EARLY PROPONENTS: FROM CICERO TO AQUINAS.
Abstract:
This research paper delves into the ethical and philosophical contributions of two influential
figures in Western thought: Two people who made significant contributions to published works
are Cicero and Thomas Aquinas. Cicero adopted the Stoic school of ethics in his “On Duties”
and “On Moral Ends,” arguing for natural law and virtuous actions as the highest moral good
that gains consensus while also being right and proper. A later ethical giant, Aquinas also
adhered to natural law ethics but fused Christian theology with Aristotle’s ethics in “Summa
Theologica,” “Commentary on Aristotle’s Physics,” and “Commentary on Aristotle In the
context of the present paper, Cicero’s Stoicism and Aquinas’s Christian Aristotelians will be
compared and contrasted as two of the most influential ethical systems of the Western world to
determine the extent to which they agree or disagree on such fundamental ethical concepts, and
how they have shaped the subsequent Western philosophy. In conclusion, this chapter has
revealed the contemporary applicability of their works and the need to continue researching them
from the perspectives of early essay on ethics and philosophy.
1.0 Introduction.
The research in the history of, and between, philosophy and ethics must be seen as a large,
woven fabric of human intellectualism where all of the threads are as irreplaceable as individual
ideas are complex. Among these luminaries stand two towering figures whose influence
reverberates across centuries: Cicero could easily be matched with Thomas Aquinas who was
one of those who helped form the vigorous Christian current in the Catholic Western part of the
Roman Empire. Cicero and Aquinas have been considered great contributors to the development
of western thoughts; and through their contributions they have continued to influence
philosophy, ethics, and theology.
Cicero, a prime Roman civilian, orator as well as philosopher of 1st century BCE has a
significant lineage in the sphere of intellect. Its general subject matter of Aristo is also quite
broad, including rhetoric and politics, ethics and metaphysical. Cicero wrote extensively on
philosophy and it is discernible that he was inclined to Stoicism from the works of Zeno and
Cleanthes et al. As someone who endorsed all the key aspects of Stoicism with its focus on
reason, virtue, and the good life, Cicero offered his listeners/ readers a solid ethical theory that
would remain relevant to modern scholars/practitioners.
In parallel to such grotesque legends, Thomas Aquinas, the archangel of medieval scholasticism,
enlightens the world intellects as well as biblical scholars. Known in the world as Aquinas, he
was the 13th century erudite who made monumental contributions to Christianity integrating the
philosophical rhetorical system of Aristotle with the Christian beliefs. The "Summa Theologica”
is, by far, Aquinas’s greatest work, which presents the systematic theology and philosophical
reflections as he sought to define matters of faith, the role of reason, morality, and metaphysics.
Taking the legacy from Aristotle and putting it in the context of the Christian theology, Aquinas
developed ethical theory which was based on the natural law, virtue and the divine mandate of
various actions.
What is worth saying is that both Cicero and Aquinas are meaningful not only for the time
periods in which they exist. The questions that they posed and the answers they sought remain
significant to this day and offer a rich glimpse into ageless debates about the very nature of
morality, the idea of the good life, and the proper way to live. However, the rich significant of
thinkers does not remain merely confined to philosophical and ethical issues but also becomes a
part of politics, laws, and theology. Of course, those works, in which Cicero calls for obeying the
laws and promoting the virtues of the citizen, conform to today’s discourses on government and
civil duties; in the same way, Aquinas’ synthesis of reason and faith still remains one of the
cornerstones of Catholic Church and of the philosophical thought.
It is, therefore, in respect to their roles that influence the outlook of the modern world on
philosophy and ethics that this research seeks to examine Cicero and Aquinas’ contributions. In
particular, our goal at concept analysis is to provide an understanding about the ways in which
their ethical systems, philosophical contributions, and legacies continue to be valuable and
comprehensive in the contemporary society. In comparing Cicero’s Stoicism and Aquinas’s
Christian Aristotelians, the purpose is to identify and explore the general tendencies,
contradictions and possible consequences latent within their epistemological positions and
methodology in ethical and moral issues. Finally, this research aims to conclusively emphasize
the continual applicability of Cicero and Aquinas in the everlasting search for wisdom and the
perfect life or the virtuous life.
2.0 Cicero: The Stoic Influence.
Cicero’s Life, Education and Understanding His Position in Ancient Rome.
In order to appreciate just how formative Cicero was to the development of Western
philosophical and ethical thought, one must again and again and delve more deeply both into the
particulars of his life and the broader context within which his career unfolded. Marcus, born in a
Roman town known today as Arpinum in Central Italy in 106 BCE. Cicero would prove to be an
exceptionally bright young man who went through a highly academic way in which he honed his
rhetorical, philosophical and legal skills. Sharp mind and mastery of the oratory quickly brought
him to the pinnacle of the Roman hierarchy and made him the leading statesman, lawyer, and
philosopher of the era.
Serving Rome in different capacities, Cicero lived through one of the most critical times in the
history of the civilization when power struggles, social instabilities, and the decline of the
Roman Republic characterized Rome. Praised as an adherent of republican’s principles, and the
supporter of constitutional government Cicero gradually became involved in the Roman political
intrigues, striving to survive the ordeal of the political parties’ factionalism and struggle for
power. After many great accomplishments, he achieved a consulship in 63 BCE, where he was
able to uncover and prevent a plot to overthrow the Roman government which was led by a sour
senator named Catiline.
Nevertheless, the main focus was on political activities, and yet Cicero never forgot what really
mattered to him – the search for the truth and philosophical wisdom. Padding himself with the
philosophy of Hellenistic philosophical schools in the thinking hubs of Athens and Alexandria,
Cicero embarked on a search for philosophy throughout his life. Paying respect to the moral and
intellectual heritage of the Greek philosophical legacy, Cicero attempted to grasp the kernel of
the Greek wisdom, and translate it into the spirit of the Roman culture, creating, thus, a new,
genuinely Roman philosophical trend.
Exploration of Cicero's Adherence to Stoic Philosophy and Its Influence on His Ethical and
Political Thought.
Being an influential Roman philosopher, it is crucial to examine Cicero’s philosophical
preferences as well as to identify key aspects of the Stoicism that developed in the 3rd century
BCE as a Hellenistic concept. Among the philosophical systems of the ancient world, Zeno of
Citium’s Stoicism was unique, as it focused on the cultivation of virtue, non-resistance of fate,
and the state of ataraxia. At the heart of Stoic ethics lay the concept of aretē, or moral excellence,
which was attained through the practice of four cardinal virtues: and so, four of the cardinal
virtues – wisdom (Sophia), courage (andreia), justice (dikaiosyne), and temperance (sōphrosynē).
Examined below are Cicero’s ‘dialogues’, his ethical and political works, and how he adopted
and adapted the tenets of Stoicism. Unges Zakochany: In “On Duties”, or “De Officiis”, Cicero
has narrated about dogmas of stoical ethic dissecting the principles of wisdom, justice and
temperance as supreme values of good life presented in “On Moral Ends”, or “De Finibus
Bonorum et Malorum”. He based himself in Stoicism to put forward a theory of how an ethical
personality and the citizen should behave, insisting that right behavior would benefit both, the
(self) and the (community).
Furthermore, more specifically, as shown in Cicero’s works, his political thought was imbued
with Stoic concepts of justice, law, and the common good. In the comprehensive work “On the
Republic” (De Re Publica), Cicero wrote his dream for the existing Roman state which would be
rational and just. Historical perspective Hindu law developed as part of historical and cultural
evolution emphasizing principles of natural law and cosmopolitanism inherited from the
Stoicism of the Roman statesman Cicero for a universal justice beyond the nationality and
ethnicity that emphasizes equality of all human beings.
In addition, Cicero is widely recognized to have embraced the Stoic conception of the virtues and
to have looked to Stoic ethics for guidance on the nature of right conduct and the process by
which one becomes skilled in discerning right action. He popularized the doctrine of the mean
and insisted that the ultimate goal for human beings is goodness and virtuous living as this
contributes to the overall human flourishing. In its essence, the Roman Republic was a political
stage where Cicero engaged in philosophical debates and explored issues of ethics and morality
in a manner of reflecting on the profound problems of human existence and the capriciousness of
fate.
All in all, Cicero’s educational framework and the adoption of Stoic ideas are evident in his
ethical and political views underpinning his beliefs in the virtuous life, the just state, and the wise
person. In combining the ideas of the Stoics with the culture and specific features of the Roman
society, Cicero wanted to introduce the social values and the recognizable code of behavior
based on reasonableness, goodness, and responsibility for the society. That is why he remains an
example of the perspicacity of philosophy as the source of light in determining what is good and
beneficial for man and how one should lead a virtuous life.
Analysis of Cicero's Key Works: "On Duties" and "On Moral Ends."
Cicero was not simply an orator, but a philosopher as well, and his two most important
philosophical treatises include “On Duty” (De Officiis) and “On Moral Ends” (De Finibus
Bonorum ET Malorum). Encapsulating Cicero’s deep consideration of ethical theory, political
philosophy and the search for the good life, these treatises are enlightening and engaging. In the
given works, the primary areas of focus will involve understanding the general ideas of Cicero
and the main points of natural law and virtue ethic theories.
"On Duties" (De Officiis).
Published in 44 BCE as a philosophical work and handbook of Stoic ethics aimed at Cicero’s son
Marcus, the work is also spelled as ‘de officiis’. Cicero being heavily influenced by Stoic
ideology and Roman moral code gives the reader quite a lengthy discourse on what constitutes
moral obligation or duty (officium) and the rationale that informs human behavior. In the second
book, Locke classifies moral philosophy into three major subjects: duties, obligations, and laws.
Book I lays down the primary of morality as the key to a virtuous life and ways and means of
getting by which Reason plays an important role. Both Cicero’s treatises presented here contain
arguments explaining that virtues can be best pursued when one fulfills the role and
responsibility that comes with being a rational and moral animal. He goes further and partitions
the duties into self-responsibilities (officia propria) and duties to others (officia aliena) claiming
that ethical behavior is a blend of self-concern and concern for other people.
An array of related issues of social and political relevance is touched upon in Book II, which
deals with application of the moral principles. As it often happens in his ethical work, Cicero
focuses on the issues that people confront in relationships with the closest circles and society
members. He argues that one’s moral responsibility entails that one should respect or uphold
reserved special tokens of justice even when they are adverse to one’s own interests or that of a
particular group. This concern with the non-operational perspective indicates that even Cicero
adheres to the concept of cosmopolitanism preferred by the Stoics – that is, humanity as one
universal moral community.
For this reason, more is said about the link between virtues and happiness at the end of Book III.
They have found it is much easier for one to let go the twelve virtues and find eudemonia, or true
happiness because it gives one the peace and moral compass which he or she seeks. He argues
that the ultimate pleasure comes from the process of leading a good and healthy life in the way
that reasons and nature direct, not necessarily from possessing more or glad things.
“On Moral Ends” also known as “De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum”.
In “On Moral Ends,” Cicero writes a philosophical discourse by which he debates with his
fellows of that age, this being the concern on the highest good known as summum bonum and
this is the purpose of man’s life. The written work is set in dialogical form within a framework of
the overall philosophical system in which Stoicism and Epicureanism are identified, as well as
Academic skeptics.
In this first part of his book Cicero proceeds to focus on each of the schools in ethical question
and how these respective philosophical systems envisage the notions of happiness, pleasure and
virtue. He then goes to criticize the merits and demerits of demonstrating Stoics and academics,
and recommends that a balanced between both the two be embraced.
The essence of Cicero’s discussion lays in definition where employing the device of division, he
establishes that virtue is a maximal value – it is a final good that people ought to pursue. This is
true, he suggests that virtue enables one to cultivate proper character and achieve satisfaction
regardless of one’s situation. Indeed, Cicero’s eagerness to expound the virtues is a crude
manifestation of his stoicism whereby the cultivation of wisdom, prowess, justice, and
moderation is held to be paramount benefits to mankind.
Also, Cicero stresses on the aspect of reasonableness when making decisions in virtue ethical
context in the attempt to attain the perfect good. He dismisses the hedonistic policy of the
epicurean philosophy that supports pleasure as the chief end for which people should strive for,
thereby hold that happiness arises from the utilization of reason in addition to the practice of
virtues. Cicero’s anti-hedonistic stance is informed by his eudemonistic view of happiness in
which ethical and rational elements are the most valuable.
Examination of Cicero's Emphasis on Natural Law and Virtue Ethics.
However, one has to consider that Cicero imbued his ethical philosophy with the elements of
natural law as well as virtue ethics. Arguing with the help of Stoic ideas and Roman legalistic
heritage Cicero states that there is natural law within the human beings and it is possible to seek
it using the reason. He proves that it is rational for men to pursue virtue, that is to say, to act in
accordance with what reason and nature have prescribed, and, at the same time, correct for their
society.
Cicero specifically avails natural law as a theory claiming the existence of an objective justice
that underlies social and cultural constructs. He argues that there is a set of natural laws or
mother’s rules that have to be followed by virtue of reason that obeys nobody but God,
regardless the person’s status or geographical position. Reflected in this commitment to natural
law is Cicero’s confidence in the existence of real morality and their accessibility to logical
understanding as a basis for ethical behavior.
Furthermore, I find that Cicero’s character-based virtue approach reveals that the virtues
constitute the highest value and purpose of life for humans. He argues that the concept of virtues
such as wisdom, courage, justice and temperance as the ends to the means is more or less a
fallacy because virtues are of intrinsic value and therefore should be pursued in themselves. In
the context of ethical eudemonism, Cicero’s ethical theory is predicated on the importance of
character and virtue as two of the main aspects of the good life, where people aim in fulfilling
their ethical purpose and duties as active members of society.
Sun conclusion, two major pieces of Cicero‘s work; “On Duties” and “On Moral Ends” presents
understandable and inspiring ethical theories of moral duty, happiness, and morality. In this
sermon Cicero comes closer to the stoicism and the Roman moral values to explain a rather
sophisticated vision of the human virtues proportional to reason and Natural Law. The ethical
teachings that he preached and practiced continue to be of immense value and are as relevant in
the present times as they were in times ancient. As a philosopher and a statesman he left behind a
legacy that is truly global and timeless in its appeal.
3.0 Thomas Aquinas: Scholasticism and Christian Ethics.
A brief discussion on the life and growth of St. Aquinas.
Thomas Aquinas s was born in the year 1225 in the kingdom of Sicily, present-day Italy he is
one of the most renowned philosophers and theologians during their era. Aquinas showed an
early aptitude for learning and his intention was devoted to the principles of the Roman Catholic
Church. He joined the Dominican Order when he was nineteen years old, which was not
approved by his family and that was what he devoted himself on scholarly, pious, and
theological way.
The unique course of Aquinas formed a reaction to what was prevailing during his lifetime, such
as the Thomism, the discovery of Greek and Arabic philosophies, and interaction and
amalgamation of the Christian faith with ancient Greek and Arabic thought. Through studying
under the mentorship of a Dominican scholar named Albertus Magnus, Aquinas received an
education that allowed him to engage with the philosophical and theological thought of his time
in a way that would permit him to create a synthesis of reason and faith.
Having been endowed with a genuine desire to integrate the Christian revelation with Greek
ideas, especially those of the philosopher Aristotle, throughout his life, Aquinas undertook this
noble task. He started further education, majoring in philosophical studies aiming at mastering
the works of Aristotle, Plato, Augustine and other brilliant philosophers. He continued in his
intellectual undertakings by producing some of his great works such as “Summa Theologica,” it
is a work in theology and philosophy and still holds a central position within the Catholic
Church.
At some point religious authorities of the Catholic Church opposed his thoughts and drives,
banning him for some time, but these incidences did not deter him from his zeal of the truth and
knowledge-seeking. He passed his life to roughing and writing, vividly embodying the life of the
mind and deeply convinced of the value of the intellectual pursuit of truth, he became known as
Doctor Angelicus, as one of the greatest thinkers of Western history.
Discussion of Aquinas's Synthesis of Christian Theology and Aristotelian Philosophy.
Being at the core of Aquinas’s thought process, it is his grand idea that endeavors to find
consistency between the Christian revelations with the philosophy of Aristotle. The quest of
Aquinas to achieve synthesis stood in harmony between faith and reason as well as theology and
philosophy in a bid to provide explication of the existence, God and the soul.
Aristotelian metaphysics and epistemology in particular remained a source of concepts that
Aquinas used in his synthesis, as the foundation for philosophical discourse that was ever-strong.
In his thought, Aquinas accepted Aristotle’s substance-essence-freedom and causation
perspectives to organize his thoughts within the framework of intentionality worldview of nature.
Act-potency dualism and form-matter dualism were adapted into his theological anthropology;
he believed human beings had a mixture of both the material and the immaterial dimension,
including rational soul, created to perceive the truth and share in divinity.
In addition, Aquinas borrowed from the Aristotelian ethical system in order to articulate his own
Christian ethic, where reason holds that man aims to become virtuous, which is essential for man
to live a good life in accordance to his natural purposes. He integrated Aristotle’s views of the
eudaimonia (happiness) with the Christian concept of beatitude (blessedness) arguing that true
happiness is beauty and the achievement of the beatific vision in which union with the divine is
accomplished. According to Aquinas’ ethical theory, which is rooted in natural law theory as
well as virtue theory, the best good of human life is properly understood then as the moral virtues
and their practice in the virtuous life as Aristotle conceived it as the eudaimonic life.
Additionally, it should also be noted that Aquinas’s synthesis is not limited to merely his
soteriology but also to his theological anthropology and especially the doctrine of God. Based on
Aristotle’s metaphysics of causation and motion, Aquinas developed what are called ‘Five
Ways’ or ‘Five Proofs for the Existence of God’ and these allegations relate to first mover, first
cause, and first necessary being to explain the ultimate reason for things. Thus, Aquinas tried to
explain the harmony between faith and reason, claiming that faith in existence of the God can be
reasonable while, at the same time, admitting the finiteness of human’s reason.
Therefore, Thomas Aquinas has produced a brilliant work cementing Christian theology with
Aristotelianism that remains one of the most significant accomplishments in the history of the
Western world. Combining his erudition in theology and liberal arts, as well as his ability to
synthesize the systems of faith and knowledge, Aquinas aimed at creating a perfect synthesis
between theology and philosophy. Thus, the fact that St. Thomas stands for Scholasticism as its
most prominent representative proves the fact that his instructions are timeless in terms of their
impact on theology, ethics and philosophy rooted in Christianity.
Analysis of Aquinas's Ethical Theory.
Thomas Aquinas’s ethical theory can be examined in terms of the general context of his
synthesis of Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy, with the stress on the development
of moral virtue and the realization of the human nature. At its core, natural law, virtue, and the
use of rationality are additional ideas that are central to his ethical approach.
Natural Law.
To Aquinas, natural law is a moral law that holds across all humans and people can be able to
identify it by reason since it is embedded in human’s DNA. Therefore, referencing Aristotle for
his idea on teleology to explain predestination, Aquinas posited that humans bear some inherent
inclinations or goals that determine the kind of actions they embark on in the process of
actualization of humanity. They are pro-tending towards the species’ will to live, the desire to
reproduce, the need to know and the tendency to organize into society.
Aquinas therefore held that the natural law is written into the human person in a special way in
the realm of the practical reason as constitutive principles that are self-evident in their content.
These principles are based on the fundamental tenets of the natural law like the desire for the
good and the orderly avoidance of the bad, the desire to save oneself and other people, and the
principle of the social order in relation to the preservation of the societal good. According to
Aquinas, these principles act as the route map of morality with the capacity of proffering an
evaluation of human actions.
Additionally, Aquinas differentiates between the first principles of the natural law which is
innate, obvious, and unalterable and secondary principles, which though drawn logically from
the first principles of the natural law, might not be innate or obvious. They are several in number,
occurring in response to the contingent condition of man’s daily existence, and might call for
practical wisdom upon their implementation. Nevertheless, it is still secondary to the
fundamental principles and must be cogent with the injunctions of prudential reason and the law
of nature.
Virtue.
However, next to natural law, Aquinas aims at explaining what man is to do to achieve the
ultimate purpose of his life: happiness or beatitude and that is virtue. Following the Aristotelian
ethical norms, Aquinas defines virtues as the perfect disposition of the soul that contributes to
human’s appropriate actions and corresponds to rational activities that proceed from the natural
law. Virtue then is the right use of reason and the practice of the excellences for living a life
which is rational and excellent and thus bring the rational faculties and the moral virtues into
proper working harmony.
As for virtues, according to Aquinas, there are four cardinal virtues: prudence that deals with
what is good in terms of advice; justice which deals with what is good in terms of action;
fortitude that relates to what is good in relation to fear; and temperance that deals with what is
good in relation to desire. It also permits people to find what is right in a given context and to use
logic and good sense to solve a concrete problem presented to the natural law. Justice is a
business of giving to every person his or her deserved due and acknowledgment of his or her
rights or responding to his or her duties. Fortitude involves the ability to cope in a strong manner
and to seek the good amidst the tough and the difficult times; prudence, on the other hand,
involves self-restraint and the containment of passions in modern terms.
Furthermore, Aquinas categorizes character or moral virtues as virtues that relate to actions and
habits of an individual, while categorizing ethical or theological virtues as the virtues which God
puts in man and which direct man towards God. The theological virtues of faith, hope and charity
are commonly known as the supernatural virtues that would empower people to go beyond the
natural powers of people with grace in order to attain beatitude in the vision of God.
Role of Reason in Moral Decision-Making.
For Aquinas, reason plays a pivotal part of moral agents, claiming that man is capable of
knowing the good and practicing right choice for the right actions. The main overview of reason
is to enable people to grasp the concepts of the natural law, think of the moral significance within
their actions and prudential judgment to decide of the best way to attain human beatitude.
Aquinas does not follow the deliberative understanding of reason as being merely a means to an
end, but argues that reason is the highest part of human and natural inclination to express the
divine intellect and bring oneself into accordance with the eternal law of the Creator.
Understanding allows people to see the rational celestial arrangement of the cosmos and to
recognize the ethical meaning of people’s conducts in light of the final purpose. In addition,
reason exercises the function of guidance in the process of leading a virtuous life and shaping
moral characters, as well as in harmonizing the intellect with the moral virtues.
Nevertheless, Aquinas does not think that human reason can establish moral truths by itself and
rational minimum is not sufficient to create a moral life, since divine grace is needed in this
regard. However it is through reason that we are given understanding as moral epistemology and
etiology, though helped as we are by the light of the Holy Spirit and by grace. In this way one
can be delivered from sin and concupiscence and learn to live in accordance with the divine
intention to implement the goal of one’s life to attain blessedness with God in heaven.
Exploration of Aquinas's Political Philosophy.
Aquinas Politics is therefore rooted in his theological Auburns; applicable and practical politics
anchored on the natural law, justice, and the imperatives of the common good of the polity.
Aristotle’s political ideas are stated in his piece titled: “Politics” while the main ideas of Aquinas
is captured in “On Kingship” (De Regno) and “On the Governance of Rulers” (De Regimine
Principum) although these ideas are supported by his theological studies from the “Summa
Theologica.”
Natural Law and Justice.
A concept that is central to Aquinas’ political thought is a natural law to which Aquinas ascribes
supreme political authority, as well as moral responsibility of both rulers and the ruled. St.
Augustine agrees with this by arguing that political power emanates from God, hence the divine
origin of power and authority. But the political power is exerted through such mortals more often
than not in conflict with the natural law where every ruler is bound to rule justly and for the
common good.
Justice in the eyes of Aquinas is understood not only as social virtue that entails giving to every
man his due, but in terms of recognizable rights and obligations in the societal and political
context. There is an entitlement to proper distribution of resources and effective delivery of
justice in a society so as to respect the rights of the persons. In addition to correct payment,
Aquinas underlines distributive justice as one of the pillars of justice and implies that all people
and goods in the society should be divided rightfully, so that everyone can use their opportunities
and skills to the maximum of their capabilities and requirements.
The Common Good and Governance.
Aquinas defines the common good as the ultimate goal of the political society which consists in
the good of all the people. The common good therefore entails the promotion of social harmony,
maintaining of law and order, and encouragement of the virtues of the people within the society
as well as encouragement of greater moral values. They include political authority which
according to Aquinas is legitimate only when it is exercised for the general good and for the
purpose of upholding the laws of God as stated in the natural law and right justice.
On the same note, Aquinas believes that rulers should govern politically through prudence since
it helps the rulers to determine the right way of putting into practice common good and through
which legal instruments they should put in practice justice for the welfare of the society.
Practical implications of the concept of prudence are associated with its relevance to the
contingent circumstances of political life, used to develop politically sensible and reasonable
strategies creative for everyone’s well-being. In this capacity, consultation and deliberation
constitute the fundamental principle of politics for Aquinas, meaning that various parties and
opinions may contribute to the creation of public policies.
Implications for Governance and Justice.
This paper shows that it is relevant and valid by demonstrating that Aquinas developed a
political philosophy that continues to be meaningful in the modern world since it gives a
guideline through which one may evaluate political institutions and practices. This concept of the
natural law, justice, and the common good underlines the relevance of ethical precepts in both
the formation of public policies and state initiatives for the generation of societal benefit for its
members. Based on this, his political philosophy regarding political authority means that rulers
are expected to uphold trust given to them by God and therefore work happily and responsibly
within obedience to moral virtue and justice.
Furthermore, Aquinas’s focus on the common good as the ultimate end of the political society
implies a critique of the current liberal individualistic culture that is rooted in the self-interested
worldview thereby reminding the society to embrace the culture of togetherness in resolving
social and economic injustices. What333 about Aquinas’s vision of distributive justice regarding
policies that try to achieve the society’s distributive justice, the ideal emphasis is placed on
creating justice whereby all people in the society should receive what is necessary for their well-
being.
In conclusion, Thomas Aquinas’s ethical theory and political philosophy present valuable
perspectives on moral and political life regarding agents, rulers, and citizens as well as the whole
community defined by the common good. According to the principles of Christian theology and
Aristotle’s influence in his work, the basic tenet of ethics propagated by Aquinas is centered on
natural law ethics, the values of virtue, and the application of reason in ethical decision-making
processes. These ethical principles of his political philosophy includes justice, prudence and
commonweal whereby any form of government should be based on these principles. These are
hard-hitting statements about Aquinas, and his impact and status as a theologian and philosopher
cannot be gainsaid as his teachings continue to be relevant today.
4.0 A Comparative Analysis.
A comparison of Cicero’s stoicism and Aquinas’ Christian Aristotelianism-Stoicism and
Christianity.
In comparing these two works, it becomes evident that even though the two authors Cicero and
Aquinas belong to different philosophical schools of thought, their ethics bear similarities in
several aspects. Using his works as arguments Cicero posits the virtues of reason and the pursuit
of the good life through Stoicism while Aquinas brought out the same virtues and bent them to
the framework of Christian theology.
Similarities:
1. Emphasis on Virtue: The two philosophers agree that virtue leads to the good life or
happiness; Cicero speaks of humans wanting to live a happy life and refers to the good life in his
same speech. Cicero’s Stoicism accentuates the civilizing virtues namely; rationality, courage,
justice, and moderation as the route to Roman happiness; Eudaimonia while Aquinas advocates
for the cardinal/ moral virtues as the key to a fulfilled and blessed life-Turning to Aristotle,
political rule is seen as a natural extension of one’s moral excellence hence the title ‘The
Nicomachean Ethics’.
2. Natural Law: Natural law is a philosophy which is a common foundation and key concept in
both Cicero’s and Aquinas’ ethical systems. The main postulates in natural law that Cicero
formulated state that natural law exists and can be understood by people by their ability to
reason; it is a set of rules that people should follow in order to be just and moral agents.
Likewise, one of the pillars of Aquinas’s natural law theory is the belief that the content of
natural law is etched on the human soul, or more precisely, on human reason.
3. Role of Reason: In argument and conclusion, Cicero and Aquinas support reason as a tool in
eliciting ethic choices and accomplishing the good life. Actually, Cicero perceives reason to be
that endowment through which people acquire insights into the principles of the natural law and
prudential discretion that enables one to select the right course of action. Similarly, Aquinas puts
a lot of importance in reason as the highest part of human being; reason helps individuals to
understand what is good and evil and to order its actions according to the divine law.
Differences:
1. Theological Foundation: Another major area of difference between Cicero’s Stoicism and
Aquinas’s Christian Aristotelianism is the theological framework or the philosophy on which
each of these systems rest. Though Cicero was following the Stoic ethical theory along with the
natural law, Aquinas’ concept of ethics is influenced by the Christian principles and aspects of
theology, especially the three theological virtues, namely faith, hope, and charity. Cicero’s
ethical theory additionally does not encompass the biblical, divine revelation and the
supernatural end of man’s life, which define Aquinas’ ethical theory.
2. Ultimate Good: Two of the greatest Roman philosophers of antiquity Cicero and Aquinas held
different views on what they believed was the best good and the summum bonum. Cicero being
the last of the three great Stoics identified eudaimonia or happiness as the supreme good that is a
result of an acquired virtue as well as the following of our genuine impulses. His Christian
approach based on Aristotle’s ideals differs as to identify happiness, or beatitude, as the purpose
of human life that is attained through the observation of God and the attainment of everlasting
life.
3. Ethical Context: The primary influences and concerns of Cicero’s Stoicism can be
contextualized in specific historical period of ancient Rome – the late Republican period with
transition to the imperial rule as well as through reference to the three main passions that he
addressed in his writings. These concepts are in line with the stoic philosophy of the Roman
civilization which prevailed at the time Cicero was alive, self-mastery, the civic responsibility of
the Roman citizens and the search for the ultimate good in the volatile and corrupting roman
politic. However, the Christian Aristotelianism which Aquinas inherited emanated from
medieval Christendom whereby religious teachings particularly Christian had a very rich input in
the matters of intellectuality and moralities. The reasons behind Aquinas’s ethical theory are
rooted within the Christian religion, particularly in the notions of sin, grace, and redemption
originating from Christianity’s view of humanity.
Comparison of their Views on Key Ethical Concepts such as Virtue, Duty, and the Ultimate
Good.
Cicero's Stoicism:
- Virtue: As for the components of a good life, Cicero, like many other ancient philosophers,
puts great emphasis on the so-called cardinal virtues, namely wisdom, courage, justice, and
temperance to attain happiness or eudaimonia as a result of the virtuous life.
- Duty: According to Cicero, duty or official is the obligation that one has to perform a moral,
and acting for the good of individuals as well as the society.
- Ultimate Good: According to Cicero, the end of man is the tertium quid or eudaimonia, the
state of happiness, while the goal can only be achieved by practicing virtues, that is, by being
moral.
Aquinas's Christian Aristotelianism:
- Virtue: Aquinas contributes to the idea of ethical theory that Aristotle expounded in his
writings, proposing that the cardinal virtues which are prudence, justice, fortitude and
temperance serve to establish a connection with the deity and eventually lead man to beatitude,
definition being a state of blessedness.
- Duty: Moral duty according to Aquinas is based on natural law which can be reasoned and
entails an individual to act rightly in performing a particular action in accordance to justice and
for the good of the community.
- Ultimate Good: According to Aquinas beatitude or happiness is the total perfection of man’s
life, the purpose for which man is created and this is realized through the contemplation of the
divine and everlasting fellowship with the deity.
Exploring Other Social, Historical and Cultural Factors that Defined the Philosophical
Statements of the Given Scholars.
Cicero's Stoicism: Cicero’s ethical philosophy was in the historical and intellectual context of
the Roman society of the late republic period, which was a society in transition, grappling with
political instability, social unrest, and moral decadence. In these circumstances, Cicero aimed at
the formulation of a purely rationalist ethical paradigm with an emphasis on the cardinal virtues
and the public interest. This is a clear indication of the kinds of parameters that the Stoic
philosophy put forward, and with warmth underlined one of the key aspects of self-mastery,
moral integrity, and civic responsibility that the Roman valued very highly in their culture of
virtues or virtue.
Aquinas's Christian Aristotelianism: The ethical theory that Aquinas presented was set into
place amidst medieval Christendom where beliefs and principles of Christianity dominated
various aspects of society including the scholarly realm and moral theories. Set apart from the
virtues of reason as outlined in Aristotle’s work, Aquinas used the theological virtues of
Christianity, namely sin, grace, and redemption to merge the two perspectives and bridge the gap
between faith and knowledge in arriving at moral and eternal truths. His ethical system shows
how the medieval compromise between rationality and revelation embodies an attempt to
reconcile the principles of classical philosophy with Christian teachings on the way one can
achieve happiness and acquire beatitude.
Combining the results of the comparative analysis in light of the findings it is possible to
conclude that the tendencies in the ethical frameworks and the views on key ethical concepts in
Cicero’s Stoicism and Aquinas’s Christian Aristotelianism do differ, but is not radically
dissimilar though varies in certain aspects within the historic and cultural historical context.
Although Cicero and Aquinas concisely agree with the concepts of reason, virtue, and the good
life, their philosophical outlooks are influenced by different schools of thought and theological
beliefs. Though there are differences regarding their thoughts on ethical issues, their
philosophical approaches has similarities that is focused on natural law, justice and the
development of virtue as important aspect of a good life.
5.0 Legacy and Influence.
Assessment of the Lasting Impact of Cicero and Aquinas on Western Thought.
Cicero: Most of the writings left behind by this Florida born Roman philosopher have today left
a mark on the western world’s thought process. Therefore, in tracing the key themes that run
throughout Cicero’s work it is impossible to overlook his formal education and his impact on
Roman rhetoric and philosophy. His integration of Greek philosophy with Roman culture and his
advocacy for the republican system among revolution at the period created the background of
western cerebral tradition.
The discussions about the nature of ethics and practical reason that are present in better worlds
are informed by Cicero’s ethical philosophy, including his reliance on stoicism. I admire him due
to his views of virtue and the common good, the commitment of reason in the moral sphere in
proffering solutions to certain epic questions of human existence such as the exact nature of the
good life, principles of justice and the place of the virtue of civic responsibility in human society.
Furthermore, the advocacy of natural law as well as the reason as the cultures of decision-making
on morality has been greatly influenced by Cicero in the Western legal and political systems.
Additionally, Cicero’s composition of speeches as well as writing style helped influence more
successive generations of great speakers and writers, politicians, the nature and future of
democracy, as well as Latin literature. Some of the works that he wrote are “On Duties” and “On
the Republic,” the texts to this date remain under discussion by scholars and academics, thus
making it evident that the contributed values and knowledge by Cicero are still significant to this
date.
Aquinas: Thomas Aquinas has been more influential than most of these people and his
significance underlines the extent to which Western culture owes its development to him,
particularly on account of the Christian theology that is infused into his work after he reconciled
it with the very substantial and highly persuasive arguments advanced by Aristotle. More than a
philosopher and a theologian, Aquinas has been a pivotal figure in re-shaping the course of
western Christian thought and understanding of relationships between nature and the divine.
The Aristotelian ethical theory familiar in natural law and virtue ethic, Aquinas continues to
engage the present ethical and moral philosophy. Through the emphasis on reason as the highest
faculty, the quest for virtue, as well as the call for communal well-being, he continues to
influence current and historical debates concerning issues such as bioethics, political theory, and
justice. In addition, it is impossible not to note Aquinas has made the largest impact on the
Catholic intellectual tradition by integrating the Christian theology with Aristotle’s philosophy,
which helped to create an integrated theological system that would serve as a theological
foundation for the exploration of the major themes of reason, faith, revelation, and natural law.
Additionally, the aspects of Metaphysics, Epistemology, and theology that Aquinas had
contributed with a long-run effect on the Western philosophy and theology. Alleging to Aristotle
and the Christian theology, his Five Ways of proving the existence of dominant God makes him
a focus of scholars studying philosophy of religion and theology. The work “Summa
Theologica” written by Aquinas is still considered to be one of the most important sources in
Catholic theology, and still has considerable influence in the discussions within Catholic Church
and in the wide Christian world.
Discussion on how their ideas continue the influence current debates.
Cicero: Still, the works of Cicero hold modern interest in discussions about ethics, politics and
rhetoric. I doubt that anyone of us today can read the extracts from his speech and his defense of
republican principles – of law, of constitutional government, of popular virtue – without feeling
that the concerns articulated by Tocqueville are issues that we discuss today when we talk about
democracy, governance and human rights. Furthermore, Cicero’s influence can be seen as ideas
of public discussion, participatory democracy, and the techniques of oratory are still relevant to
the interrogations on the function of rhetoric in politics and people’s activities at the present
days.
On the ethical front, Cicero’s influence has wound its way through times and transformed into
what is considered today as the fundamental ethical theory grounded within the Stoic perspective
on virtue and the good life, as well as his influence on the debates towards virtue ethics, moral
psychology, and character education. Tiede has also continued to influence the current discourse
in legal theory and especially in human rights and social justice through his defending of natural
law and elements of reason as the guide to moral decisions.
Aquinas: It is pertinent to maneuver Wesley’s thoughts in the contemporary frame work of
systematic theology and its affiliated disciplines like ethics and philosophy. His merging of faith
and reason – theology and philosophy – offers a theological perspective for understanding
modern post-modern challenges such as the conflict between science and religion, the definition
of faith, and religion in modern society. Furthermore, other parts of the Aquinas ethical theory
has been widely acknowledged in modernity due to its concepts from natural law and virtue
ethics to bioethics and the environmental, to social justice.
Moreover, the influence of Aquinas become apparent in today’s discussion on metaphysical,
epistemological, and theological studies. Edwards offer five ways to support the idea of
existence of God, his concept of divine simplicity and theory of analogy are core issues that are
still important to scholars and students of philosophy of religion and theology. Aquinas’s
theological reflections, especially those carried out in tier systematic theology section dealing
with grace and redemption persists to remain relevant in Catholic theology, as well as non-
Catholic theology as a whole.
Discussion of Notable Scholars and Movements that Have Drawn Upon or Critiqued Their
Work.
Cicero: Harvard professor of philosophy John M. Cooper, philosopher Martha Nussbaum, and
political theorist Quentin Skinner just to name a few have used Cicero’s work in their research in
the fields of ethics, politics and rhetoric respectively. For instance, Cooper and Nussbaum have
written about Cicero on ethical philosophy and the present-day movement on virtue ethical and
moral psychology. Still, Skinner has devoted his proved attention to analyzing the political ideas
of Cicero and their impact on the concepts of democracy and constitutionalism of the
contemporary century.
Objections to Cicero have been made by such as Hannah Arendt as to whether the Roman was
truly a republican and why he provided the language of the political virtues to support tyranny?
For instance, as earlier illustrated, when using Cicero as an example, Arendt notes that
constitutionalism combined with the emphasis on law ultimately contributed to the decline of the
Roman republic and emergence of despotism.
Aquinas: Other eras having included prominent ethicists Alasdair MacIntyre, Jean Porter and
theologians such as, David B. Burrell who, have incorporated Aquinas’s work in their respective
specialties of ethicists, politics and theology. For instance, MacIntyre has easily discussed
Aquinas’s virtue ethics and how this thinking can be helpful in today’s argumentation in moral
philosophy and political theory. Porter has provided an analysis of Aquinas’s natural law theory
with an overview of what it means in the ongoing debates today especially in the realm of
bioethics and social justice. While Burrell has written for theology and has delved deeply into
Aquinas’s theological works and their relevance to modern systematic and philosophical
theology and religious thought.
Among other criticisms that were made in regard to Aquinas, it is necessary to mention
Immanuel Kant and Friedrich Nietzsche who pointed out flaws in the use of natural theology in
works of Aquinas and at the same time his attempt to combine faith and reason. For instance,
enthusiasm, Kant has made critique on Aquinas’s five ways of proving the existence of god
saying that it is founded on speculation not on experience. However, Nietzsche points out that
Aquinas’s Christian Aristotelianism, as a system of thought, is far from the natural world and
focused upon otherworldly things, and, more significantly, Nietzsche refers to its rejection of the
will to power.
Therefore, following the consideration of Cicero and Aquinas’s impact on the subsequent epochs
of the Western method of thinking, it is possible to determine their lasting imprint in the shape of
the continued dominance of ethical, political, and theological traditions established by both
figures. Their concepts remain pertinent today and serve as informative for discussions today and
source for scholarly and social activism across numerous fields. Praised and vilified, their
contributions are still a part of what defined the norm for the Western depth of knowledge and
the meaning of human life in producing and searching for the good life.
Conclusion.
As for the two philosophers that would always remain significant for the further developments in
the history of ethics and philosophy, it is crucial to pinpoint several important factors and ideas
that defined them and their approaches to a great extent. By looking at Cicero and Aquinas from
the perspectives of Stoicism and Christian Aristotelianism, respectively, this paper has
highlighted the works of two pivotal figures in Western philosophy and theology through the
lens of virtue, the goodness of life, and the principles of ethics.
By the writing of his philosophical works Cicero was able to shed light on the Roman Republic
with the flambeau of Stoicism fighting for the virtues, justice and the preservation of the
republican form of government amidst the chaos. Some of his the works include; ‘De Officiis’
and ‘De Republica. ’ Through these works, Cicero expounded the principles of Virtue, reason,
and the welfare of the community in a society, as a guide to the proper behavior of an individual
in society. This analysis of aspects of Cicero’s Stoic philosophical and rhetorical thought serves
as a reminder that, in several ways, his ideas remain pertinent to today’s discourse on ethics,
politics, and society’s organization.
Far eastern wisdom was presented to Europe through missionaries and travelers and absorbed
into medieval culture while Aquinas introduced the magnificent synthesis of Aristotelianism and
Christianity into the European hemisphere. Through his written works such as the Summa
Theologica, Thomas Aquinas painted an extensive picture on the nature of the human being that
is anchored to the principles of natural law with its purpose towards human fulfillment in the
form of beatitude which is union with God. Thus, using the experience of Aquinas, ethical theory
that provide specialize in virtue, natural law, and the use of the common good is still relevant to
modern discussions of ethics, theology, and political science, as it offers a theological approach
to solving current issues of human life and societal development.
Considering the fact that Cicero and Aquinas’s ideas are considered relevant today, one can
understand that there is always a reason to study the historical figures and their contributions to
modern thought. Frankl’s logo therapy asserts that individuals can discover meaning in life by
finding a purpose and caring for patients, young and old. The living conditions and human
suffering in concentration camps represent stages of decay and suffering. Sorrow and despair
observed within the clients show that life has purpose and meaning, as well as the importance of
hope, intentionality, and meaningful activities. Through debating the concepts of Cicero and
Aquinas, we improve our enlightenment and gain cultural literacy with understanding numerous
concepts that influenced Western tradition. To the words of Cicero himself: “What can be more
pleasing to the eyes than observing the wisdom of the past rest in the laps of the new
generations?”
In finality, the works of Cicero and Aquinas in the formation of early ethics and philosophy are
invaluable wealth in the endowment of human advancement in the appreciation of intellectual
values. Thus, such characters’ popularity makes people recall the countless valuable moral
lessons that never fade away at any period, urging us to go on with the search for knowledge and
the highest qualities inside and outside of oneself.
