and whether the participant
is affected by the emergency. A personal catastrophic emergency could be the death of a
participant’s family member. A public catastrophic emergency might directly affect a
participant such as a local tornado warning, or it might be an emergency that indirectly
affects the participant such as a Tsunami in another country. Noncatastrophic personal
emergencies usually affect the participant directly and have low severity, such for
example losing a phone or being locked out of the house. The way in which participants
use social media to gather or share information depends on the type of emergency at
hand. For instance, one participant said:
“If it is too personal like if it is a death of a family member or something, then I
would not want to share it with the whole world, but maybe just a few select
family members or friends. On the other hand, if it is not too personal I would
definitely use social networking to get the message across”
Similarly, another participant said:
“If the information is too private then I would keep it off the grid because
everything that is shared on social network is public domain. So, it really depends
on what kind of matter or situation it is, for me to decide on what to share and
what not to share.”
As for gathering information regarding personal emergencies, participants were
attracted to a number of social media qualities such as its speed and the vast quantity of
information available on it.
“It would depend on like the type of emergency,” said one participant. Explaining,
“If it’s something that doesn’t affect me at all or anybody that I know directly it
probably wouldn’t matter to me how I heard about it. Whether it was in a
newspaper or on social media. But if it was something that affected me, I’d
probably try to know as much about it as possible you know, so I would resort to
social media”
And another participant said:
“If I was in a situation where I needed to contact someone but could not make a
phone call. Say if I was in Boston at the time they locked down the city I would
be posting and reading updates about what was going on in my area. It would
seem to me like the best way to get fast information.”
Moreover, another function of social media besides sharing and gathering
information is to connect with others during emergencies. People are interested in how
others are affected by the emergency, this is especially true during emergencies that
directly affect them or the people in their circle. One participant describes the way that he
communicates with others during an emergency by saying:
“Well it depends on the circumstance. The people that I’m closest to, I would call
personally you know. But there are people who I only connect to on Facebook, so
I would certainly use that in those cases.”
4.3.3.2 Pulling vs. Pushing Information
Most of the participants that were interviewed admitted that they usually pull
information from social media rather than push information during times of emergencies.
In the words of two participants, “I’m a user, not a giver” and “Usually, I’m more of a
consumer of information”. They tend to turn to social networking sites when they are
looking to learn more about an emergency. However, the responses of some participants
did indicate that there are several factors that motivate them to push information
regarding emergencies on social media. For instance, being directly connected/affected by
an emergency could be a motivating factor. One participant said that she wouldn’t tweet
about an emergency unless she was directly affected by it.
“It’s very unlikely of me to tweet about it [emergency event], unless I’m directly
affected by it”.
Participants also stated that they usually follow accounts of emergency and news
officials to ‘pull’ information about emergency events. By following these accredited
accounts, participants receive news updates on a regular basis, and they can ‘confirm’ any
related information shared by others. They can also stay updated on the latest news
regarding a given emergency by following “Hashtags”. The hashtag feature allows the
user to browse all the information being shared about a particular hashtagged topic. It
organizes the data that is being viewed and ensures that the user is reading the latest
things being said about a topic of interest.
“I try to follow the hashtags and see what people around Lafayette and West
Lafayette are saying”
Table 4.2 below summarizes the perception of users on whether they would pull
or push information during various circumstances.
Table 4.2:
Social media expectations across different types of emergency
Number
of People
Proximity
Severity
Type of
Emergency
Example
Social media
expectations
High
High
High
Catastrophic
Public
Emergency –
Directly
Affected
Shooting on the
participant’s campus
Push & Pull
Information
Table 4.2 Continued
High
Low
High
Catastrophic
Public
Emergency –
Indirectly
Affected
Shooting on a
foreign campus
Pull
information
Low
High
Low
Non
Catastrophic
Personal
Emergency
Participant lost
his/her phone
Rarely push
information
Low
High
High
Catastrophic
Personal
Emergency
Participant was
diagnosed with a
disease
Neither
4.3.3.3 Cross Checking Information
Another social media function that participants take advantage of during
emergencies is cross checking information. Social networking sites offer users a vast
amount of information from many different points of view. Participants filter through the
information they gather by cross checking its credibility with information from official
news sources. For instance, if a participant learns about a new development regarding an
emergency from a tweet on their newsfeed, that participant can cross check the validity of
that information on other official Twitter accounts such as those of CNN or Fox News.
“I am following the local newspaper and also WLFI so I find out about stuff that
are happening from both places [accounts].”
Another way that participants cross check information is by comparing it to news
shared by unofficial sources. These sources could be people from their social networking
circles or posts from other people who are talking about the emergency event. One
participant explains how he used this method to cross check information on Twitter
regarding a shooting emergency:
“[Updates from users at the scene] were being shared by other people and
everybody knew that these users were at that physical location. When Twitter
promotes this kind of thing it is amazing because you know that this information
is coming from a legit source”.
These results show that the collaboration of information online allows people to
cross check information, and in a sense find missing pieces of the puzzle. Thereby
allowing social media users to get a clearer picture of the emergency event as a whole.
The previous sections described the advantages and disadvantages, the purposes,
and the ways social media is used in emergencies. The next section illustrates the
expectations from emergency officials as well as perceptions regarding the current system
used at Purdue University.
4.4 Social Media Expectations and Perceptions
The following sections will explain the expectations that participants of this study
had in regards to the use of social media by emergency officials. It will also discuss the
perceptions that they have regarding the current alert system used by emergency officials
during emergencies.
4.4.1 Social Media Expectations from Emergency Officials
A portion of the interviews was dedicated to learning what participants expected
from emergency officials, such as the West Lafayette Police department and Campus
Security, during emergencies. Their responses indicated that they would like to see a
continuous presence of emergency officials online. Some explained, that they would like
to be able to resort to the university official Twitter account in times of need and retrieve
valuable information and guidance related to the emergency at hand. Participants also
expect officials to constantly keep their pages updated with the most recent emergency
related information. Another expectation is that participants should be able to retrieve
information from officials fast, and they “hope” that information includes some sort of
direction or instruction on what happened and what needs to be done next.
“If there’s an emergency going on what I want is to have a quick idea of what is
exactly happening right now. Just a quick look to be prepared for whatever is
happening at the moment and be able to react accordingly.”
Another participant explains a similar thought:
“I would expect emergency officials to broadcast public service announcements.
Like to warn the public or to advise them to take certain actions” Many
participants suggested that with the current used system; emergency officials take too
much time to inform people on campus of what's going on. The interviews also
showed that although all the participants are members of at least one social
networking site, they were unaware of whether university emergency officials, such as
the Purdue Police department, had an official profile on popular SNSs such as Twitter
and/or Facebook.
“I don’t know if Purdue police even has a Twitter account or a Facebook page but
if they do then that would be amazing because some people do not want calls or
emails or text messages from Purdue police but would like to communicate
through Twitter because it is more customizable.”
Although most Purdue associates are signed up to receive notifications from
Purdue Alerts, some participants indicated that using other mediums to share information
besides text messages and email would allow officials to notify a larger group of people
during emergencies. Other mediums such as social media, would help officials notify
people of the emergency occurring regardless of whether they attend Purdue or not.
Participants generally agreed that using other, non-traditional, mediums to spread
emergency alerts would add to the value and effectiveness of the existing system.
“If they just rely on the traditional things like texts or email then that’s good but I
also think that if they broaden the places where people can access what they’re
announcing then you know they could reach more people.”
On a related note, participants also suggested that officials should collaborate with
other credible channels within the community to create as many mediums as possible:
“They need to work with those instances within the community that are well
known to have a lot of followers so communication should not only flow through
their channel but also they need to work closely with those who can spread
information better for them.”
In regards to social media, one participant claims “it is necessary for them to
spread the information so people can get aware of things happening but they also need to
work through other channels to get the information spread as well” As for the
expectations of participants in regards to the content of the information shared during
emergencies, participants expressed that they would like to be able to see a “short blurb”
that quickly explains what happened. If emergency officials need to share a large amount
of information, participants indicated that including a link to the short summary would
be useful. In general, when participants are first notified of an event, a large amount of
information can be overwhelming. So, the information presented at first should be short
and to the point. However, if the event is considered a large scale emergency, then
participants would like to see instructions about what they need to do included in that
initial notification.
“A good explanation of what exactly is happening and then suggestions on what
you’re supposed to do? It doesn’t have to be lengthy just stay where you are or uh
try to look for shelter or lock your door if there’s a shooter on campus. Just things
like that”
Similarly, another participant says:
“If the emergency would particularly pertain to me, I would hope to find more
specific instructions to follow and/or procedures to take.”
The previous section explained the expectations that Purdue associates have in
regards to the use of social media by emergency officials. The next section describes the
perceptions they shared regarding the current emergency alert system being used at
Purdue.
4.4.2 Perceptions of the Current Alert System Although the study did
not consist of any questions that directly asked participants on their perceptions of the
current alert system used by Purdue emergency officials, many of them shared their
thoughts on this matter. Purdue associates typically receive email and text messaging
alerts during emergencies, however participants indicated that they still resorted to social
media to learn more about the situation from other users. The text and email alert system
is not always sufficient because not all associates are signed up to receive those alerts.
Also, participants explained that sorting through emails to find a single alert is not
convenient during an emergency. “My email inbox is usually always full of work and
school emails, so it’s hard to filter through it to find that particular email [regarding the
emergency]”
Moreover, participants also expressed that an issue with the current system is
timing. When a wide spread campus emergency occurs, there is an overwhelming number
of alerts that need to be sent out to the entire campus. This causes the recipient to
experience delays in receiving critical information.
“A big problem with the Purdue alert system is that it is slow”. Another
participant explains this issue with the following example, “When they have those
fake kidnappings, they’re like watch out for this person on campus that robbed
someone, or something like that. It takes so long, and you’re like I was just a
block away from that area, but that was two hours ago.”
4.5 Summary
This chapter presented the themes that have emerged from my thematic analysis.
Four major themes were identified related to social media in emergency situations. The
following chapter discusses implications, a sample emergency communication plan,
limitations, and direction for future research.
CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION
This chapter discusses the results from this study by interpreting the major themes
that were identified from the thematic analysis. This interpretation was then used to
inform campus emergency officials of the perceptions and expectations from Purdue
associates regarding social media during emergencies. In addition, it discusses
implications and provides a sample plan for emergency management communication
using social media. Finally, this study concludes by describing the limitations and
providing applicable suggestions for future studies on social media and emergency
management.
5.1 Overview
The main goal of this study was to inform Purdue emergency officials of the
perceptions and expectations that Purdue associates have regarding the use of social
media during emergencies. This study strived to guide the presence of Purdue emergency
officials on social media. It provided insights on taking advantage of this technology in an
effective manner to raise situational awareness during emergencies.
The results show that social media is used during emergencies for several reasons.
Prior to social media and SNS, the public heavily depended on television networks,
newspapers, and radio stations to retrieve information about emergencies.
However, only a lucky few have the opportunity to voice their opinions and
experiences using these traditional platforms. Today, social media has empowered the
public’s voice during emergencies. Communication between officials and the public is no
longer a one-way street, because with this medium, users can pull and push information
with others as frequently and as freely as they would like.
One of the main findings from this study, was that there are three primary factors
that influence whether social media is used during emergencies and how it is used. The
number of people affected by the emergency, the proximity of the social media user to the
emergency, and the severity of the emergency significantly impact how social media is
used. The results of this study showed that during personal catastrophic emergencies,
such as the death of a family member, users might be discouraged to use social media.
This is most likely due to privacy concerns, users would rather mourn this private loss
offline. However, on the other end of the spectrum, users that experience public
catastrophic emergencies are encouraged to use social media to express their opinions and
thoughts about the event. In addition, this particular type of emergency motivates users to
pull information from others, and collaborate with the online community to gain a better
understanding of what happened. With this knowledge, one can predict whether a user
will most likely use social media during an emergency event.
Once a user decides to use social media during emergencies, they can then chose
to pull or push information based on their specific needs. The results of this study showed
that coping is one of the needs that users’ have during and after disasters. This finding
confirms the Sutton, Palen, and Shklovski’s (2008) research on the role of social media
during the 2007 California wildfires. Social media enables emotional support by
permitting users to interact with each other in virtual communities, which in return
creates a sense of security. With this medium, users express their opinions and feelings,
share and retrieve information, as well as read other users’ experiences.
Not only does social media allow the user to acquire timely crisis information,
which is not available elsewhere, it also facilitates the retrieval of unfiltered points of
view from multiple sources. This unique characteristic of social media gives users the
power to freely investigate the emergency and generate their own opinions/ feelings
regarding the event. Moreover, the ability to reach large crowds at once was another need
that attracted users to use social media during emergencies. Traditional methods of
communication, such as phone calls, might limit a person’s ability to reach large crowds
at once. During emergencies, such limitations are considered inconvenient since it is
generally a priority to reach out to friends and family to ensure safety and receive
support.
In the event of an emergency, social media users interact with this technology in
three main ways: pulling information, pushing information, and/or cross checking
information. Although the way that social media is used may vary depending on the user’s
personality and background, this study provided a general understanding of the factors that
will drive users to pull, push, and/or cross check information on social media. Users
generally pull information from social media regardless of the levels of proximity, severity,
and the number of people affected. However, the amount of information being pulled
varies depending on these three factors. The more interested that users are in learning
about a given event, i.e. high severity, and high proximity, the more likely it is that they
will use social media to pull information about that event. In cases with low severity and
low proximity, users may still pull information, however it is unlikely that they will spend
time cross checking the information that they find. Cross checking information tends to
come into play when the outcomes of an emergency are severe because users need to
confirm the accuracy of the information they read online by comparing it with multiple
other social media sources. The results of the study also indicated that users are more
hesitant to push information when they are not directly affected by the emergency event.
However, social media users are more likely to push information about their experiences
and opinions when they have personal knowledge they would like to share with the online
community.
The results of this study indicated that the presence of officials on social media is
extremely welcomed. Users would benefit from emergency official social media accounts
because it is a single source of information that provides them with critical and credible
crisis information. By maintaining an official presence on such platforms, emergency
officials can meet the needs of online users and provide them with the necessary
information that they seek. During stressful and chaotic times, guidance, direction, and
better understanding of the emergency at hand are considered to be main expectations that
users require from emergency officials. The results of this study indicate that using social
media prompts the delivery of crisis information and tips regarding safety in timely
manner.
The findings of this study complement and confirm existing literature regarding
the user’s social media behavior during emergencies. However, this thesis also adds to
existing literature by providing insights regarding the thinking process of social media
users during emergency events. It delivered a better understanding about the perceptions,
expectations, and needs of social media users by identifying three factors that determine
the ways and the reasons for using social media during emergencies.
The following section demonstrates how the users’ specific expectations can be
applied to the online presence of emergency officials. It also provides a sample
emergency communication plan that was developed by the researcher.
5.2 Implications
According to Patton, small and purposeful samples can be generalized using five
core principles. The principle of interest to this study is, the principle of proximal
similarity, which states that applications that share similar “treatments, settings,
populations, outcomes, and times” can be generalized. With that said, although the results
from this study are specific to the Purdue University campus, these findings could still be
generalized and extrapolated to other similar environments. For instance, the findings
from this study can be extrapolated and applied by emergency officials in environments
with a similar: population size (~ 40,000), location (Midwest region in the
United States), and population age range.
The following section identifies several implications for Purdue emergency
officials that emerged from the study. It is also important to note that the findings of this
study could be beneficial to other emergency officials in similar university or high school
settings.
Many Purdue associates stated that they have no knowledge of existing Purdue
emergency officials’ online accounts, however, they expressed that the presence of
emergency officials would be beneficial. Social media is perceived as the new standard of
communication. It is one of the first mediums users resort to during emergencies. Purdue
officials should take advantage of this insight by creating and maintaining a strong
continuous presence on social media in order to communicate more effectively with the
university population. This helps maximize their efforts in preparing and preventing
emergencies from affecting people, improving safety, and spreading awareness.
The research findings showed that Twitter is the most preferred social media
platform to use during emergency situations. With that said, special attention should be
paid to this particular medium. Although the 140 character limit was raised as a concern
during interviews, continuously pushing “short blurbs” of information with a link to a
detailed article or story can overcome this issue.
By maintaining an official emergency account on social networking sites, officials
can reduce the risk of misinformation and exaggeration. This line of communication
provides users with a credible and dependable source of information, which in return
allows the users to filter out rumors and deceiving information. In regards to the content
that emergency officials should share, the users would like to be given clear direction and
regular updates about the emergency at hand. In order to increase situational awareness
and improve safety precautions, the information shared by officials should provide the
public with further guidance and instruction on how to respond/react to the emergency.
Social media can provide emergency officials with a tool to help prepare their followers
about various emergencies; it is also an opportunity to educate them about common safety
procedures and behaviors.
Moreover, the findings of this study indicate that the speed in which emergency
officials provide information precedes the importance of its absolute accuracy. During
emergencies, users resort to social media because of their need to learn more about the
situation immediately. Therefore, when emergency officials face the decision of providing
fast or absolutely accurate information, they should ultimately provide the public with
information in a timely manner. Inaccurate information can be corrected in proceeding
updates, and social media users tend to validate accuracy by cross-checking information.
Another major opportunity for emergency officials is to utilize social media in
recovery efforts. This broad platform allows emergency personnel to provide support to
those affected by an emergency by connecting them with external resources. For instance,
they could direct readers to counseling services and community support groups that
would help them cope with the emergency they experienced.
5.2.1 Social Media Emergency Communication Sample Plan The
following sections provide emergency officials with suggestions and recommendations
regarding the utilization of social media before, during, and after an emergency event.
5.2.1.1 Social Media before an Emergency Event (Planning)
• Create a social media strategy by defining objectives, target audience, content
strategy, networks, staff and training, monitoring and moderating, and measuring
success. Purdue University has a social media strategy template that can help
achieve such goals.
• Establish a large online social media presence by effectively marketing the social
media account to the desired target audience. Ensure that the online profile is
recognizable, easily searchable, and coincides with the target audiences’
expectations.
• Emergency officials should study and gain a better understanding of the social
media norms and cultures among their target audience. This allows officials to
provide them with a more effective message.
• Sustain a social media presence by maintaining an interactive and engaging online
environment. This can be achieved by requesting feedback, sharing other users’
content, and posting information in various formats. To maintain this presence,
the social media account should generate up to date posts, be monitored
frequently, and quickly responds to users’ questions and concerns.
• Educate the public of precautions and preparedness efforts regarding a variety of
probable emergencies.
• Generate preformatted warning notification messages for use by the dispatch
personnel responsible for spreading social media content (Appendix F).
5.2.1.2 Social Media during an Emergency (Response)
• Ensure and maintain WI-FI accessibility throughout campus so that the target
audience can receive important information and to reach the largest amount of
population possible.
• By referring to Table 4.1, emergency officials can better respond to emergencies
depending on the type of situation at hand. For instance, participants indicated
that they are likely to resort to social media to pull information during
catastrophic emergencies that directly affects them, so officials should focus on
frequently pushing information during those situations.
• Immediately provide the public with an official statement of the emergency at
hand. The retrieval of accurate information might be time consuming, and so in
those instances, emergency officials should still provide the public with quick
instant information and frequent updates and corrections when necessary.
• Commit to a continuous presence on the social media account by frequently
providing followers with updates as they come or informing them that facts are
still being confirmed.
• Provide users with tips that will instruct, guide, and direct them to safety. By
using social media features, such as the hashtag, emergency officials can ensure
that their message travels across many users and platforms.
• Monitor posts regarding the emergency, and correct rumors/misinformation when
necessary.
• Collaborate with other organizations and resources within the community, to
reach a larger crowd. For instance, the Purdue Police could retweet an official
statement from the Lafayette Police Department, to ensure that their followers are
also aware of this particular message.
• Encourage followers to spread your message to their friends and followers, buy
using a sign-off phrase such as ‘Please RT (retweet)’.
• Use software tools that help sort and organize posts regarding the emergency. For
instance, HootSuite is a tool that is designed to integrate posts across multiple
social media platforms, as well as track and organize real time posts regarding a
given emergency. This can help reduce the time that personnel spend searching
and disseminating information.
5.2.1.3 Social Media after an Emergency (Recovery)
• Educate the target audience about ways in which they can improve their response
to similar emergencies in the future.
• Use social media analytics, such as Radian6, to understand how the public reacted
to the emergency and their social media presence.
• Inform the public of various support resources that can help them heal after the
occurrence of an emergency.
5.6 Limitations
While this study attempted to gain a better understanding of the expectations and
perceptions that Purdue associates have in regards to using social media in emergencies,
the small sample selected for this study might not capture all the perceptions and
expectations of all the university associates. Moreover, the results found in this study
might not necessarily translate to other universities. It is also important to note that this
study did not collect data from any emergency officials at Purdue; thus, the perceptions
and expectations are only from the perspectives of the students. Although this research
planned on collecting data from Purdue University associates, including students, staff
and faculty, unfortunately, the volunteering sample did not include any faculty members.
Thus, this thesis was limited to understanding the perceptions and expectations of
students in a certain age group ranging from 20-32 years old. In addition, this study
collected data about emergencies in general, as the participants perceived them. Finally,
this study did not focus on a specific emergency that occurred.
5.7 Conclusion
This study’s goal was to gain a better understanding of the expectations and
perceptions that Purdue associates have regarding the use of social media as it relates to
emergencies. The set of interviews conducted in this study provided several insights into
the research question as well as direct implications for Purdue emergency officials who
seek to utilize social media during emergencies. Users are attracted to social media during
emergencies because it allows them to cope and heal by connecting with online
communities, cross check information from multiple sources, and reach large crowds.
The results of this study show that the presence of emergency officials on social media is
encouraged. This media platform would provide users with a credible source of
information that helps guide, instruct, and support them during emergencies.
5.8 Future Research
There is an opportunity for future research to explore the differences between
social networking sites during emergencies in more detail. Although, this study touched
on the preferred medium used during emergencies, much more research is needed to
justify this preference. Additionally, analyzing the perceptions and expectations with
other qualitative or quantitative methods could deliver emergency officials with new
perspectives and different insights on this subject. There is also an opportunity to explore
the use of social media analytics as a tool to gain a better understanding of the presence of
officials on social media as well as the public’s behavior during emergencies.
