Experiences of Employers of Hispanic Immigrants and the Labor Shortage in the United States

Experiences of Employers of Hispanic Immigrants

And The Labor Shortage in the United States

Chapter 1

Introduction to the Study

Introduction

There has been a labor shortage in the United States, and according to

a survey conducted by the Associated General Contractors of America

(2017), 73% of businesses have had difficulties finding skilled and unskilled

workers in industries such as construction; 55% of employers identified this

worker shortage as an increasing concern.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS, 2017) reported that, as of October

2016, there were 6,000,000 job openings in the United States. The sectors

that lacked the most workers were accommodation and food services, with

94,000 vacancies; construction, with 48,000 vacancies; and real estate,

rental, and leasing, with 40,000 vacancies. Although the number of

vacancies had decreased in the areas of wholesaling, finance and insurance,

information, and manufacturing in the previous year, the number of

vacancies in the workforce as a whole was nearly unchanged (BLS, 2017).

Those in many industries have been seeking ways to meet consumer demand

and retain their workforces to avoid losing revenue.

In this study, I explored how changes in immigration have been

impacting the ability of employers to meet demand for services and products

in their respective areas. I also explored the experiences of employers hiring

Hispanic immigrant laborers during the labor shortage and the outlook of

employers on the impact of Hispanic immigrant labor on their industries.

The findings of the study can help other researchers explore the relationship

between immigration laws and shortages in the labor force.

In this chapter, I present an overview of concerns regarding the

growing labor shortage in the United States, the impact of the labor shortage

on several industries, and the impact of Hispanic workers on the labor force.

I also state the problem studied and the purpose of the study. And I describe

the research question, the theoretical framework underpinning the study, and

the assumptions and limitations of the study.

Background

Birth rates have declined sharply between 2000 and 2010, and this

decline has impacted the labor shortage in the United States (Livingston,

2018). According to Livingston (2018), the number of births in the nation

had declined significantly over the previous 20 years from 2018. Birth rates

dropped to record lows in 2016. This decline in births will impact the

number of future workers and thus the ability of employers to fill vacancies

(Young, 2019). According to Perreto (1998), population increase and

economic growth are interdependent, and so the decrease in birth rates will

impact the economy.

The combination of declining birth rates and rising retirement rates

has created a significant public policy problem (BLS, 2017). During the first

part of the 20th century, birth rates in the United States were higher

increasing to 16 million more than in the previous decade (Hobbs & Stoops,

2002). However, between 2007 and 2019, the birth rate among women aged

15–44 years decreased by over 2% in the United States (Hamilton et al.,

2020). Beck and Johnson (2017) predicted the number of retired people in

the United States to increase by 87%to over 4,000,000 by 2030. The

growing number of retirees will impact the number of vacancies and,

according to the BLS (2017), only worsen the existing labor shortage. The

decline in the labor force driven by the decreasing birth rate and increasing

retirement rate has led to concern among employers regarding their ability to

meet consumer demand (BLS, 2017). If employers cannot hire legal workers

who contribute to payroll taxes, the revenue that supports Social Security

and support for retirees will fall.

Low birth rates, the aging population, and recent recessions in the

United States have created large labor deficits in several industries (BLS,

2017). Some of the most impacted industries are construction, hospitality,

agriculture, and nursing (BLS, 2017). Halpin (2015) stated that the labor

shortage and need for human capital has driven employers to hire

unauthorized workers. However, this practice exposes employers to penalties

(U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 2019). The use of unauthorized

workers has by no means resolved the labor shortage, and employers need

permanent labor to increase their productivity and competitiveness in global

markets (Halpen, 2015). Peterson (2018) argued that allowing immigrants to

enter the country and become part of the labor force reduces the number of

jobs available to native-born Americans; however, Batalova (2011) argued

that immigrants fill gaps in the labor needs of employers and do not

significantly impact employment opportunities for native-born workers.

Without policies supporting immigrant labor in the United States, labor

shortages will continue to impact the U.S. economy (Halpen, 2015). A

reduction of the dependency ratio—the ratio of workers to retirees—is

necessary to ensure that worker contributions to Social Security are

sufficient to support retirees (Bauer, 2018).

The workforce has declined sharply in size since the start of the 21st

century; according to Clark et al. (2020), decreasing birth rates and

increasing retirement rates have impacted the economy and contributed to

the workforce decline. In the 20th century, the workforce increased

substantially in size as more women entered it (Toossi & Morisi, 2017). This

labor growth was instrumental to the growth of industry in the United States,

and employers perceived the advantages of a diverse workforce. Inclusion of

women in the workforce contributed to economic growth in the first part of

the 20th century (Kuan & Yazdanifard, 2015). However, recessions in the

1980s, 1990s, and 2000s contributed to a decline in jobs and a subsequent

decline in the labor force as employers laid off employees (Yangan, 2019).

The Great Recession that began in 2008 affected blue-collar workers the

worst; over 4,000,000 blue-collar jobs disappeared, and job openings

declined sharply in the vast majority of blue-collar sectors (Cox et al., 2017;

Fogg et al., 2010). The Great Recession caused the labor force to shrink, but

recent economic growth and an increase in the number of jobs created have

generated a need for human capital, which has led to strong demand for

labor.

An increasing number of workers have been aging out of the

workforce and leaving long-term positions, and there have not been enough

replacements for them (BLS, 2017; Krueger, 2017). Since the Great

Recession, the nation has faced a sharp decline in productivity alongside the

shortage of eligible workers (Corrado et al., 2016; Fogg et al., 2010; Willard

et al., 2012). This sharp decline in productivity has impacted industries

across the nation (Haddad & Toney-Butler, 2018; Moore, 2015) and has

continued to burden employers, who have been unable to meet consumer

demand (Moore, 2015). The recent economic growth in the United States has

affected the labor force (Krupnick, 2018). Increased job creation in the

trades has led to the creation of more jobs than there are workers to fill them

(Krupnick, 2018). The labor shortage has been a source of ever-increasing

concern for employers. In the past, the U.S. government met labor demands

by allowing immigrants to enter the country and work in industries with

shortages (Clemens et al., 2018; Martin, 2011; Salinas, 2018). With the

recent changes in immigration policies, the reduced number of immigrants

are not able to meet employers’ needs.

Researchers have correlated the economic growth of the nation

through the 20th century with the contribution of Hispanic immigrants (those

of Spanish descent and origin; U.S. Census Bureau, 2011) with economic

prosperity (Clemens et al., 2018; Martin, 2011; Salinas, 2018). Hispanic

immigrants have contributed to the economic and social growth of the

nation; they made up 27.8% of the labor force in 2015 (American

Immigration Council, 2016), 48.3% of the foreign-born labor force in 2016

(BLS, 2017), and have improved the outcomes of employers by providing

services for U.S. consumers (American Immigration Council, 2016). The

Migration Policy Institute (2021) stated that Hispanic immigrants accounted

for over 44% of the immigrants to the United States.

Immigrant workers have for decades impacted labor and industry

(Clemens et al., 2018; Krupnick, 2018; Salinas, 2018). Hispanic immigrants

have made positive contributions to the U.S. workforce since the turn of the

20th century—this was especially true during World War II, when the

demands of combat significantly reduced the size of the domestic labor force

(Martin, 2011). Hispanic immigrants with the legal right to work have

predominantly worked in agriculture and landscaping (BLS, 2017). Hispanic

immigrants made up over 23% of labor in agriculture, a large part of the

overall workforce (BLS, 2017). Hispanic immigrants have supported U.S.

employers and met consumer and employer needs during times of war.

However, after an exhaustive literature search, I found that few researchers

have investigated employer perspectives regarding Hispanic immigrants in

the labor force and their impact on U.S. industry. In this study, I explored

this is the gap in the literature.

The media have recently portrayed Hispanic immigrants negatively,

which has impacted Hispanic people in the United States (Farris & Silber

Mohamed, 2018). Ongoing debates in government regarding the need for

immigration reform have led to the unrealistic and unfounded portrayal of

many immigrants as criminals and drug dealers.

Problem Statement

Employers in several industries have been growing increasingly

concerned regarding the ongoing labor shortage (BLS, 2021). These

employers have found it increasingly hard to meet their labor demands

(BLS, 2021), and civilian labor force participation has decreased from 65.7

in 2009 to 63.9 in 2019 (BLS, 2020). Hispanic immigrants have made up a

significant part of the U.S. labor force, but new immigration policies may

have impacted their ability to remain in the workforce. Preliminary data

indicate that immigrants have traditionally done the work in sectors facing

labor shortages (BLS, 2016). Hispanic immigrants have made significant

contributions to agriculture and landscaping, making up over 83% of the

workers (Lopez, 2018), and contributing more labor than any other single

group of immigrants to these industries

(Lopez,2018).

The Great Recession of 2008 resulted in job losses across many

industries (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2019). By 2019, the

nation had rebounded economically but lacked the labor needed to fill the

vacancies created by employers (Error! Reference s ource not found.).

Employers have had difficulty filling jobs with qualified workers

(Faberman &

Menzio, 2018). Hispanic immigrant labor has been a determining factor in the

ability of U.S. employers to remain competitive (Batalova, 2011; BLS, 2018;

Capelli, 2015). New immigration policies, including more stringent screening

of applicants and work authorizations, have made it likely that employers will

continue to face labor shortages that impact their ability to deliver goods and

services (Migration Policy Institute, 2019). Hispanic immigrants have played a

role in the labor shortage and made up a part of the human capital needed by

employers to support the growing economy. This study was necessary to

document how Hispanic immigrants have contributed to the economic growth

of the nation from the perspective of employers, the impact of Hispanic workers

on the labor force, and the labor shortage faced by employers. The findings of

this study may influence public perception of Hispanic immigrants by

promoting their contribution as workers who come to the country and affect its

economic growth while countering their negative portrayal in politics and the

media. The findings of the study will help identify possible changes to existing

immigration policies that are detrimental to the country’s competitive

advantage.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to improve understanding of the

experiences of employers regarding the labor shortage in the United States

and hiring of Hispanic immigrants. My goal in improving this understanding

was to stimulate further research impacting immigration policies. U.S.

immigration policies have allowed Hispanic immigrants to obtain

employment and thus provide employers with the labor force needed to stay

competitive (Krueger, 2017; Pope, 2016). According to Hanson (2012) and

Hanson et al. (2017), immigration generates a surplus of goods through the

support of immigrant laborers. Withdrawing legal immigrant labor can

negatively impact industries that rely heavily on it, such as agriculture,

landscaping, and construction, and prevent employers from remaining

globally competitive.

I intended this study to contribute to the literature in several ways.

First, I focused on employers’ experiences of the contribution of Hispanic

immigrants to the labor force in agriculture and landscaping. Second, I

investigated what employers knew about the impact of Hispanic immigrants

on employers’ growth and ability to remain competitive. Third, I focused on

employers’ views of the need for Hispanic immigrants as human capital.

Fourth, I identified some immigration policy issues that are impacting

productivity in several sectors of the economy. I used qualitative interviews

to capture employers’ experiences regarding these matters and analyzed the

collected data to produce findings that addressed Hispanic employees, their

impact on their employers, and their influences on the workforce.

Research Question

A single research question guided this qualitative narrative study:

What are employers’ experiences regarding hiring Hispanic immigrants with

legal authorization to

work in agriculture and landscaping in the United States?

The purpose of this study was identification of the experiences of

employers regarding hiring Hispanic immigrants and the availability of

workers given changes in immigration laws. The contributions of Hispanic

immigrants to the labor force have allowed employers to remain competitive

and profitable in industries such as agriculture and construction (BLS, 2017).

Immigration laws may have detrimental impacts on Hispanic immigrants

and employers in the United States (Pew Research, 2020). Changes in

immigration laws could reduce the number of Hispanic immigrants and

therefore the number of laborers available to employers who rely on them.

Through this study, I aimed to address Hispanic laborers and employers’

perceptions and change policy views regarding immigration.

Theoretical Framework

The theoretical framework of this study centered on the phenomenon

of human capital. According Pekkan and Cihangir (2014), human capital is

the collective skill and knowledge of individuals. According to human

capital theory, human capital and contributions to economic growth are

directly correlated (Cadil et al., 2014). Liepe and Sakalas (2014) argued that

human capital is the primary driver of competitive prosperity and economic

wealth. Without human capital, employers cannot maintain competitiveness

or create wealth in a global market. Modern human capital theory derives

from the work of Schultz (1961), who believed that investment in human

capital produced economic growth (Nafukho et al., 2004). Becker (1994) and

Mincer and Polachek (1974) expanded on human capital theory, noting that

education and income are interrelated. Human capital theory explains the

relationship between knowledge and population growth (Schultz, 1994).

According to human capital theory, investment in human capital leads to

benefits from the greater training and education required. The theory also

predicts a correlation between decreased earnings and depreciation of skills

(Mincer & Polachek, 1974). Theorists such as Sakamoto and Powers (1995)

have argued that increasing attainment and use of skills and knowledge

improves opportunities for growth of earnings and productivity.

Employers of work-authorized Hispanic immigrants benefit from the

skill set of Hispanic immigrants in agriculture and landscaping, which

increases productivity and ability meet consumer demand (Lopez, 2018).

This relationship in turn can stimulate the desire of employers to hire

Hispanic immigrants (Lopez, 2018). Human capital theory suggests that

human capital and economic contributions from human capital are correlated

(Cadil et al, 2014). Based on the interrelation between skills sets and

opportunity for growth of earnings, employers may make significant

contributions to the economy by hiring authorized Hispanic workers, who

can increase employers’ productivity and competitiveness in the global

market.

Employers rely heavily on adequate human capital to support their

needs (Lepak and Snell, 1999). Lepak and Snell (1999) investigated the

relationship between employers and human capital and variations in human

capital based on specific industry needs; they identified a correlation

between success in an industry and the presence of human capital. Dietz and

Bozeman (2005) investigated the coexistence of human capital and industry

and the importance of diversity within human capital for creating a

wellrounded workforce with superior skills and knowledge. They argued that

without an experienced workforce, industries and employers would find it

difficult to meet demand. Lepak and Snell (1999) and Dietz and Bozeman

(2005) argued that an employer’s profitability also depends on successful

assimilation of the employer’s workforce, or human capital. This study used

human capital theory because it predicts that employers need human capital

to run businesses, increase profitability, and remain globally competitive

(Dietz and Bozeman, 2005; Lepak and Snell, 1999).

Green (2013) noted a need for more skilled workers and that the

demand for generic skills had waned as employers sought workers with

more skills. The need for employers to find workers who match the

employers’ needs becomes ever more important when demand increases.

Human capital theory suggests that migration is an investment (Becker,

1994) with employers investing in businesses through their human capital

and that employers cannot meet demand without adequate and prepared

human capital.

Nature of the Study

One potential outcome of this study was an explanation of unintended

consequences of changes in immigration law for employers and their ability

to compete in global markets. The findings helped identify how immigration

policies have affected employment for Hispanic workers and the potential

economic implications for employers and industries of losing Hispanic

workers.

To investigate employers’ experiences of hiring Hispanic immigrants,

I conducted a qualitative narrative study. Narrative inquiry allows the

researcher to discover meaning in peoples experiences (Connely &

Clandinin, 2000). According to Connely and Clandinin (2000), narrative

inquiry allows the researcher to hear the stories of participants and

understand their experiences.

Data collection targeted employers’ perceptions of Hispanic

immigrants, the immigrants’ effects on their industries and trade, the and the

economic and fiscal impacts of the immigrants on the workforce.

Semistructured interviews were conducted with employers until saturation

point was reached. Narrative analysis used the experiences of four employers

of Hispanic immigrants: my data collection method was open ended

questions asked during an interview and the analysis used was narrative. The

sample size was sufficient for a well-rounded understanding of employers of

Hispanic immigrants and the impact of Hispanic immigrants on the labor

force.

Definitions

This section includes definitions of terms used throughout this dissertation.

Employer: A person acting as an agent of an employer or self-employed

(NLRA,

ND).

Hispanic: People with cultural roots in Spain and their descendants

who speak Spanish (Pew Research, 2020). This dissertation uses the terms

“Hispanic” and “Latino” interchangeably.

Hispanic immigrant: A legally authorized immigrant to the United

States from a

Spanish-speaking country, especially Latin America countries (Batalova,

2011).

Immigration law: The rules established by the federal government

determining who is allowed to enter the country, including temporary

workers (HG.org, 2020).

Labor force: The people able to work at any given time (BLS, 2017).

Latino: People who speak languages native to their countries and who

are based in Latin America and the Caribbean (Pew Research, 2020). This

dissertation uses the terms “Hispanic” and “Latino” interchangeably.

Refugee: A migrant unable to return to their home country because of

political, racial, or religious persecution or natural disaster (American

Immigration Council, 2018).

Assumptions

Assumptions are statements presumed to be true for a specific purpose

such as building a theory (Vogt & Johnson, 2011). I assumed that

participants were able to answer the questions posed and knew how many

Hispanic immigrants they employed. The need for employers to have

Hispanic immigrants in their employ was necessary to demonstrate the

employers’ perspectives of the impact of Hispanic immigrant labor on them.

I also assumed that no information would be missing such as number of

employees and jobs performed after data collection. I collected detailed

information to demonstrate the focus of the study and address the research

question. Although this dissertation uses the terms “Hispanic” and “Latino”

interchangeably, they are not identical (Caballero, 2007). “Hispanic” refers

to people with cultural roots in Spain and their descendants who speak

Spanish (Pew Research, 2020). “Latino” refers to people who speak

languages native to their countries and who are based in Latin America and

the Caribbean (Pew Research, 2020)

Scope

The scope of this study consisted of the experiences of employers of

Hispanic immigrants. Delimitations are the restrictions of an investigation

(Cohen,2009). For this study, use of purposive selection criteria restricted

the participant pool. I included employers of Hispanic immigrants in the

agriculture and landscaping industry with the specified states to include

Maryland and Virginia. I excluded nonemployers, students, and employers

who did not hire Hispanic immigrants.

Limitations

A limitation is a restriction, limiting rule, or circumstance that a

researcher has no control over (Hodkinson & Hodkinson, 2001). One

limitation of this study was that many employers were unable to participate

due to not hiring Hispanic immigrant workers, which impacted the sample

size. Other limitations related to interpretation and analysis of the data. I

would have preferred exclusively face-to-face interviews so that I could

capture both verbal and nonverbal responses. However, the use of internet-

and phonebased interviews facilitated participation, so I employed them in

the study. Each participant was presented with a limited time available to

take part in the study. To mitigate these limitations, I identified participant

availability, and allowed each participant to choose the interview medium

they preferred.

Significance of the Study

In recent years, from 2010 through present, Hispanic immigrants have

been instrumental in reducing the labor shortage within the United States

(BLS, 2016). Hispanic immigrants have contributed to workforce growth in

industries such as agriculture, fishing, hospitality, and construction (BLS,

2015). Ongoing changes to immigration policies may increase the impact of

immigrants on the labor shortage (Migration Policy Institute, 2019).

Changes to requirements or limitations for work visas in certain industries

could prevent employers from remaining globally competitive and amplify

negative effects of the labor shortage on those industries (Migration Policy

Institute, 2019). This study was important because its findings could clarify

the connection between changes to immigration policies and economic

stability of the agricultural and landscaping industries. The findings could

also clarify the role of workauthorized Hispanic immigrants in the economic

stability of industries. At the time of writing, few researchers had

investigated employers’ perspectives on the impact of

Hispanic labor.

Social Change

The implications for social change of this study involve the

experiences of employers of work-authorized Hispanic immigrants in the

labor force and how employer’s experiences impact the labor force.

Continued understanding of the labor shortage and immigration laws and the

consequences of hiring work-authorized Hispanic immigrants to address the

labor shortage can impact social change. The understanding of the Hispanic

immigrants’ contribution to the labor shortage can impact immigration

policies and increase Hispanic immigrant visa attainment. Reduction of the

labor shortage by helping employers fill gaps in the labor force has

implications for future immigration policies with respect to Hispanic

immigrants. Changes to the dependency ratio associated with Hispanic

immigrants and their contribution to the economy may impact the field of

public administration. The understanding of the Hispanic immigrant

contributions to the economy may influence public administrators’

perception of the impact Hispanic immigrant labor has on employers.

Summary

In this chapter, I defined the problem of the ongoing labor shortage

and lack of understanding of employers’ perspectives regarding the hiring of

Hispanic immigrants. The purpose of this qualitative narrative study was

exploration of the lived experiences of employers who hire Hispanic

immigrants and the impact of Hispanic immigrant workers on industry. The

research question guiding the study asked what employers’ experiences are

regarding hiring Hispanic immigrants with legal authorization to work in

agriculture and landscaping in the United States. Schultz’s (1994) human

capital theory formed the theoretical framework of this study. This study is

significant because it adds to the limited existing literature on this topic. The

study may also result in policy changes regarding immigration reform and

the entry of Hispanic immigrants into the United States. Chapter 2 presents a

detailed analysis of existing literature related to employers of

Hispanic immigrants, the labor shortage, and the impact of immigration

reform.

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Introduction

Labor shortages have continued to be a concern for employers in the

United States (Livingston, 2018). Employers have had difficulty meeting

demand for their products and services because of lack of labor (Sisk &

Bankston, 2014). The purpose of this study was to identify employers’

experiences hiring Hispanic immigrants, and the impact of immigration

policies on the labor shortage and employer’s ability to remain competitive.

Chapter 2 presents a review of existing literature related to the phenomenon.

The chapter explores the theoretical framework of human capital used to

ground the study and provides an overview of employers’ experiences of

hiring Hispanic immigrants and their contributions to the labor shortage and

to the U.S. economy.

The literature review provides the context needed to understand the

phenomenon of immigration laws and its relation to the labor shortage and

the worsening of that shortage that would ensue if migration were slowed.

The main review begins with Hispanic immigration and its impact on labor

in the United States. Next, the review explores the reduction in the labor

force in the United States and its impact on industry and the economy. The

final part of the review concerns the U.S. Hispanic population and how

Hispanic people have become an essential part of the labor force.

Literature Search Strategies

The methods used to explore the literature included searching for

peer-reviewed journals using JSTOR, the National Institutes of Health,

EBSCO, government websites such as the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and

other sources of information. The literature review encompassed over 100

peer-reviewed articles, which I used to explore the research problem. The

publication scope of the literature review ranged from the early 20th century

to the last 5 years.

During searches for applicable research, I made use of the Walden

University library, Google Scholar, SAGE Premier, ProQuest Central,

Elsevier, and Science Direct. The keywords used in searches included

Hispanic, immigrant, human capital, employer, immigration, workforce,

labor shortage, participation, labor force, perceptions, contributions,

history, education, origin, agriculture, landscaping, construction, farming,

hospitality, minority, statistics, qualitative, population, quantitative, industry,

investment, and perspective.

Human Capital Theory

Human capital theory suggests that education and training produce

inherent capabilities in the workforce (Schultz, 1974). The theory formed the

theoretical framework of this study, which I used to aid understanding of

collected data in relation to the labor shortage, employer’s experiences of

hiring Hispanic immigrants, and Hispanic immigrants’ contributions to the

workforce. I applied the theory to the lived experiences of employers hiring

Hispanic immigrants and the understanding of employers regarding the

impact of Hispanic immigrants on the overall ability of employers to remain

competitive in the global market. Human capital theory allows a researcher

to look at the skill sets of Hispanic immigrants and how employers view

these skills sets when hiring Hispanic immigrants (Kwon, 2009).

The term human capital initially found little support because of the

negative connotations deriving from its association with using individuals

for gain (Kwon, 2009).

However, in economics, human capital refers to the utilization of “humans

as labor force” (Kwon, 2009, pp. 1–2). Human capital is the “knowledge,

attitudes, and skills that are developed and valued primarily for their

economically productive potential” (Baptiste, 2001, p. 185). According to

human capital theory, human knowledge and skills are related to

productivity. Kwon (2009) stated that the use of humans as labor supports

increased productivity while supporting the attainment of knowledge and

training for the labor force. The core understanding is that human capital can

produce desired outcomes and profit for employers.

Speaking the ambient language is the most important skill that

immigrants can acquire (Migration Policy Debates, 2014). Ability to use the

ambient language, along with other skills, can be of value to employers.

Some elements of human capital theory suggest a connection between

increase in productivity and human capital attainment (Benhabib & Spiegel,

1994; Onkelinx et al., 2016), which in turn suggests that human capital can

increase the yield of an employer’s business. Based on what human capital

can deliver, employers can increase output by investing in their workforces

(Onkelinx et al., 2016). Human capital theory is relevant to this study

because it predicts how altering policy to make it harder for immigrants to

work in the United States can impact the workforce and productivity of

employers.

The use of Hispanic immigrant labor to help employers meet demand

is an example of how investment in human capital can improve outcomes for

employers (Kosten, 2018). Many human capital theorists have argued that

training the workforce is key to increasing productivity and adaptability

(Baptiste, 2001). Adaptability of Hispanic immigrants to new environments

is a key skill that results in increased value for employers. For an employer,

the opportunity to develop and increase a worker’s knowledge and

understanding is critical to augmenting their workplace performance.

Acquiring skills in the workplace is essential to increasing worker

productivity.

Immigrants come to the United States with a wide range of skills and

attributes (Hagan, 2016). Hagan (2016) stated that immigrants apply to jobs

needing skills they brought with them when migrating. Unfortunately,

employers have considered some immigrants to have lower levels of

education and training and have not recognized the potential of these

immigrants. Although human capital theory suggests that greater knowledge

among the labor force supports employers, employers have not always

accurately assessed the value of employees with foreign-earned skills and

training (Hagan, 2016). An employer who invests in human capital is more

successful in their business not only because they grow their labor force but

also because they improve their labor force.

Researchers have linked human capital investment to specialized skill

sets, increased productivity, and workforce retention (Manuelli and Seshadri,

2014).

Investment in human capital also leads to an increase in a nation’s wealth.

Manuelli and Seshadri (2014) analyzed human capital in several countries to

determine whether a nation’s human capital is directly linked to its wealth.

They found that the United States obtained high output from its human

capital. Less developed countries obtained lower output from their human

capital. The less developed a country was, the less it invested in human

capital, and the less it produced.

The success of a nation depends on the development of the nation and

its investment in human capital (Manuelli & Seshadri, 2014; Schultz, 1974).

Human capital theory supports this study through its claim that an

employer’s investment in the employer’s labor force increases productivity

and helps the employer remain competitive (Kwon, 2009). Human capital

theory has gained support from economists because of its central idea that

growth of an economy depends on the knowledge and skills of its workers—

or human capital (Baptiste, 2001). According to Baptiste (2001), human

capital must be adaptable and capable of acquiring the skills and knowledge

required for advancement. The use of human capital theory in this study

reflects employers’ need for labor to increase the productivity of their

businesses (Kwon, 2009). For workers, the ability to adapt to a changing

environment is essential to remaining competitive in the labor force (Hagan,

2016)

History of Hispanic Immigration

Hispanic and Latino individuals have been migrating to the United

States for centuries (Patowski, 2014). Although individuals of Hispanic and

Latino origin have been in the country for centuries, Hispanic individuals

entering the country as immigrants is a relatively new phenomenon that has

become a topic of controversy. Hispanic immigration to the United States

has its roots in the arrival of Spanish colonists in the 1400s (Potowski,

2014). Since the arrival of the first Spanish-speaking individuals, people of

Spanish origin have come from countries such as Mexico, Cuba, the

Dominican Republic, and Argentina to the United States in search of better

lives and have made a positive impact on the nation.

According to Akresh and Frank (2018), Hispanic immigrants

accounted for twenty million Americans at the beginning of the twenty first

century. Unfortunately, specific data regarding these individuals—often

classified as Mexicans regardless of their true origin—have been difficult or

impossible to obtain. Introduction of uniform standards of identification in

the 1970’s increased the information available about individuals of Hispanic

origin (Borak et al., 2004). The purpose of creating the “Hispanic or Latino”

classification was to facilitate collection of data about persons of Spanish

descent living in the United States. The census has incorporated this

classification for five decades, and “Hispanic” has become the most widely

used term to identify those of

Spanish descent. The Hispanic classification does not correspond to race;

race and

Hispanic origin are separate dimensions (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017).

Immigrant Population, 1800s–Mid-1900s

Immigration has always been a controversial topic in the United

States, and the controversy has increased over the past decade (Martin,

2015). Immigration has stoked profound disagreement among members of

the public (Martin, 2015). This disagreement has made it difficult for

individuals entering the nation. During the 19th century, many immigrants to

the United States came from Europe. After the War of 1812, immigrants

came mainly from Ireland, Great Britain, and Western Europe and were

predominantly German Catholic. This was the second wave of immigrants to

enter the nation. The first wave of immigrants entered the United States were

the Pilgrims seeking religious refuge. In the 1800s, Chinese railroad laborers

made up the largest group of immigrants to the

United States (Martin, 2011). Mexican laborers also arrived during the latter

half of the 1890s. Immigration slowed significantly during the Great

Depression but rose again after the end of World War II (Martin, 2015).

Immigrants entering the United States after World War II included refugees,

spouses of members of the U.S. armed forces, and those seeking political

asylum (Martin, 2011). Not all Hispanic people in the United States descend

from immigrants to the country. For example, the Treaty of Guadalupe

Hidalgo in 1868 gave the United States territories that were part of Mexico,

including Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, and

Utah, making residents of those territories U.S. citizens.

Historically, the United States has permitted a small number of

immigrants to enter the county, allowing for several decades of assimilation

(Martin, 2011). The United States developed criteria for the admission of

immigrants into the country based on specific concerns for each group.

Immigrants entering the United States have come into the country under a

variety of circumstances: Some have entered as refugees fleeing from

political or religious persecution, others have come as temporary migrants,

and yet others have entered for employment purposes (Alarcón, 2017).

Despite these variations, immigrants—particularly Hispanic immigrants—

have made significant contributions to the U.S. economy (Rogers, 2015).

Shift in Immigration, Mid-1900s–Present

During the 19th century, the immigrant profile changed. More

immigrants entered the country from a wider variety of nations (Martin,

2015). During the next century, an influx of braceros—Mexican workers—

entered the United States to provide wartime labor (Martin, 2011).

Employment and production increased in the United States during the years

after the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965. Many modern

economic benefits resulted from the act, which changed the criteria for entry

into the country. Would-be immigrants had to meet certain criteria before

they could enter the country, such as having relatives in the United States or

useful skills (Martin, 2015). The characteristics of immigrants changed after

passage of the Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965: Immigration

averaged only 195,000 people per year from 1921 through 1970. After 1970,

the immigrant population reached 40,000,000 by 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau,

2014).

Braceros

Between 1942 and 1964, over 4,600,000 workers entered the United

States through an agreement between the United States and Mexico for

immigrant labor. During World War II, these arrangements enabled Mexican

immigrants to replace domestic workers; the majority of men in the labor

force had left for war (Martin, 2015).

The Bracero Program successfully filled jobs and sustained the U.S.

labor market for decades (Salinas, 2018). The main contribution of braceros

to the labor force was in agriculture. They helped make fields in the United

States some of the most productive in the world and the United States a

leading contributor to agriculture (Salinas, 2018). Although these workers

made large contributions to the success of farming, some people objected to

allowing them into the country. Many believed that the braceros depleted

opportunities for domestic-born workers, but there is little evidence of this

(Clemens et al., 2018).

The exclusion of braceros from the labor market in the 1950s created a

baseline investigation of the influence of immigrant workers (Clemens et al.,

2018). These investigations arose from the assumption that braceros working

in farming during the 1950s reduced jobs and wages available to domestic-

born workers (Clemens et al., 2018). However, the results of these

investigations indicated that the Bracero Program did not negatively impact

the labor market for domestic-born workers and, in lieu of human capital,

employers implemented production techniques that offset the need for

domestic workers (Clemens et al., 2018). Efforts to reduce the number of

braceros to increase demand for domestic-born labor failed, and this failure

illustrated the continued need for immigrant labor.

From its inception in 1942, the Braceros Program allowed Mexican

laborers to legally enter the United States and offset the need for labor

during World War II in exchange for stronger border security (Martin,

2015). However, immigrants continued to cross the border without

authorization in search of jobs during this period (Hernandez, 2010) . To

reduce the number of immigrants entering the country and reestablish labor

relations between Mexico and the United States, Operation Wetback began

in 1954 (Hernández, 2010). The purpose of Operation Wetback was to

deport unauthorized

Mexican immigrants and prevent the further unauthorized migration of

Mexicans to the United States; however, the need for labor continued, and so

employers recruited unauthorized immigrants to support their industries.

Immigration continued to be a contentious issue during the 1960s. Civil

rights activists called for equal treatment regardless of national origin, and

many viewed the quota system, which allowed only a fraction of would-be

immigrants into the country each year, as discriminatory and biased

(Hernández, 2010). The Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 limited

immigration according to category rather than national origin, and although

the act still placed caps on the number of immigrants, over 18,000,000

immigrants entered the country during the 30 years after the act was passed

(Hernández, 2010).

The Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 changed the course

of migration and significantly increased the number of immigrants entering

the United States (Foner, 2000). The major change was that immigrants

entered from many different nations around the world rather than primarily

from European nations. During the 1970s, a new wave of immigrants from

diverse national backgrounds entered the United States (Foner, 2000). New

immigrants entering the nation came from Central and South America and

Asia. Between 1973 and 1993, those from Europe made up only 13% of the

immigrants entering the country, while those from Asia made up 35.5%, and

those from the Americas made up 49.6% (Foner, 2000). Error! Reference

source not found. illustrates trends in o verall immigration.

Hispanic Refugees as Immigrants

Over the past two decades, the makeup of the Hispanic immigrant

population has changed in terms of country of origin (BLS, 2017). Between

1960 and 1990 Hispanic immigrants were entering primarily from Caribbean

nations such as the Dominican

Republic, Cuba, and Mexico. Since 1990’s, Hispanic immigrants entering

the United

States from Central and South American countries such as Honduras,

Nicaragua,

Venezuela, and El Salvador have increased (BLS, 2017).

Cuban Refugees

A different wave of immigrants entered the United States in the late 1900s

(Pedraza, 1959). Previous immigrants entering the United States were

primarily from European and Asian countries (Martin, 2011). With concerns

looming over civil unrest and possible regime change, Cuban citizens started

migrating to the United States (Pedraza, 1959). According to the 1990

census, there were more than 1,000,000 Cubans living in the United States

(Census Bureau, 1992). The influx of Cuban migrants brought a different

class of immigrant from Spanish speaking countries to the nation (Pedraza,

1959). Unlike many earlier immigrants, these people were not leaving their

country in search of employment; instead, they were refugees forced to leave

their homeland involuntarily (Pedraza, 1959). The first wave of Cuban

refugees to the United States were wealthy, upper class individuals fleeing

political unrest and the economic implications of broken ties between the

United States and Cuba. Among those immigrants were over 14,000 children

sent by their parents through Operation Peter Pan, a visa waiver program, to

protect them from Castro’s dissidents (Pedraza, 1959). Future waves of

Cuban immigrants were drawn not from the elite of Cuban society but

instead from the petite bourgeoisie, and these refugees sought opportunities

after losing businesses under the communist regime. The Marielitos,

refugees from the lowest classes considered undesirable by the Cuban

government, formed the last large wave of Cuban immigrants to the United

States. Throughout these waves of immigration, Cuban immigrants became

an integral part of U.S. society, and their economic and social contributions

have remained nationally significant. Cuban immigrants made up a large

number of immigrants making significant contributions to the U.S. economy

and workforce.

Central American Refugees

Many have viewed the United States as a nation that upholds and

respects human rights (U.S. Department of State, n.d.). This perception has

attracted millions of people to the nation’s shores (Martin, 2011). The

nation’s granting of political asylum to those fleeing persecution has driven

individuals to enter the country (U.S. Department of State, N.D.). Some

large groups of Hispanic and Latino immigrants entering the country to flee

political unrest have come from Central and South America and Mexico

(Oboler, 1998). Large numbers, thousands of refugees, have come from El

Salvador, Nicaragua, and Honduras. These immigrants came to the United

States seeking refuge from war, gang violence, and government persecution.

The number of such refugees has increased with the ever-changing political

climates in these nations. In the 1970s, Argentinians, Chileans, Uruguayans,

and Brazilians attempted to flee civil and economic unrest in their countries,

but the United States did not welcome them as it had the Cubans 10 years

earlier (Odem, 2016). Immigrants from El Salvador, Honduras, Guatemala,

and Nicaragua who fled the wars in their nations were treated not treated as

political refugees but as economic immigrants. However, public awareness

of the civil wars in these countries and the support provided by the United

States to their military regimes led the U.S. government to grant thousands

of political refugees from these countries temporary protected status (TPS)

after years of debate (Odem, 2016).

Refugees entering the United States have become one of the largest

parts of the immigrant workforce because of the asylum status they receive

upon entry (Orrenius & Zavodny, 2015). Refugees are immigrants unable

return to their home countries because of political, racial, or religious

persecution or natural disaster (American Immigration Council, 2018). The

asylum status granted to refugees allows them to legally accept employment,

which helps employers fill vacancies and reduces the labor shortage. Most

refugees entering the country have received TPS, which has allowed them to

remain in the country legally, accept employment, become active members

of their communities, and contribute to the economy (Menjívar, 2017). The

labor force participation of TPS holders, including male TPS holders, has

been much higher than that of other immigrants; TPS holders have

contributed to the overall health of the economy, with over 89% contributing

to Social Security retirement, even though their status prevented them

receiving the corresponding benefits (Menjívar, 2017; Orrenius & Zavodny,

2015).

The growing shortage of domestic workers has led employers to rely

on refugees and other immigrants to support their businesses (National

Immigration Forum, 2018). The National Immigration Forum (2018)

reported that refugees made up a large part of the workforce in the United

States and had higher employment rates than native-born workers from 2009

to 2011, giving refugees considerable influence over employers. Refugees

held 21,000 jobs in the Midwest in 2013. However, changes in refugee

policies have reduced the number of refugees entering the nation. According

to the American Immigration Council (2018), the Trump administration

reduced the annual number of refugee admissions by over 50,000 from

initial target of 110,000 as of fiscal year 2018, which may have had a

negative impact on the nation’s economy and workforce.

Hispanic Immigrants in the Labor Force

Hispanic immigrants have been entering the country for centuries,

many seen entering after the 19th century (Martin, 2011). Before the 1970s,

there were fewer than 1,000,000 Hispanic immigrants in the United States

(Pew Research, 2016). The Hispanic population of the United States has

grown steadily for five decades. In the first part of the 20th century, most

immigrants to the United States came from European countries such as

Ireland and Germany (Abramitzky & Boustan, 2017). In the aftermath of the

world wars and associated famine, the number of European immigrants

increased: Over 600,000 immigrants entered the United States after World

War I, and over 1,000,000 entered after World War II (Abramitzky &

Boustan, 2017). In the late 1970s, the demographics of the immigrant

population changed. Hispanic immigrants to the United

States started to become leading contributors to the workforce.

Hispanic immigrants have made significant contributions to the

national workforce and economy (BLS, 2017). In 2016, the nation’s

27,000,000 foreign-born workers made up 16% of the total workforce (BLS,

2017). Hispanic immigrants accounted for over 48% of those foreign-born

workers.

According to Menjívar (2017), integration of Hispanic TPS holders

has positively impacted society and the workforce. Among TPS holders,

over 94% of men and 83% of women participated in the workforce in 2016,

and 80% paid income tax and had contributed to social security for an

average of 15 years. Limitations on the number of visas issued for Hispanic

immigrants—and a 7% reduction in the overall number of immigrant visas—

have impacted the labor force and caused economic challenges for

employers (Migration Policy Institute, 2018).

Hispanic people have contributed to labor markets for several different

industries, including agriculture, medicine, construction, and hospitality

(BLS, 2015). The Hispanic labor force has a diverse and robust background,

which affects the work attitudes of Hispanic workers, increasing productivity

(Brunette, 2004). The strong work ethic and attitudes of Hispanic workers

have made them indispensable in the labor market: There were 26,800,000

Hispanics or Latinos in the U.S. labor force in 2016 (Error! Reference s

ource not found.).

The BLS (2015) predicted a significant increase in employment within

the next decade, between 2020 and 2030 with expected increases in work in

602 occupations, those health care seeing the largest increases. Most

indicators suggest that declining labor force participation will hinder

economic growth during the next decade. One of the main reasons for

declining participation in the labor force is the aging population. Older

workers retiring will increase the number of vacancies.

Hispanic Labor in Construction

Hispanic workers have made up over 18% of the construction labor

force (AlBayati, 2019). The proportion of Hispanic workers in construction

increased from 10% in 1995–1996 to over 1,300,000 by 2001, an increase of

18% (Brunette, 2004). Hispanic laborers made up 34% of construction

workers in the United States in 2015. The number of Hispanic workers in the

construction industry has increased, with an estimated 2,800,000 Hispanic

workers in construction in 2015 (CPWR, 2016).

According to the BLS (2016), construction is one of the most

dangerous industries in the United States. Hallowell and Yugar-Arias (2016)

found that construction workers in the United States were at a high risk of

injury or fatality in 2016, and the risk for Hispanic workers was 48% higher

than that for non-Hispanic workers. According to the BLS (2018), Mexican

construction workers experienced over 350 fatalities in 2016, and European

construction workers experienced fewer than 100 fatalities in the same year

in the United States. However, despite the risks associated with construction,

the number of Hispanic workers in the industry has continued to grow.

Employers in the construction industry hired Hispanic workers in part due to

specific skill sets possessed by Hispanic immigrants that made them

effective workers in this field.

Hispanic Labor in Agriculture

Agriculture is an important industry in the United States (Agriculture

Workforce Coalition, 2016). According to the Agriculture Workforce

Coalition (2016), the agricultural sector has been facing significant labor

shortages that have impacted crops and led to a sharp decline in fruit and

vegetable production. Economic Research Services (2019) reported that

agricultural production dropped by over 20%, from 2018 which led to a rise

in imports of fruits and vegetables that negatively impacted the economy.

According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (2018), U.S.budget

cuts impact the labor force and, consequently, economic output. Labor

shortages have already had a tremendous impact on agriculture. Continued

labor shortages will prevent U.S.

agriculture from remaining competitive in global markets (Error!

Reference source not f ound.).

Hispanic Labor in Hospitality

Hospitality (including tourism) is one of the most productive

industries employing blue-collar workers (World Tourism Organization,

2019). In 2015, the industry grossed more than $189,000,000,000 (Statista,

2015; World Tourism Organization, 2019). Many hospitality workers have

few or no specialized skills, and low wages are therefore common in the

industry (World Tourism Organization, 2019). With the hospitality industry

expected to continue growing, employers will need to hire more workers to

keep up with demand (World Tourism Organization, 2019) . Hispanic

immigrants made up over 22% of all hospitality workers in the United States

(BLS, 2017). The growing hospitality industry and shrinking workforce

suggest continued high demand for Hispanic immigrant labor.

Hispanic Labor in Food Service

Hispanic and Latino workers made up 25% of all employees in the

food service industry in 2016 (Buchholz et al., 2016). These workers were

mostly immigrants with few skills who faced a language barrier. The food

service workforce has declined over the past several years, which has led

employers to place higher demands on remaining workers to meet the

employers’ growing needs.

The Labor Shortage in the United States

The labor shortage in the United States has been a growing concern

for employers, who have begun to worry about their ability to remain

competitive (Taylor et.al., 2012). The shortage of workers in U.S.

manufacturing has been an issue for many decades. Taylor et al. (2012),

Hertz and Zahniser (2013), and Guthman (2017) noted that the shortage of

farm labor has increased stress on the agricultural industry for several years

and burdened suppliers. Since the early 21st century, the size of the

agriculture labor force has declined sharply, which has impacted the ability

of farmers to remain competitive in foreign markets (Guthman, 2017). This

labor shortage has also provided a significant advantage to workers, who

have been able to ask for higher wages.

Employers have been encountering gaps in the labor force due to older

adults retiring in large numbers (BLS, 2017). Within the past decade, the

loss of seasoned workers to retirement has led to deficiencies in the labor

market (BLS, 2017). According to the BLS (2017), the labor force has

continued to shrink as older workers have retired. In addition to older

workers leaving the workforce, the number of individuals entering the labor

force has declined. The civilian labor force declined from the total

population from 66.2% in 2008 to 63.1% in 2018 (BLS, 2018). This decline

contributed to loss of revenue for U.S. employers. Employers have had to

increasingly rely on immigrants to fill vacancies. However, recent

immigration reforms have reduced the number of visas available for would-

be immigrants, which has worsened the labor shortage (Neumark et al.,

2013; Pearlman & Schaffer, 2013; Richards, 2018).

According to Krueger (2017), an aging and shrinking population

impacts the number of qualified workers. Workforce participation also

affects the supply of skilled workers. As the economy continues to grow and

create jobs, one way to fill those vacancies given a shrinking workforce is to

increase immigration (Hertel & Zacher, 2015; Krueger, 2017).

In specific industries, employers have had to increase their use of

immigrant workers to offset the labor shortage (Guthman, 2017). However,

the lack of workers has continued to burden employers, who have worried

about how to meet their labor demands (Guthman, 2017). The use of

immigrant workers has allowed employers to remain productive in industries

such as agriculture, farming, and hospitality, but new immigration policies

have threatened to reduce the number of immigrant workers allowed to enter

the country, threatening the labor available to those industries (Guthman,

2017; Kostandini et al., 2014; Udani, 2016). The labor shortage and

consequent reduction in profits will continue unless immigration reform

allows more immigrant workers to enter the country (Guthman, 2017;

Kostandini et al., 2014; Udani, 2016). Several industries have been

experiencing labor shortages, including construction, agriculture, and

hospitality (BLS, 2016). The recent reduction in the Hispanic workforce has

contributed significantly to reductions in profits and revenues for employers

in multiple industries (Canon et al., 2013; Krueger, 2017).

Kim et al. (2020) predicted that many employers would face labor

shortages impacting their industries. The labor shortage would affect some

states more than others: Sectors such as agriculture on the west coast would

experience a reduction in the number of available workers. Hispanic labor is

important to construction and agriculture, and shortages of Hispanic labor

would make it difficult for employers in those industries to remain

competitive (Charlton & Kostandini, 2018; L. Nelson et al., 2015; Torres et

al., 2012). Employers in the United States have already been feeling the

impact of a reduction in the Hispanic labor force (Guthman, 2017). The

deportation of many Hispanic immigrants has led many industries to

experience declines in both numbers of consumers and ability to provide

services. Industries such construction have experienced a large decline in the

size of the Hispanic labor force, which has significantly decreased their

ability to do business (Association of Construction Workers, 2020; Sisk &

Bankston, 2014; Torres et al., 2012). If this decline were to continue,

employers in these industries would be incapable of meeting demand. This

illustrates the critical impact of, and need for, Hispanic workers. Charlton

and Kostandini (2018) noted that the Hispanic labor shortage had impacted

both the farming and construction industries in recent years. The agricultural

sector has grown thanks to higher demand for domestic products than for

imported ones. The demand for local products has increased the need for

labor; however, recent immigration reforms have reduced the size of the

labor force significantly.

Hispanic Immigrants’ Impact on Labor

From the initial braceros who entered in the 1940s to more recent

refugees from Honduras and El Salvador, Hispanic immigrants have played

a key role in the labor force since the middle of the 20th century (Menjívar,

2017). Despite this role, changes to immigration policy have reduced the

number of employment visas issued to those from Spanish-speaking

countries from over 4,800 in 2016 to 4,200 in 2018 (U.S. Department of

State, 2019). Recent reforms directed at immigrants have impacted the

nation’s overall labor force and made it difficult for employers to conduct

business and remain globally competitive (Migration Policy Institute, 2018).

The impact of immigration reform on Hispanic immigrants is an important

policy issue that deserves to be addressed because of the effects that

Hispanic workers have on American employers.

Although the reforms have particularly affected male Hispanic

immigrants, employers have also depended heavily on Hispanic women.

Hispanic individuals made up a large proportion of North Carolina’s labor

force. However, recent immigration reforms have reduced the number of

Hispanic women in the state’s labor force, which has impacted industries in

this region (Flippen, 2014, 2016). The same phenomenon has occurred in

other areas of the country.

Employers have remained in need of labor. The number of open

positions has recently exceeded the number of workers seeking employment.

Immigration reforms have impacted U.S. employers (P. B. Nelson et al.,

2014; Stuesse & Helton, 2013;

Valentine, 2017), and these reforms and their effects on employers warrant

investigation. An example of the recent changes in immigration policy and

how these changes have impacted employers is the denial of visas to

immigrant workers, which has caused a severe shortage of labor in

hospitality. Employers have had to attempt to meet consumer demand

without the necessary workforce. Continued shortages would impact the

ability of employers to provide services and meet demand.

Immigrant labor is cheap and flexible, and immigrants thus contribute

enormously to the economies of their new countries (Orrenius et al., 2020).

Many immigrants who enter a country and take root make significant

contributions to the economy, not only because of their participation in the

labor force but also because of their contribution to domestic demand.

Hispanic immigrant labor is one of the main reasons U.S. industries have

been able to remain competitive (Coulombe & Gil, 2016; P. Martin, 2013;

Paret, 2014). Without the Hispanic labor force, employers in the United

States would not be able to remain in business and stay competitive in global

markets.

Immigration reforms have continued to contribute to reduction of the

labor force and impact the ability of employers to remain competitive. The

recent enforcement of immigration policies by agencies such as Immigration

and Customs Enforcement,

Customs and Border Protection, and local and state law enforcement, has

worsened the labor shortage and impacted the ability of employers to remain

competitive. Some have argued that recent changes in immigration policies

targeted Hispanic immigrants and that continued enforcement of these new

policies would reduce the Hispanic population and create disparities among

immigrants (Jaggers et al., 2014; Orrenius & Zavodny, 2014; Valentine,

2017).

The need for skilled labor has been increasing in the United States,

and the way to increase the number of skilled workers available to an

industry is to ensure that employers can hire immigrant workers and provide

them with adequate training. Unfortunately, the reduction in the number of

immigrant workers has made it difficult for employers to meet the demands

of their industries. Several other groups of immigrants have been significant

in the U.S. labor force (Sherman et al., 2019), but Hispanic immigrants have

made the greatest impact, especially in the South, where the sectors

impacted by the shortage of Hispanic immigrant workers include agriculture,

construction, and hospitality (BLS, 2019a).

Hipsman and Meissner (2013) argued for reform to ensure the

availability of an immigrant labor force to U.S. employers. Employers

running immigrant-supported businesses have supplied the nation with

billions of dollars in revenue (Kosten, 2018). However, the decline in

national population growth and the decline in the labor force since the Great

Recession of 2008 (Hotchkiss & Rios-Avila, 2013; Toossi, 2015) have led to

a shortage of human capital. Without the ability to maintain their labor

forces, employers may not be able to produce the goods and services that

create revenue.

Employers have depended on the availability of immigrant labor to

meet demand; however, recent immigration reform has threatened

employers’ access to immigrant labor (Arestis et al., 2013; Canon et al.,

2013; Krueger, 2017). The decline of the labor force within certain groups

has contributed significantly to employers’ inability to meet consumer

demand (Hall & Petrosky-Nadeau, 2016; Valletta, 2013). The lack of

workers and inability of employers to meet demand have left employers

vulnerable globally.

The Hispanic labor force has become crucial to the ability of

employers to remain competitive. Immigration reform needs to include

regulations that support the needs of employers and their industries. This

includes the needs of Hispanic immigrants, whom these employers have

come to depend on. Processes that deter immigrants from applying for work

do not support employers during a labor shortage and prevent employers

from remaining competitive in global markets (Guerrero & Posthuma, 2014;

Lopez, 2013). Employers have been facing severe labor shortages; to remain

competitive in global markets, they need to be able to reliably employ

immigrants.

Summary

The literature review demonstrated that a labor shortage has been impacting

U.S. employers and industries. Researchers have found that Hispanic

immigrants could help reduce the labor shortage and that new immigration

policies could impact competitiveness of employers and allow employers to

remain viable. Employers need to consistently deliver services and goods,

but employers have been finding it hard to meet demand due to the shortage

of labor, especially skilled labor.

The literature indicates that Hispanic immigrants have been

contributing to the economy and helping employers meet demand and

remain relevant in their industries. In industries such as construction,

hospitality, agriculture, and food services, Hispanic immigrants have

continued to contribute to and support the needs of the industries and their

employers.

The literature review highlighted the need for additional labor to

ensure that employers can meet demand. Researchers have reported that

labor shortages have been impacting employers and their ability to operate.

The inability of employers to meet demand may affect their overall revenue.

The labor force is important to the success of the nation’s employers.

Although the labor shortage and the impact of Hispanic immigrants on the

labor force have both caused concern, no researchers have investigated

employers’ perceptions of Hispanic immigrants’ contributions to the

workforce and industry. The employers’ lived experiences are necessary to

understand the need for the participation of Hispanic immigrants in the

workforce.

The literature review also indicated the need for a shift in immigration

policy to allow Hispanic immigrants to enter the United States to support the

increasing demand for human capital. The immigration policies that

impacted Hispanic immigrants the most were the reduction of the number of

visas issued to Hispanic immigrants and changes to TPS. These two

immigration policies have had a tremendous impact on the number of

immigrants entering the United States.

Although Hispanic immigrants have been important contributors to

the labor force, few researchers have studied employers’ perceptions of

Hispanic immigrants in the workforce. In this study, I explored the

experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants and their perceptions of

Hispanic immigrants’ impact on their industry. Chapter 3 describes the

research method, design, population, and sampling. The chapter also

presents the methods of data collection and analysis in detail.

Chapter 3

Methodology and Research Design

Introduction

The labor shortage has continued to worsen in the United States.

Employers have been unable to meet demand due to lack of workers and

have had difficulty remaining competitive in the global market. In this study,

I addressed, from the perspective of employers, the impact of Hispanic

immigrants on the labor shortage and the ability of employers to remain

competitive. In this chapter, I review the qualitative research methodology,

narrative research design, instruments, selection of participants, methods of

data collection and analysis, and my role as the researcher. The methodology

chosen was the most appropriate for the topic explored and provided the

desired results, which indicated how Hispanic immigrants could help

employers meet their increasing demands for labor.

Research Design and Rationale

This study used was qualitative in nature. Qualitative research is based

on an individual’s experience and perceptions (Reiners, 2012; Snyder,

2012). Using qualitative research allows an individual to share their

understanding of a situation as it applies to them (Creswell, 2009). It enables

a researcher to plan their research. The narrative approach to research

involves understanding the experience of an individual by telling their story.

A single research question guided the study: What are employers’

experiences regarding hiring Hispanic immigrants with legal authorization to

work in agriculture and landscaping in the United States? I explored

employers’ experiences of the impact of Hispanic immigrants on the labor

shortage and the ability of employers to meet demand due to the changes in

immigration policies.

Narrative inquiry utilizes the philosophy that people and experiences

can be illustrated through their stories (Wang & Geale, 2015). The primary

objective of narrative inquiry for me was to understand the experiences of

employers of Hispanic immigrants. I wished to study the experiences of

employers of Hispanic immigrants regarding the impact of Hispanic

immigrant labor on employers. A case study design would have allowed

exploration of the issue rather than the lived experiences of individuals

(Creswell, 2007). Although the grounded theory approach has similarities to

the phenomenological approach, the grounded theory approach is geared

more toward explanation “of a process, action or interaction shaped by a

large number of participants” (Creswell, 2007, p. 249). In grounded theory

research, a researcher accumulates participants’ experiences and formulates

a theory from them. A narrative inquiry study was the best choice for

understanding the experiences of employers of immigrant workers and

obtaining first-hand information about the experiences employing immigrant

workers. Experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants were better

suited for this study versus other methods of research in order to establish an

understanding of the employer’s views on Hispanic workers and their

contributions to the employers’ workforce. Therefore, I selected a narrative

analysis design so that I could understand the lived experiences of the

employers of Hispanic immigrant workers and the impact these workers

have on their industries.

Narrative inquiry begins with asking participants to re-tell their stories

and share their experience (Clandinin & Huber, 2010). A narrative inquiry

design was the best way to understand what employers experience with their

Hispanic immigrant laborers and how they perceive Hispanic immigrants

impacting the labor shortage. Quantitative methods would have been

inappropriate because they cannot capture lived experiences, and rather

focus on variables and hypotheses to test theories (Creswell, 2002).

According to Moustakas (1994), participant selection is directly related to

the research methods used. Merriam (2009) noted that qualitative research

provides opportunities to recognize aspects of a research topic in advance. In

this manner, a researcher can choose appropriate participants for a given

research topic. The qualitative narrative inquiry allows for the sharing of

lived experiences (Clandinin & Huber, 2010) and thus differs from

quantitative approaches, which focus on a group’s outcomes rather than their

experiences (Creswell, 2002).

I collected data by interviewing employers of Hispanic immigrants in

the agricultural and landscaping industries. Hispanic immigrants have

worked in record numbers in the agricultural and landscaping industries for

several decades, so I focused on these industries. I conducted semistructured

interviews via telephone and Zoom at agreed-upon times and recorded them

to ensure accurate interpretation of data. For employers who did not want to

be recorded, I captured data via detailed notes.. The sample consisted of

three employers. Patton (2002) suggested that sample size can increase to

reach saturation, if necessary. This sample size permitted a well-rounded

understanding of employers of Hispanic immigrants and their perceptions of

the impact of Hispanic immigrants on the labor force.

Role of the Researcher

My role as the researcher was to conduct an unbiased examination of

the lived experiences of participants via narrative methods. In a qualitative

study, the researcher becomes the instrument of research, facilitates

interactions between the researcher and participants, and ensures that

participants feel safe sharing their experiences (Pezalla et al., 2012). I had no

personal relationships with the participants in this study. I had no bias

regarding, or power relationships with, the participants. There were no

unresolved ethical issues related to the study.

Methodology

Researchers conduct narrative inquiry in order to study experiences

through telling of a story (Clandinin & Huber, 2010). Narrative inquiry

allows a researcher to understand and look into experiences through

collaboration between researcher and participant (Connely & Clandinin,

2000). Using this research method, which allows the participant to tell their

story, a researcher can capture experiences through the lens of the

participant. Wang and Geale (2015) discuss how previous experiences of

participants allows the researcher an inside view on the topic.

Narrative analysis focuses on personal conditions and social

conditions simultaneously (Clandinin &Huber, 2010). According to

Clandinin and Huber (2010), narrative inquiry allows participants to share

their experiences and the impact of the lived experiences had on their lives.

Moustakas (1994) argued that participant encounters are essential to

describing the overall experience of a phenomenon.

According to Creswell (2007), qualitative research allows a researcher

to study the experiences of individuals to understand a phenomenon.

Qualitative research provides insight into the reasons people engage in

particular actions (Rosenthal, 2016). Using this research method, a

researcher can investigate individuals’ lived events in depth and understand

their perceptions. Because qualitative research focuses on the perceptions of

participants, a qualitative researcher must maintain objectivity to ensure that

the data are authentic (Berg, 2001). A qualitative researcher commits to

preserving the dependability of the data collected.

According to Szyjka (2012), the purpose of qualitative research is to

understand and interpret a situation. Qualitative research allows a researcher

to explore issues in depth without formulating theories; the researcher

instead understands the experience through participant perceptions and the

perspectives of individuals who encountered the experience. Qualitative

methods allow both researchers and their audiences to gain a more

comprehensive understanding of participants’ viewpoints than by conducting

quantitative research (Szyjka, 2012).

Narrative inquiry approaches are ideal for studies that focus on the

stories of participants experiences and their perceptions of those experiences

(Creswell, 2007). In this narrative inquiry study, I explored the lived

experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants. Narrative inquiry was the

method best suited to explore this experience in order to capture the

understanding of those who have lived the experience and address the

encounters of employers who hire Hispanic immigrants. The study, being a

narrative exploration of a theory, may impact future studies addressing

immigration issues, by understanding the lived experiences of employers of

Hispanic immigrants in the workforce and the demand employers are facing

and may demonstrate the need for policy reform to address the labor

shortage.

Although narrative research has its origins in literature, history and

anthropology, different fields have used the approach in research (Creswell,

2007). Narrative inquiry research methods “begins with the experiences

expressed in lived and told stories of individuals.” (Creswell, 2007).

Narrative research looks at individuals’ lives and the focus is on the events

as lived and relayed by the individual who lived the experience (Clandinin &

Huber, 2015). When the participants relay their stories, they are reliving the

events and may be in the midst of ongoing occurrences which are impacting

their lives.

When a researcher uses a narrative inquiry, they are entering the lives

of the participants (Clandinin & Huber, 2015). The purpose of narrative

research is to discover how experiences have been lived by participants and

the impact they have had in their lives. This type of research allows the

researcher to capture the meaning of the experiences from the participants’

perspectives. A narrative inquiry researcher uses the lived experiences of

participants, which allows the researcher to obtain a profound understanding

of those experiences.

Participant Selection

The target population of any study is the group of individuals a

researcher can recruit for the study (Creswell, 2009). The participants and

sampling method—the method of selecting participants—affect the outcome

of the study (Creswell, 2007, 2009). The sampling method used was

purposive sampling. The needs of a study should drive participant selection.

For this investigation, I chose to study employers of Hispanic immigrants in

the agricultural and landscaping industries in Maryland and Virginia. I asked

these employers to share their experiences of employing Hispanic

immigrants and their perceptions of the contributions of Hispanic

immigrants to U.S. enterprises. The employers had hired and would be

hiring employees who either had work permits for these industries or were

legal permanent residents. The employers studied had hired employees who

either had work permits for specific industries or were legal permanent

residents of the United States.

Target Population

The participants selected for this study were employers of Hispanic

immigrants in the agricultural and landscaping industries. The criteria for

participant selection derived from the stated problem—that employers have

been having difficulty filling vacancies in the agricultural and landscaping

industries—and the research question, which relates to the lived experiences

of employers hiring Hispanic immigrants. The selected employers in the

agricultural and landscaping industries, met the required criteria for the

study. I selected employers based on their record of having hired Hispanic

laborers and their willingness to participate in the study.

The participants were employers located in Maryland, Virginia, and the District

Columbia. The employers selected were from several different industries and

enterprises. I also considered employers of a variety of ages and races to

ensure the sample was diverse and unbiased. The participant pool included

owners of agricultural and landscaping companies that employed Hispanic

individuals. The pool also included employers who are not owners but who

employ Hispanic immigrants in their workforce. The rationale for sampling

this diverse group of employers was to expose the lived experiences of

employers of Hispanic immigrants in the agriculture and landscaping

industries. To ensure an unbiased narrative of the impacts of Hispanic

immigrant workers, I restricted the study to employers in the specific

industries already mentioned who each have at least 50 employees. By

interviewing employers who have at least 50 employees, it included

employers who had not only Hispanic immigrant employees but also non-

Hispanic employees within their workforce. Selecting employers from the

agricultural and landscaping industries and employers who have at least 50

employees, increased the diversity of perspectives available. I tailored the

interviews based on the number of employees and the industry.

Potential participants all received a description of the study and its

purpose. I obtained participants’ informed consent and promised to maintain

confidentiality in writing before they took part in the study; I required

participants to understand the nature of the study prior to participation. I

informed participants that they could withdraw from the study at any time.

Sampling Method and Sample Size

In quantitative studies, sample size considerations depend on the need

to make statistical generalizations from the sample selected (Onwuegbuzie

& Leech, 2005). Qualitative research involves experiences shared by

participants, and so sample size has less impact on obtaining desired results.

Creswell (2002) stated that considerations regarding sample size depend on

the type of research conducted. Although qualitative research can involve

large samples, the number of individuals sampled should reflect the needs of

a study (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005). For this narrative inquiry study into

the lived experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants, I targeted a

sample size of 3 employers. The sample size derived from the narrative

nature of the study. Creswell

(1998) suggested that “sample size is not straightforward in a qualitative

research”

(Butina,2015). I selected different employers for this study based on the

sizes of their companies, their hiring practices, and their availability. The

sampling criteria disqualified multiple employers. I recruited participants

using the criteria set for the study. The sample represented the target

population of the study. According to Creswell (2009), a sample should

reflect the specific population that a researcher wants to represent.

I used purposeful sampling. According to Patton (1990), purposeful

sampling allows a researcher to select participants whose lived experiences

can enrich the researcher’s study. A qualitative researcher analyzes data

while the investigation is ongoing. Data saturation is not easy to predict; one

study may reach saturation with fewer participants than another study. For

this study, I purposefully chose participants who represented multiple

industries, wide experience of employers of Hispanic immigrants, and

understanding of the labor shortage. I identified, contacted, and recruited the

participants myself. I identified potential participants by researching

employers in the designated study area and contacting them via telephone

and email to request their participation.

Sample

I selected a purposeful sample of four employers. After collecting data

from the four employers, it was determined the study provided the rich

information needed for a narrative inquiry study. This sample size was ideal

for the qualitative narrative approach used and allowed me to obtain

significant data. The four interviews with employers allowed me to gain in-

depth understanding of the research topic and better analyze the data

collected (Patton, 1990) The sample size initially included 15 employers of

Hispanic immigrants and was intended to be a phenomenological study,

however, due to difficulties finding participants for the study and resistance

from employers to discuss the topic of Hispanic immigrant laborers, the

study was changed to a narrative inquiry and the final sample size of four

employers provided saturation of the data. The sample size was selected in

order to better understand the experiences of employers of Hispanic

immigrants legally authorized to work in the country. The sampling did not

include employers who do not hire Hispanic immigrants and did not include

employers of minors. The sampling was appropriate for this study and

achieved data saturation.

The sample represented the population of employers in a variety of

industries who employ Hispanic immigrants. Many of the participants shared

industries, which allowed me to uncover different perspectives on the same

topic from employers with similar industrial backgrounds. I interviewed four

employers, each of whom

•was a business owner or manager,

•hired Hispanic immigrants,

•was a provider in the service industry, and

•had a business in the District of Columbia, Maryland, or Virginia.

I invited employers to participate via email and phone calls after identifying

them in the business pages. I collected demographic data from the

participants to aid understanding of the sample and appropriate

representation of the population.

Instrumentation

According to Creswell (2009), a researcher is important to their

research because they collect the data and analyze it. Researchers must

therefore identify their own biases, personal values, and assumptions so that

they can interpret data accurately. According to

Kvale (2006), qualitative interviews allow a researcher to investigate the

human

experience and understand a participant’s point of view. Face-to-face

semistructured interviews are the best choice when a researcher wants to

allow the participants to express opinions about the subject matter. Other

means of data collection, with rigid instrumentation designs, do not allow

participants to share their lived experiences.

According to Alshenqeeti (2014), interviewing is a valid, acceptable,

and valuable instrument for data collection. Interviewing participants allows

the participants to express opinions in their own words. Open-ended

interviews formed the instrumentation of this study. I conducted these

interviews via telephone (Creswell, 2009) using open-ended interview

questions that I developed myself, which allowed participants to share their

lived experiences without feeling confined to give definitive answers. The

design of the interview process supported the structure of the study

(Alshenqeeti, 2014).

Data Collection

Pseudonyms helped protect the anonymity of the participants. I also

kept the locations of participants’ businesses confidential, unless participants

granted permission to identify their businesses or the locations of their

businesses. I recorded the audio of the interviews and took notes during data

collection. For participants who did not want to be recorded, I captured data

with detailed notes of the interviews. Participants all received a description

of the study and its purpose. I obtained participants’ informed consent and

promised to maintain confidentiality in writing before they took part in the

study; I required participants to understand the nature of the study prior to

participation. I informed participants that they could withdraw from the

study at any time.

Conduct of the interviews proceeded as agreed by myself and the

participants. I interviewed each participant in either one or two sessions,

based on their availability. I provided potential interviews times each

participant, and we then agreed on a time and date. If one session did not

provide enough time to interview a participant, we scheduled a second

session. I allotted 60–90 min to each participant. Participants varied in the

amount of time they needed to answer the interview questions and the

manner in which they answered the questions. I tailored the interviews to the

needs of the participants.

I recorded the interviews to ensure accuracy of the interpretation of

the details. For participants who did not want to be recorded, I captured

interview data via detailed notes. I noted any questions the participants had

during the interview process, which helped me when analyzing the interview

data and allowed me to review any additional relevant information. For

participants I sent all participants thank-you letters after their interviews.

Narrative inquiry allows the researcher to ask questions which will

help interpret the experiences of the participants (Wang & Geale, 2015).

Data collection for narrative inquiry research involves the researcher getting

an “insider view” into the experiences of the participants (Wang & Geale,

2015). Qualitative data collection usually occurs via indepth interviews with

open-ended questions. In this study, I used semistructured face-toface,

Zoom, or telephone interviews to address the research question. This method

of data collection has enjoyed wide use in qualitative narrative studies. I

recorded the interviews and transcribed them using NVivo (Version 11). For

participants who did not want to be recorded, I captured data via detailed

notes. Participants had the opportunity to review their transcribed interviews.

I kept interview data in a secure location to maintain participants’ privacy.

According to Merriam (2009), data analysis is the process of

understanding the data. Qualitative data analysis involves classifying events.

A qualitative researcher examines sources of information and assesses all

data collected based on their research questions. Data collection and analysis

of participants’ perceptions helps ensure study validity (Creswell, 2009).

Data Analysis

I used NVivo (Version 11) to sort and analyze the data gathered to

find trends and patterns. Data analysis is the process through which

researchers review and analyze collected data and interpret them to generate

findings (Merriam, 2009). Data analysis provides a researcher with a way to

understand complex data collected via interviews. Several methods of

analysis allow rigorous analysis of data based on primary accounts of a

phenomenon obtained from interviews with participants (Morrow et al.,

2015). Gaining familiarity with the data, identifying statements relevant to

the study, formulating meanings related to the study and bracketing,

clustering themes, developing exhaustive description, producing

fundamental structure, and seeking verification of the fundamental structure.

Data analysis allows a researcher to separate the data collected into

sections that facilitate interpretation. Creswell (2009) suggested categorizing

and labeling data with terms to facilitate the coding process. This helps the

final interpretation of the findings. I categorized the data gathered using

keywords and codes. I also created some categories— such as “Hispanic,”

“labor,” and “customers”—to facilitate analysis and interpretation of the

data. The keywords and codes were identified by the statement and words

used by the participants. I grouped data gathered by type to facilitate

interpretation and understanding.

Narrative analysis allows a researcher to examine data collected from

sources such as interviews. This form of data analysis focuses on the lived

experiences of participants to address a research question. I used narrative

analysis to address my research question.

Data analysis helps a researcher to interpret data gathered during

research. According to Giorgi (2009), data analysis is meant to uncover a

phenomenon based on individual experiences and identify themes based on

commonalities among experiences.

Data analysis allows researchers to understand in great depth what they have

studied. According to Dey (1993), coding plays a key role in analysis, which

involves subdividing the data and assigning categories to the parts. Several

coding methods help researchers notice patterns and commonalities in data.

Preliminary coding focuses on characteristics of a theory supporting a study.

Table 1 shows the preliminary coding used in this study.

Table 1

Preliminary Coding

Parent code a Child code Interview questions

kills sets Contributions 1, 2, 4, 7

ssets Earnings 2, 3, 9

eople Productivity 1, 2, 3, 4

mployee value Retention 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Note. These codes correspond to the lone research question: What are the

experiences of employers hiring Hispanic immigrants? The theory guiding

the study was human capital theory. a Characteristics of the theory.

Missing data and associated discrepancies during data analysis were

possibilities. Missing data can impact the outcome of a study negatively and

requires immediate attention (Scheffer, 2002). To address discrepancies due

to missing data, a researcher may delete records that are incomplete.

Researchers may also impute values to replace missing responses. For this

study, I addressed missing data by imputing values using NVivo. After

completing the interviews, I analyzed the interview data with respect to

immigration issues, perceptions of immigrant labor, likely access to

employment for immigrants, and the ability of employers to hire immigrant

workers.

Issues of Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness depends on validity and reliability (Shenton, 2004).

To address concerns regarding the trustworthiness of this qualitative study,

in this section I consider the study’s credibility, transferability,

dependability, and confirmability.

Credibility

Questions of credibility can arise in any research. According to

Shenton (2004), validity of a study depends on ensuring that the tests

performed are intended. A researcher must examine their sources of data to

build a credible justification for their findings. To ensure credibility of this

study, I implemented specific strategies. One strategy was to have prolonged

contact with participants: several communications with participants to

determine interest in participating in the study. I interviewed participants

extensively and collected the results of those interviews.

Verifying participants also helps establish credibility. To support the

reliability of the data collected, I verified employers before interviewing

them by checking the legitimacy of their businesses. The employers’

businesses were verified using Google as the internet search engine. This

helped with gathering information from a diverse group of participants. I

recorded interviews and transcribed them verbatim. For participants who did

not wish to be recorded, I captured interview data via detailed notes. I also

captured participant observations during interviews. This allowed for a better

depiction of the data collected and supported deeper analysis. Reliability

derives from triangulation. These methods allow detailed reporting of

processes and allow future researchers to learn which research methods and

instrumentation a researcher used (Shenton, 2004).

Transferability

According to Merriam (2009), transferability is an indicator of how

well the findings of a study apply to other situations. Transferability depends

on the nature of the conclusions and the population investigated. Saldana

(2016) suggested that researchers should draw from the words of participants

and capture the intrinsic meanings of participants’ experiences. To ensure

accurate transfer of data collected, I recorded the interviews to ensure I

captured them accurately. For those participants who did not want to be

recorded, I captured data via detailed notes. I transcribed the interviews

accurately and exactly. The purpose of using a participant pool specific to

the study was to make the findings of the study transferable. Participant

selection focused on the employers of Hispanic immigrants instead of

selecting employers who did not employ Hispanic immigrants legally

authorized to work in the country.

Dependability

Establishing dependability relies on reporting the processes of a study

in detail, which enables future researchers to repeat the work (Shenton,

2004). I kept audit trails to ensure the study findings were dependable.

Confirmability

Confirmability corresponds to the objectivity of a qualitative study

(Shenton, 2004). A researcher must ensure that their findings result from the

experiences and ideas of the participants rather than from the characteristics

and preferences of the researcher (Shenton, 2004). Reflexivity supports

confirmability by allowing a researcher to identify biases regarding their

research via reflective journaling; this process reduces investigator bias. To

increase the confirmability of this study, I applied reflexivity methods, such

as maintaining a reflexive journal.

Ethical Procedures

The validity and reliability of a researcher’s study depend on the

ethics of the researcher (Merriam, 2009). Ethics are an essential component

of credible research. To ensure adherence to ethical standards of behavior, I

required participants to sign consent forms. I did not coerce participants to

take part in the study, and participants were free to withdraw at any time. I

also distributed confidentiality agreements to participants and stored

collected data in a secure location. I avoided potential ethical issues related

to data collection by ensuring confidentiality of the data collected.

I submitted a proposal to Dr. Gema Hernandez, committee chair for

approval. The IRB approval number 08-25-20-0455691 was issued for this

study. The IRB application included an overview of the study, the data

collection tools, and a description of the research participants. The IRB

approved the study validating my application of ethical standards.

Summary

I selected a qualitative narrative inquiry research design to study the

labor shortage and the hiring of Hispanic immigrants from the perspective of

employers. The research consisted of interviewing four employers of

Hispanic immigrants legally authorized to work in the country. The data

collection was conducted via in depth interviews with the employers. Data

analysis consisted of identifying themes within the data via narrative

analysis which allows researchers to focus on the lived experiences of the

participants. My role as the researcher was to develop the interview

questions, investigate the phenomenon, conduct interviews, and report the

findings. Chapter 4

reports the findings.

Chapter 4

Results

Introduction

This chapter presents the findings based on the lived experiences of

employers of Hispanic immigrants derived from interviews with such

employers. A single research question guided this study: What are

employers’ experiences regarding hiring Hispanic immigrants with legal

authorization to work in agriculture and landscaping in the United States?

The purpose of this study was to address the research question from the

perspective of employers. The experiences of these employers could impact

immigration policies affecting Hispanic immigrants.

I explored employers’ experiences using a narrative inquiry method,

which allowed me to focus on employers of Hispanic immigrants, a group

that researchers had not previously investigated. In order to explore the of

the employer of Hispanic immigrants, the employers understanding of the

experience needed to be explored. Phenomenological inquiry was the

original design for the study. Phenomenological research surrounds the

researcher describing the phenomenon as accurately as possible

(Groenewald, 2004). This allows the researcher the opportunity to obtain

data. The object of phenomenological research is to describe (Groenewald,

2004). The phenomenological approach was thought to be adequate for the

research when initially planned due to the opportunity for employers to

“describe” the experiences they had in hiring Hispanic immigrant workers. I

intended to conduct research using a phenomenological method approach.

However, due to lack of participants, the method of inquiry was changed to

narrative.

Narrative inquiry methods allow participants to tell their story and

share experiences (Creswell, 2007). Narrative inquiry allows for the

researcher to explore the experiences of individuals as seen through their

lens. Clandinin & Connelly (2000) state that narrative inquiry is “a way of

understanding experience”. The experiences of the employers interviewed

for this study are critical in identifying the issues faced during the labor

shortage and the experiences with hiring Hispanic immigrant workers.

Narrative inquiry is also seen as able to “transcend” numerous approaches to

inquiry such as biography, autobiography, life stories, and life course

research (Savin-Baden & Niekerk, 2007). The use of narrative inquiry

appeared to be the most appropriate methodology for this study in order to

address the research question from the perspective of the employer and the

lived experiences. This chapter discusses the data collection, demographics

of the participants, the data analysis, and the trustworthiness and results of

the study.

Research Plan

I interviewed four employers of work-authorized Hispanic immigrants

using narrative inquiry as the methodology for the study. I originally

intended to use a phenomenological approach, however, due to lack of

participants and the reluctance of participants to discuss the Hispanic

immigrants they employ, the methodology was changed to a narrative

inquiry. Narrative inquiry is a recognized approach to research (Clandinin

&Connelly, 2000; Creswell, 2007) and it allows a researcher to explore the

lived experience of participants through the telling of their stories. I targeted

a sample size of four participants for this study. The COVID-19 pandemic

made face-to-face interviews untenable. To ensure the safety and well-being

of myself and the participants, I instead conducted interviews via telephone

and Zoom, following their preferences.

Demographics

The participants were all employers of work-authorized Hispanic

immigrants in the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia. The

employers were either owners of businesses or managers or hiring managers

within businesses. All participants took part voluntarily. I interviewed the

participants over the course of 2 weeks over; the longest interview lasted 50

minutes. The interview questions were open-ended. Interviews took place

over the phone and via Zoom in the participants’ offices or homes. Table 2

gives the demographics of the participants.

Table 2

Participant Characteristics

Employer Position Industry Gender

Owner

Hiring Manager

Landscaping

Agriculture

Male

3 Manager Landscaping Male

4 Hiring Manager Landscaping Female

Data Collection

I found participants through internet searches and cold calling. I

conducted interviews via telephone and Zoom with the four participants.

Interviews lasted 30-50 minutes. The data collection took 2 weeks to

complete because of the difficulty finding participants willing to discuss

hiring Hispanic immigrants.

I used NVivo (Version 12) to transcribe interviews. I used reflective

journaling to record my experiences and impressions during the interviews.

Microsoft Word is a computer program used to type and save documents.

After each interview, I reviewed the recording of the interview several times.

I also reviewed the recording to ensure that I had transcribed it verbatim into

a Microsoft Word document. After verifying the transcripts, I uploaded them

into NVivo for organization, coding, and further analysis.

The COVID-19 pandemic meant that employers were in their homes

or remote work locations during the interviews. This posed only a slight

limitation, however, because employers could take part in the interviews

despite not being physically at their businesses. The participants reported

that the pandemic caused them to experience strain and challenges. The

pandemic may therefore have influenced participants’ responses.

Data Analysis

Participant interviews and reflective journal entries were used to

gather data. To interpret the data captured by the participant interviews, I

implemented a qualitative analysis technique that involved asking

participants specific questions. I thoughtfully crafted the questions to ensure

that the participants would accept them and that they would elicit answers to

the research question. Once all interviews were gathered, I reviewed the

data to ensure understanding and proceeded with data analysis. I used NVivo

(Version 12) qualitative data analysis software to assist with analysis of the

data collected. NVivo helped with identification of variables, themes, codes,

categories, patterns, and meanings. The research question focused on the

lived experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants legally authorized to

work in the country. After transcribing the interviews, formatting the

transcripts, and reviewing the transcripts several times, I began coding the

data to identify patterns within them. During coding, I took care to note

whether participants answered each question presented, whether

participants’ responses to one question answered any other questions asked,

and the themes that emerged from the responses. Narrative analysis was used

to identify the themes emerging from the study. Themes formed were based

on the recurring words and language found in the participant data. NVivo

supported analysis of the frequencies and nature of the codes and allowed

me to extrapolate from the transcripts the meaning of the participants’

responses. Subthemes also emerged for each theme.

Evidence of Trustworthiness

This section describes how I established trustworthiness of the study

by establishing its credibility, transferability, dependability, and

conformability.

Credibility

Validity of a study depends on ensuring participants are verified and

test on the data collected are performed. I established credibility by checking

employer’s legitimacy and gathering information from different employers. I

also discussed the summary of the study with the participants and provided

participants with copies of the interview questions for their personal records

on request.

Transferability

I established transferability by reviewing participants’ responses

extensively to ensure accuracy of the data collected. Data analysis provided

evidence of the phenomenon, which allows transferability of the findings to

future studies. Interviews with participants and the nature of the conclusions

contributed to transferability of the study. The participants interviewed were

employers of Hispanic immigrants legally authorized to work in the country

and the interviews were captured accurately. The purpose of using a

participant pool specific to the study was to make the findings transferable.

Dependability

I established dependability of the study by thorough review of the data

obtained from the participant interviews. Manual line-by-line coding of the

interview transcripts provided dependable results. The results addressed the

research question. I generated audit trails to ensure dependability of the

study.

Confirmability

I established confirmability of the study by addressing my biases and

assumptions. To remain objective, I focused on the responses obtained from

the participants regarding their lived experiences. I focused on the data

collection process to ensure that I collected detailed data and organized all

documents. I also used reflective journaling to ensure I addressed biases and

assumptions.

Study Results

The results fulfilled the purpose of the study and filled gaps in existing

research. Saldana (2009) said that research questions explore the perceptions

of participants. Most participants, over 90%, agreed that the labor shortage

has impacted the ability of employers to hire qualified personnel. The

participants indicated that Hispanic immigrants played a significant role in

the workforce and that the human capital provided by Hispanic immigrants

was essential to maintaining adequate business functions. The participants

also stated that there was an impact of Hispanic immigrant workers on their

industries and on the ability to remain competitive. Many of the participants

indicated

that most of their workforces consisted of work-authorized Hispanic

immigrants.

Participants also said that they employed Black, White, and Asian American

workers. Participants said that they employed work-authorized Hispanic

immigrants as managers, day laborers, general laborers, field personnel, field

supervisors, and project managers

According to the participants, Hispanic immigrants made up over 80%

of their workforce and over 80% of qualified job applicants. Participants said

that the percentage of job applicants who were qualified had dropped from

86% in 2019 to less than 34% in

2020. Participants reported that this drop had impacted their ability to

operate. Participants also reported that recent changes in immigration

policies had led to significant delays in the processing of visa renewals,

which had contributed to a reduction in the number of qualified workers

available. Participants discussed concerns regarding their ability to produce

quality work, remain competitive, obtain new business, and retain customers

due to the lack of workers.

The responses provided by the participants were analyzed and several

themes emerged from the data: labor shortage, immigration, hiring

experiences, and loss of business. The themes and subthemes appear in

Table 3.

Table 3

Emerging Themes

Labor shortage

ack of workers 3

Theme and subtheme Occurrences

ewer applicants 4

Immigration

ewer visas issued 4

ewer immigrant applicants 4

Workers unable to renew visas 3

Hiring experiences

ifficulty hiring 3

mployee visas expiring 4

ustomer concerns 4

Loss of business

ewer customers 3

eduction in revenue 3

otal 35

I used NVivo to collate data, which allowed me to identify related

words, statements, and comments and develop categories and themes based

on the data. I grouped words and statements from the interviews with similar

content into categories to identify patterns in the responses. I then identified

the patterns in the data and grouped into themes pertinent to the research

question. The responses the participants provided were analyzed and several

themes emerged, structured by the interview questions:

1. The number of workers has decreased, and there are fewer qualified

applicants (labor shortage).

2. Immigration policies have impacted the number of immigrants authorized to

work

(immigration).

3. Employers have lost workers and found it hard to hire qualified workers

(hiring experiences).

4. Employers have lost business due to lack of workers (loss of business).

Theme 1: Labor Shortage

Participants said that the labor shortage has impacted their

productivity and, at times, their ability to operate at all. Several participants

indicated that they experienced the labor shortage through reductions in the

number of qualified workers applying for jobs:

•“Im not getting qualified applicants for the jobs” (Participant 1).

•“Not as many people applying for the jobs” (Participant 3).

•“Having a hard time finding people to work” (Participant 4).

The above responses received from the study participants were analyzed and

the theme which emerged from these answers indicated that participants

agreed the labor shortage had made it challenging to obtain qualified

personnel.

Theme 2: Immigration

Theme 2 related to the issues surrounding immigration policies and

the ability of immigrants to obtain work authorization. Participants described

several barriers faced by Hispanic immigrants when obtaining work visas.

According to 75% of participants, the labor force had been impacted by

limitations to the number of visas issued to Hispanic immigrants and delays

experienced by existing visa holders when obtaining visa recertifications:

•“My workers are not able to renew their visas” (Participant 3).

•“Immigration process is taking much longer, up to years to approve visa

renewals”

(Participant 1).

•“I need to make sure workers are able to work” (Participant 3).

•“Workers cant get their permanent resident status” (Participant 9).

Fifty percent of participants faced challenges regarding the reduction

in the number of workers available because of work visa problems. Fifty

percent of participants said that their workforces had shrunk since the

introduction of new policies regarding visa renewals for Hispanic

immigrants. Participants said that the recertification process for work visas

had become more difficult. Three participants said that their employees were

unable to afford to renew their work authorization. Participants described

employees approaching them to express concern regarding the costs of

renewing their work authorization. Some participants had helped employees

with these costs. Other participants had worked with community

organizations to help their workers apply and pay for work visa renewals.

The main concerns participants expressed included the length of time

required for visa renewals and the fees associated with visa renewals, which

had impacted the availability of qualified workers.

Theme 3: Hiring Experiences

Eight participants identified barriers to hiring qualified workers during

the labor shortage. These barriers included delays in immigration processes,

the number of applicants, and the lack of qualified workers. Participants said

that their hiring experiences ranged from not having qualified applicants for

open positions to not receiving enough applications to meet their customers’

needs. Participant responses

included the following:

•“I don’t have workers to get the jobs done” (Participant 1). •

“The people that apply don’t stay for long” (Participant 3).

•“A lot of workers don’t realize the work is hard” (Participant

2).

Interview questions addressing skills requirements elicited responses ranging

from “I get people that don’t know the job” (Participant 3) to “people don’t

want to work” (Participant 2). Participants also indicated that the lack of

qualified workers affected overall customer service.

Theme 4: Loss of Business

The final theme that emerged from the data related to the loss of

business experienced by participants. 75% of participants said that loss of

business had become a major concern. Participants attributed their loss of

business to the lack of qualified workers and the labor shortage. 75% of

participants described concerns regarding loss of revenue. 50% of

participants indicated they were unable to acquire new business because of a

lack of qualified workers. Participant responses included the following:

•“I don’t have the workers to meet customer needs” (Participant 1).

•“Customers go with who can do the job” (Participant 3).

•“I don’t look for new business because I don’t have the workers”

(Participant 6). Participants’ concerns included loss of revenue caused by a

lack of qualified workers, overworking of their existing workers, and the

need to pay overtime to their employees to meet demand. All four

participants in the study identified the lack of qualified workers as their main

business concern. Participants indicated that the labor shortage had forced

them to reduce promotion of their businesses because lacked the labor force

needed to serve additional customers. Participants also said that the lack of

workers had impacted customer satisfaction. Participants considered the

labor shortage to be a main cause of loss of business.

Summary

This chapter described the data collected and the results based on

analysis of those data. The results indicated that participants faced a labor

shortage that negatively impacted their businesses and revenue. Participants

identified lasting negative economic impacts on their businesses due to the

lack qualified workers. Participants also described their experience with the

workforce and immigration policies and said that the lengthy processing and

high costs of renewing work visas had reduced the number of qualified

workers available.

Chapter 5 provides interpretation of the research findings,

recommendations for employers of Hispanic immigrants, and the limitations

of the study. Chapter 5 also includes recommendations for further research

and the discusses implications of the study for policy and social change.

Chapter 5:

Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations

Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative narrative study was to identify the lived

experiences of employers of work-authorized Hispanic immigrants and the

impact of Hispanic immigrants on the labor shortage and how changes in

immigration laws are affecting employers. I obtained data by conducting

semistructured interviews of four employers of Hispanic immigrants in the

agriculture and landscaping industries in the District of Columbia, Maryland,

and Virginia. Initially, the study was intended to be a phenomenological

study which would address the lived experiences of employers of Hispanic

immigrants. However, due to lack of participants and the reluctance of

employers to be interviewed regarding Hispanic immigrants in their employ,

the study was changed to a narrative study which identified the experiences

of four employers of Hispanic immigrants and the challenges they faced

during the current labor shortage. The narrative approach was selected to

capture the stories of the participants (Taylor et al, 2016).

In the interviews I explored the lack of labor, the impact of

immigration policies, visa renewal processes, and the ability of employers to

remain competitive during the labor shortage. A single research question

guided the study: What are employers’ experiences regarding hiring

Hispanic immigrants with legal authorization to work in agriculture and

landscaping in the United States? Participants’ responses addressed their

experiences hiring Hispanic immigrants, how immigration policies are

affecting the hiring of Hispanic immigrants, the lack of qualified workers,

and the impact of this shortage on their businesses. The participants also

discussed immigration policies that have affected their ability to maintain

their workforces.

Interpretation of the Findings

The review of the literature identified the lack of studies surrounding

the lived experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants and the labor

shortage. Further, I identified a gap in the literature surrounding Hispanic

immigrants viewed through the human capital theory lens. Most of the

previous research focused on the Hispanic immigrants’ contributions,

however, there is a gap in the literature addressing the

Hispanic immigrant employers’ experiences with hiring, changes in

immigration policies which have impacted the hiring practices and the

human capital attributes of the Hispanic immigrant employee. This study

addressed the employer experience regarding hiring

Hispanic immigrants during labor shortage. While there have been multiple

studies on the Hispanic immigrant in the workforce, there is still much to

explore regarding the employer experience.

Theoretical Framework

Human capital theory focuses on the economic benefits of investing in

people (Sweeetland, 1996). This theory also suggests that human capital

impacts economic affluences of an organization (Becker & Woessmann,

2009). Human capital theory explores the relationship between business

owners and the acquisition of new business due to the accumulation of

knowledge and skills via their human capital (Unger et. al, 2011). This study

explores the experiences of Hispanic immigrants’ employers in the

landscaping and agriculture industries and captures the views and the

experiences of employers hiring Hispanic immigrants as viewed through the

lens of human capital theory.

The human capital attributes of Hispanic immigrants is not only seen

in established businesses in the country but in entrepreneurial Hispanic

immigrants. According to Moon et. al, (2016), Hispanic immigrants’

contributions to the economy consisted of new businesses established by

immigrants. Hispanic immigrants as human capital continues to impact the

face of the economy (Moon et.al, 2016). Kallick (2012) discusses how

immigrant small businesses are impacting the economy. According to

Kallick (2012), more than 15% of small business owners originated from

Mexico or Central America and immigrant businesses have provided

employment for some 4.7 million people (Kallick,2012). Hispanic

immigrant human capital continues to increase the economy in the United

States.

The findings of this study identified how employers view having

adequate human capital and investing in their labor force. Participants in the

study discussed the impact the lack of workers and adequate personnel had

on their businesses. Employers were experiencing significant difficulty in

finding not only workers but skilled laborers to execute tasks and jobs. The

theory of human capital focuses on the collective skills and knowledge of

individuals (Pekkan & Cihangir, 2014) and how human capital is the

primary driver of competitive prosperity and economic wealth (Liepe &

Sakalas, 2014). Human capital is key in employers remaining competitive

and establishing presence in global markets (Cadil et al., 2014). Participants

in this study defined the needs for human capital with the skills necessary to

perform the jobs and the outcomes of having inadequate human capital in

their labor force. Some of the concerns were loss of clients, decreased

revenue, lack of business and overall profitability due to not having the

human capital necessary to meet consumer demands. The theoretical

framework selected for this study adequately provided the groundwork for

this study as the theory identifies the importance of human capital and the

benefits employers derive from investing in their employees. The findings of

this study uncovered how employers view the need to invest in their labor

force and increase their human capital. The participants interviewed for this

study addressed not only the need for additional workers but the need for

these workers to have the necessary skills to adequately perform the tasks

and positively impact the employer customer-relationship. Laborers without

the necessary skills affect the quality of work performed and due to the labor

shortage employers are unable to obtain the labor force with these

competencies.

Employers interviewed for this study recognized that changes in

immigration policies have been significant in their ability to remain

competitive. Participants discussed the lack of Hispanic immigrant workers

as a key factor in their productivity and without the Hispanic immigrant

worker’s availability due to changes in immigration policies, employers

were unable to continue growth and competitiveness in the global market.

The human capital which employers require in order to fulfil customer needs

and demands is not accessible and employers are experiencing the effects of

the scarcity of these individuals.

The study results were obtained by analyzing narrative transcripts data

gathered during semi structured interviews with four employers of Hispanic

immigrants legally authorized to work in the United States. This section

shows the interpretation of the findings including the themes derived from

the interviews in response to the research question.

Participants addressed the research question by revealing their lived

experiences hiring Hispanic immigrants and facing challenges due to the

labor shortage as a result of changes in immigration policies. The research

question allowed the employers to discuss the Hispanic immigrant

contributions to the workforce as human capital. The participants’

experiences included having access to limited numbers of qualified workers,

having difficulty retaining employees because of immigration laws, and

losing business because they had too few workers.

The sample included both male and female employers in the

agriculture and landscaping industries. Many of the participants indicated

that a large part of their workforces consisted of work-authorized Hispanic

immigrants. Participants also said that they employed Black, White, and

Asian American workers. Participants said that they employed work-

authorized Hispanic immigrants as managers, day laborers, general laborers,

field personnel, field supervisors, and project managers.

Employers’ Experiences of the Labor Shortage

Participants indicated that they were experiencing the labor shortage,

which was impacting their workforces. Participants were unable to meet

demand because they lacked workers. According to the BLS (2016),

Hispanic immigrants had been providing employers with the workforces

needed to maintain productivity and meet demand. In addition, the Hispanic

immigrant workers contribution to the Social Security fund is important to

supporting retirees (Bauer, 2018). However, changes to immigration policy

had limited the number of Hispanic immigrants entering the United States,

and participants had faced reductions in the numbers of workers available

and challenges meeting demand.

Key findings in the literature review revealed employers have

experienced labor shortage which has impacted their business. According to

Menjivar (2017), Hispanic immigrants positively affected the workforce.

Over 27,000,000 foreign-born workers made up 16% of the total workforce

in 2016 (BLS, 2017) and of that workforce, Hispanic immigrants accounted

for over 48% of those foreign-born workers. The literature identified that the

Hispanic worker has contributed to several different labor markets including

agriculture, medicine, construction, and hospitality (BLS, 2015). With the

current labor shortage, production in the agricultural industry has dropped by

over 20% which has led to a rise in imports of fruits and vegetables and in

turn negatively impacting the economy (Economic Research Services,

2019). The findings from this study identified that the employers

interviewed were among those affected by what the literature revealed; the

reduced number of immigrant workers have impacted the overall labor

shortage employers are facing.

The participants indicated that their workers required specific skills to

do their jobs. Of the study participants, 75% expressed concern regarding the

lack of qualified workers. Participants said the labor shortage posed a

significant challenge and expressed concerns regarding their ability to

remain competitive as a result of the labor shortage. The participants

recognized the need for additional human capital, including immigrant

workers, to address the labor concerns.

Employers’ Experiences of Immigration

Recent changes in immigration policy have reduced the number of

work visas issued to Hispanic immigrants (Migration Policy Institute, 2018).

The literature review revealed that the influx of Temporary Protective Status

(TPS) holders has positively impacted the workforce (Menjivar, 2017).

However, due to recent changes in immigration policies, the number of

Hispanic immigrants including TPS holders had decreased. There were

limitations in the number of visas issued with over a 7% reduction for the

overall number of visas which has impacted the labor force and caused

economic challenge for employers (Migration Policy Institute, 2018). The

literature indicated that of the industries which are most marked by the

Hispanic immigrant labor force were agriculture and landscaping,

hospitality, construction, and food service. (BLS, 2015; AlBavati, 2019;

Statista, 2015). With the decreased number of visas being issued, employers

have been facing shortages in human capital in these areas of business.

Study participants identified problems retaining employees caused by

the delays immigration policy changes have created in obtaining visa

renewals for work-authorized employees. Over 50% of the participants said

they had lost employees because the employees could not renew their work

visas. Visa renewals for work-authorized Hispanic immigrants have become

slower and costlier, which participants said has deterred Hispanic

immigrants from renewing their work visas. Of the four participants, 25%

said that they had helped their employees to renew their visas in order to

have them remain employed. Participants said that problems with visa

renewals and overall immigration policy changes had impacted the ability of

employers to obtain qualified workers. The study participants also discussed

concerns regarding their ability to sponsor visas and to obtain visas for work

purposes. 75% of the participants interviewed stated that they were not able

to obtain the same number of H2-B visas which had provided employers

with seasonal workers as in past years. According to USCIS (2021),

“Congress has set the H2-

B visa cap at 66,000 per fiscal year”. Only 33,000 visas are issued in the first

half of the fiscal year (October 1-March 31) and the other 33,000 in the

second half of the fiscal year (April 1-Spetember 30). The lower number of

petitions accepted in addition to the increased cost of processing the filings,

have made obtaining visas for employers harder than in previous years. 50%

of employers stated that the lower number of available visas had impacted

their overall workforce and number of workers.

Employers’ Hiring Experiences

75% of the study participants discussed how difficulty finding workers

continued to impact their ability to meet demand. Employers indicated that

their human capital had decreased significantly impacting the ability for

employers to meet consumer demands. This result confirms the findings of

other researchers that the labor shortage has impacted the ability of

employers to remain competitive and meet demand (Batalova, 2011; BLS,

2018; Capelli, 2015). The literature review identified there is a growing

concern for employers regarding their ability to remain competitive due to

the labor shortage (Taylor et.al, 2012). Employers experienced significant

reduction in the number of qualified workers, making it difficult to remain

competitive in global markets (Gutman, 2017). Employers have been

experiencing difficulties hiring to fill the number of vacancies left by retiring

older adults which has led to deficiencies in the human capital within the

labor market (BLS, 2017). According to Neumark et.al., (2013), immigration

reforms have also played a part in the decreased the number of eligible

workers. Recent immigration reforms have impacted the number of visas

provided to applicants which in turn has worsened the labor shortage in the

nation. The literature identified that employers have faced increased number

of vacancies in their human capital due to the lack of qualified individuals

which is directly impacted by the number of older workers retiring, the

decreased number of visas for would-be immigrants and the difficulties in

renewing visas for current visa holders.

Participants in this study identified similar concerns as found in the

literature review with their hiring experience. Employers who could not meet

customers’ needs reported the necessity for labor as their main concern.

Participants discussed the issues they faced, such as being unable to hire

workers, the qualified worker shortage and the limited number of applicants

for jobs. The responses of the participants indicate that it is vital for

employers to have enough workers to meet demand and remain competitive

in global market. Participants stated the immigration policies currently in

place have had a negative impact on their ability to hire, retain employees

and have adequate numbers in their workforce. All of the interviewed

participants indicated the difficulties they had experienced regarding

retaining workers due to expired visas, not able to petition H2-B visas for

their workers and the low number of visa renewals their workers have been

able to obtain.

Employers’ Experiences of Loss of Business

For participants reliant on Hispanic immigrant workers, the labor

shortage had impacted the ability of participants to provide adequate services

to their customers and had thus reduced their profits. Employers have

experienced significant losses due to the lack of workers and not being able

to meet consumer demands (Moore, 2015). The literature reviewed discussed

the impact of labor shortages on employers’ ability to remain in business.

The nation has faced a sharp decline in productivity alongside the shortage

of eligible workers (Corrado et al., 2016; Fogg et al., 2010; Willard et al.,

2012) and this decline in eligible workers has impacted the employers who

are not able to meet consumer demands (Moore, 2015) and subsequently,

loss of business. Krupnick (2018) discussed how increased job creation has

affected the labor force. Employers have been faced with increased number

of aging workers and increased number of jobs. Without sufficient workers,

employers cannot remain competitive and face loss of business and revenue

(Guthman, 2017; Kostandini et al., 2014; Udani, 2016). According to Canon

et al., (2013), the recent reduction in the Hispanic labor force has lessened

the profits and revenues of employers in multiple industries. The literature

review also discussed the impact of the labor shortage impacting some states

more than others (Kim et al., 2020). The shortage in some areas of the

country make it difficult for certain industries to remain competitive and

subsequently, lose business and customers due to not being able to meet

consumer demands.

Participants in this study stated that their customer numbers had

decreased significantly because they lacked the workers needed to meet all

their customers’ needs.

Participants’ concerns regarding the lack of workers and customers ranged

from losing their livelihoods to losing profits. Participants addressed the lack

of skilled human capital as being part of the reason they had decreased

number of clients. Lack of skilled workers in addition to the high turnover of

workers has affected employers’ opportunities to increase new business and

maintain competitiveness. Participants’ responses support the finding of the

BLS (2018) that revenue for employers due to the “civilian labor force

declined from 66.2% in 2008 to 63.1% in 2018”. According to the

participants, their continued business success depended on their ability to

provide adequate customer service. To do this, participants needed a

sufficient number of workers, and skilled human capital which they could

not find because of the labor shortage. Participants argued that continued

immigration policy changes were impacting their ability to maintain

adequate workforce, subsequently impacting customer service. Immigration

policy continued to impede work-authorized immigrants from renewing their

work permits and continuing their employment in the United States.

Summary of Findings

The labor shortage in the United States has been affecting businesses,

business owners, and the overall economy. Becker & Woessmann (2009)

demonstrate the impact of human capital on the economic affluences of an

organization. Moon et. al. (2016) discusses the Hispanic immigrant assets

and their impact as human capital for businesses that rely heavily on skill

sets and attributes. With the increased labor shortage, employers are finding

it difficult to find adequate human capital to support their businesses. The

findings of the study identify the obstacles employers are facing hiring

during the labor shortage. The study findings also demonstrate that

employers not able to meet customer demands due to labor shortage and lack

of human capital in their workforce. In addition, the study findings discuss

the economic impact on employers due to lack of qualified and skilled

workers.

The study drew on employers’ experiences of hiring Hispanic

immigrants and their perceptions of the impact of Hispanic immigrants on

the labor force and immigration issues impacting the Hispanic immigrant

worker using narrative inquiry.

The initial methodology was intended to be phenomenological in nature.

However, the study was changed to a narrative study in order to better

capture the lived experiences through a narrative approach. Narrative inquiry

allows participants in research to relay their experiences via their

perspectives (Savin-Baden & Niekerk, 2007). The use of the narrative

methodology interprets the versions of the participants stories through their

understanding. In research, the interviewer identifies individuals for a study

based on the relevance and experiences the participant has which is related

to the research question. This method of selecting participants for studies

allows the research question to be answered and the researcher provide

insight and add to the body of knowledge.

Initially, the methodology which was going to be utilized for this

study was phenomenological. Phenomenological studies view the responses

of participants and captures the perspectives of the lived experiences from

the participants (Creswell, 2007). The phenomenological approach is used to

capture the perception of a phenomenon by the participants. Although the

phenomenological approach addresses the lived experiences of a

phenomenon by a group of people, there are other approaches that capture

the experiences of individuals such as narrative, which is what I selected for

the study.

Narrative inquiry supports findings from a “story telling” perspective

of the participants in a study (Connely & Clandinin, 2000). The opportunity

to allow participants to share events from an encountered perspective is ideal

for a study discussing lived experiences of employer hiring Hispanic

immigrants during the labor shortage.

Viewed through the lens of human capital theory and from a narrative

inquiry perspective, the participants’ responses regarding lack of labor, loss

of revenue, declining customer service, and inability to remain competitive

in global market indicate a need for immigration reform.

Limitations of the Study

This study had some limitations, and readers should interpret the

findings based on these limitations. The limitation of this study included the

number of participants willing to share their experiences hiring Hispanic

immigrants. Concerns over the nature of the study which address the

Hispanic immigrant population was one of the obstacles to obtain a larger

sample size and therefore the study was changed to a narrative study instead

of the intended phenomenological study originally intended. In addition, the

COVID-19 pandemic affected the sample size by impacting the number of

participants available for interviews. Another limitation caused by the

pandemic was my inability to conduct interviews in person. I adjusted the

data collection process and conducted Zoom and telephone interviews

instead of face-to-face interviews. This limitation impacted personal

interactions during interviews and impeded my ability to capture every

aspect of the interviews and the true essence of the research question.

Participants’ pandemic experiences (and my own experiences) may also

have altered the data obtained from the interviews. In order to reduce the

impact of the pandemic on the data obtained, I asked participants to describe

overall experiences regarding hiring Hispanic immigrant workers instead of

focusing their experiences on hiring Hispanic workers during the pandemic.

Recommendations

The results of this study indicate that Hispanic immigrants impact

employer’s ability to remain competitive in business. Participants identified

significant contributions made by work-authorized Hispanic immigrants and

how the changes in immigration policies are driving the Hispanic immigrant

contribution to industry. Most of the study participants indicated their

business and the number of clients they have and are able to retain has been

impacted by the labor shortage. Many of the participants stated that out of

the workforce they have, many are Hispanic immigrants, and their

contributions were necessary for the employers to remain in business and

competitive in industry. Employers also noted that the Hispanic immigrant

human capital was essential since many of the Hispanic immigrants

employed had the necessary skills to perform the jobs and remained in the

positions longer than other employees they contracted. Participants who

employed Hispanic immigrants consider those immigrants to have supported

their competitiveness in industry. Further research is needed using larger

samples in different industries in order to identify the Hispanic immigrant

contributions in other industries and corporations. Future researchers should

explore more deeply the immigration policies restricting Hispanic

immigrants’ entry into the country, which has been affecting employers. The

reduced number of petitions for H2-B visas in addition to the ability to

obtain renewals on current visas for Hispanic immigrants have been

identified as barriers for employers to be able to complete jobs and meet

customer demands. Future researchers should also explore the issues

employers have faced during the COVID-19 pandemic and how it has

affected the labor shortage.

There were several recommendations from the study participants for

this study. Some of the recommendations suggested included changes in

time frames for visa renewals, the reduction in costs for the visa renewal

process and overall changes in immigration policies which impact the ability

of employers to remain competitive in global industries. Employers

discussed the concerns regarding these issues and their overall productivity

and ability to maintain competitiveness in industry. Several study

participants discussed providing financial support to workers needing visa

renewal. Although many employers were willing to provide funds required

to renew visas for their workers, concerns loomed over the timeframe for

these visa renewals. Many participants discussed the inability to keep these

workers employed due to expired visas which rendered their workers unable

to continue employment with companies due to undocumented status. Other

employers were concerned about the time frames for visa renewals and

return on investments for their contributions to their employees’ visa

renewals. Employers interviewed recommended changes in the timeframes

of immigration visa renewals would benefit not only the employees

renewing work authorizations but also employers’ ability to retain

employees and keep their workforce

intact.

Several other recommendations surfaced from the participants

interviewed. Some participants supported the extension of visas from the

current one-year authorization for agricultural workers to possible six-year

authorization currently afforded to H1-B visa holders. Other participants

discussed the importance of automatic renewals for workers based on

employer needs. In addition to these recommendations, employers suggested

that visa renewal fees be waived, and immigrants be granted the opportunity

to pay the costs of visa renewals with tax deductions while employed.

Overall, the consensus from all of the study participants reflected the impact

immigration policies and current processes impacted businesses and bottom

line.

Implications

The results of this study provide knowledge regarding Hispanic

immigrants’ contribution to U.S. employers and the ability of those

employers to remain competitive. In addition, the results of this study

provides insight into the concerns employers of Hispanic immigrants face in

regards to the ability to hire workers due to processes in petitions for H2-B

visas. Based on these results, the labor shortage fueled by changes in

immigration policies is the primary barrier to employer success in the United

States and globally. Hispanic immigrants provide employers with the

workers needed to remain competitive and successful in their industries.

Existing immigration policies—including limitations on the numbers of

visas issued and renewals of existing visas—are preventing Hispanic

immigrants from entering or staying in the country, which in turn is

preventing those immigrants from supporting U.S. employers in their efforts

to remain globally competitive.

Social Change

My findings, along with those of other researchers, indicate the

impact of immigration policies on employers’ industrial success and global

competitiveness. Positive social change can take place when policy makers

change immigration policies impacting the entry of Hispanic immigrants and

recognize the importance of Hispanic immigrants to the U.S. labor force and

the success of U.S. employers. In addition, Hispanic immigrants entering the

United States and obtaining employment will impact the contributions to the

Social Security system and retirees.

Conclusion

The ability of U.S. employers to remain competitive depends on the

availability of workers to support their industries. The ability for employers

to remain competitive is credited to the human capital attributes of their

employees. Human capital theory suggests the success of business relies

heavily on their human capital (Moon et al. 2016). Through the literature

review, we see the Hispanic immigrant contributions to the labor force via

qualities such as work skills and ability to adapt culturally and socially. With

the evidenced contributions of the Hispanic immigrant to the labor force in

the United States, policy makers should consider the implications of the

labor shortage for employers and change immigration policies that affect the

ability of employers to find the workers needed to conduct business.

Immigration policies should ensure that enough immigrants can obtain work

visas to support employers throughout the nation.

Hispanic immigrants make up a large part of the labor force and have

a large impact on the success of U.S. employers as well as play a role in the

number of employees paying into the Social Security system. I reported in

detail on the lived experiences of employers of Hispanic immigrants and

how employers view the contributions of Hispanic immigrants and

immigration polices changes to their continued success. My findings

contribute to the body of research on the impact of Hispanic immigrants on

the labor force and industry and how immigration policies affect employers.

The findings provide insight into the changes needed to immigration policies

to help employers remain competitive and successful. Changes that would

impact employers would be increasing the number of immigrant visas

entering the country, reducing the visa renewal processing time, and

providing additional financial resources

for immigrants renewing visas.

Experiences of Employers of Hispanic Immigrants and the Labor Shortage in the United States

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