Impact of scientific inventions on industry
1. As a result of people getting exposed to the industrial goods, their living
standards have improved.
2. Jobs have been created in industries. The textile industries for example
employ a large number of people.
3. There is diversification of economy as a result of introduction of
industries. This has stopped man from depending on agriculture only.
4. New sources of energy were introduced as a result of scientific research.
These were like solar energy, atomic and nuclear energy, and electric
power.
5. Space exploration has been carried out due to invention of rockets,
satellites, and digital cameras.
6. Dangerous weapons such as atomic and nuclear weapons have been
invented. This has increased wars in the world.
7. Inventions of engines, motorcars, supersonic planes and locomotives
encouraged manufacture of spare parts and vehicles and also refining of
oil to get fuel for vehicles. Transport has therefore been revolutionised
through scientific inventions.
8. Scientific inventions had reduced the labour burden. Machines do most of
the work especially in developed countries.
9. The invention of computers has helped workers to perform their duties
efficiently and accurately for example in the banking sector where
computers are used to process information and many other types of data.
10. Trade has been encouraged due to the growing demand of the
manufactured goods.
11. The industries cause pollution in cities. Industrial fumes, noise and smell
affect people. Some are affected by diseases like tuberculosis.
12. Communication network has been improved through the use of Email and
Internet.
13. Some countries of the world have become highly industrialized. This has
given them the opportunity of becoming world powers. They use the
products of their industries to overpower others.
Important scientific inventions and discoveries in medicine
1. Joseph Lister
He discovered he use of carbonic acid as an antiseptic to sterilise surgical
apparatus. Then he developed an antiseptic spray for making the air clean
during operations. He also discovered the use of carbonic acid for
destroying microbes around the wound after an operation.
2. William Marton
He discovered the use of chloroform sometimes refered to as carbonic
acid during surgery.
3. Edward Jenner
He invented the first vaccine for controlling smallpox.
4. Lous Pasteur
He discovered that certain bacteria caused certain disease. He discovered
that heat could kill bacteria. He therefore discovered that food could be
preserved through the method he called pasteurisation. This is heating
food to a certain temperature and then making it maintain the same
temperature for a specific period of time before it is cooled quickly. He
also came up with cures for anthrax and rabies.
5. Sir Ronald Ross
He found out that the anopheles mosquitoes carried parasites that caused
malaria. He also discovered that proper drainage systems could prevent
the breeding of mosquitoes and therefore reduce malaria infections.
6. Rontgen
He discovered the x-ray radiation which later enabled doctors to observe
the internal organs of man and his bony framework..
7. Alexander Flemming
He discovered penicillin, which was an antibiotic capable for curing
coughs, pneumonia, sore throat and wounds.
8. Dr Christian Bernard
He introduced the method of transplanting the heart of a death person to a
body of a living patient with heart problem.
Impact of scientific inventions on medicine
1. There has been rapid increase in life expectancy of human beings. This
has resulted to rapid increase in human population.
2. Drugs have been discovered which reduce pains therefore reducing
human suffering. Others cure diseases completely.
3. Machinery for use in hospitals have been invented. These are used by
doctors for locating and treating diseases.
4. Industries for manufacturing drugs (curatives) have been established.
This has created employment opportunities in the pharmaceutical
industries.
5. Preventive measures have been applied such as vaccination which has led
to eradication of many diseases.
6. Excess use of drugs may affect the health of many people. This is because
certain diseases become resistant to certain drugs.
Factors influencing scientific inventions in Africa and other developing
nations
i) Inadequate capital for the use in scientific research.
ii) Illiteracy of the people. Many people who are not educated cannot be able
to apply scientific principles to come up with new findings.
iii) Over-depending on donor countries. This occurs because African
countries are poor.
iv) Little emphasis in the teaching of science in school. This occurs because
of shortages of science equipment for experimental work.
v) Failure for the governments to assist researchers. Many African countries
cannot afford to fund researchers. Even those countries which may afford
do not take research work as their first priority.
vi) Excessive dependence on items for instance engines, pharmaceuticals and
other machinery reduce the importance of engaging on scientific research.
vii) Lack of initiative on the side of researchers. Therefore others are not
encouraged to carry out research.
Review Questions
1 a) Identify the early sources of energy.
b) How was energy from wind used?
a) Give the uses of the following metals:
i) Copper
ii) Iron
b) Explain the effects of the spread of iron smelting in Africa?
3 What factors contributed to the industrialisation in Britain?
4. What were the social and economic effects of industrialisation in
continental Europe?
5. a) What is scientific revolution?
b) Discuss the impact of scientific inventions on:
i) Agriculture
ii) Medicine
6. a) What are the main factors which contributed to the industrialisation
of the developed countries?
b) What are the major obstacles to the industrialisation of the
developing nations?
Students’ Activities
1 Compare the type of industries found in the developed countries and
those found in the third world (developing) countries.
2 In groups discuss various discoveries and inventions which have
promoted Industry, Medicine and agriculture.
CHAPTER 4
Urbanisation
Urbanisation is the process of people’s migration from rural areas to live in
towns or cities. It can also imply the establishment of towns or cities. It can also
be defined as the concentration of people in settlements usually referred to as
urban centres. An urban centre according to the United Nations is a settlement
with a population of 20,000 people and above.
A modern town
Early urbanisation in Africa
Early urbanisation began in Africa before the birth of Christ. Early urban
centres which declined such as Meroe and Aksum are suitable example of such
towns.
Several factors led to the establishment of the early urban centres before
the establishment of the colonial rule. These are:
1. Due to development of trade, convergent centres emerged which became
the meeting places for many people from different places. They later
development into towns. Examples are Mombasa and Kilwa.
2. There was development of ports and harbours where ships anchored such
as Cape Town and Malindi.
3. Some areas like Meroe where local industries were established attracted
many people who settled there. These settlements later developed into
towns.
4. Areas which had reliable water for irrigation, industrial use and domestic
use attracted people who established settlements which later developed
into towns.
5. Some administrative centres and palaces of rulers expanded to become
towns after the subjects came to settle close to rulers for security reasons.
6. Urban centres developed at major cross-roads and where several trade
routes met. Examples are Tuat, Timbuktu and Sijilmasa.
7. Notable religious centres became the meeting places for many people.
They attracted people who settled nearby and thereafter towns developed.
8. Development of early education centres such as Timbuktu, Gao and Cairo
contributed to development of urbanisation in those centres.
9. The development of Agriculture made people to settle permanently
together because food was available.
10. Areas that were secure and were sheltered from possible attacks attracted
people who concentrated there. These settlements later developed into
towns.
Cairo
Modern Cairo is situated at the delta of River Nile where some earlier
settlements had been established about 2000 years ago. Egypt was invaded by
the Fatimids who established a walled town. By mid 14th century Egypt had
grown into a big city with many mosques and palaces. It served as an early
religious centre.
The town had narrow streets, bazaars, shops and crowded living quarters.
There was a market where people sold their produce.
The Ottoman Turks took control of Egypt in 1517 and remained under
their control until 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte of France captured it from
the Turks. Three years later in 1801 the French were driven out of Cairo and it
was thereafter made the capital of Egypt by the then ruler, Mohammed Ali.
During the reign of Ismaili, Egypt was first modernised. Later it expanded as
more buildings reflecting the European style were constructed. Today it is the
largest town in Egypt. It has a modern international airport and a railway
network which links Cairo with the other towns. Cairo has many entertainment
facilities and museums. It is an important religious centre.
Meroe
Meroe is an ancient city in Africa that emerged in an iron working site North of
modern Khartoum. The inhabitants of Meroe developed the style of building in
brick and plaster during the first century BC. They white-washed the outer walls
of palaces and also decorated them with glowing mural-paintings. The inner
walls were also painted and decorated with ornaments.
Meroe started expanding when it was made the capital of Kush instead of
the former capital, Napata because the people of Kush had learnt the knowledge
of iron working from the Assyrians and they also traded with the Greeks by
exporting ivory, slaves, animal skins, ostrich feathers, timber and gold which
provided them with income to expand the town.
The city of Meroe declined during the first century AD mainly due to
trade rivalry from the growing kingdom of Axum in Ethiopia. When Meroe
began becoming weak, the King of Axum known as Ezana attacked Meroe,
burnt it and took everything of value. Ezana destroyed their stores of corn and
cotton and the statues in their temples. This marked the decline of the great city
of Meroe.
Kilwa
The origin of Kilwa is associated with the Persian immigrants who established
settlements on the Indian Ocean coast. At the beginning of the 13th century
Kilwa began expanding due to wealth obtained from the gold trade. From the
end of the 13th century, it was the most important trading town on the East Coast
of Africa.
It controlled the coastal settlement in the North as far as Pemba Island.
Kilwa was a walled town which minted its own coins. It controlled the gold
trade with Sofala and Zimbabwe. The inhabitants were mainly Muslims.
The town of Kilwa had beautiful buildings such as the Great Mosque and
the large palace known as Husuni Kubwa. The town began declining first in
the second hand of the 14th century. The fine buildings were ruined. Between
1420 and 1440 the mosque was renovated. The town of Kilwa lost its glory and
prosperity and declined completely almost at the close of the 15th century
because of the following reasons:
j) There were dynastic quarrels in Kilwa.
ii) The Sofala gold trade was interrupted by wars in the interior.
iii) Mombasa became a strong rival of Kilwa.
iv) The arrival of the Portuguese interfered with the gold trade because the
Portuguese soldiers attacked and conquered all the coastal city states.
v) There were constant rivalries between Kilwa and other coastal city states.
Early urbanisation in Europe
London
London is the capital city of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. It is in the continent of Europe. The city is situated in South East
England.
The town of London originated before the first century AD. When the
Romans occupied Britain in the 1st century AD, London was already a town of
considerable importance.
The Romans expanded the town and made it an important religious
centre. They also established Christianity which became the dominant religion
in England.
London continued to expand even after it was burnt in the first century
AD. When the Romans left England, London had already been established with
a large population.
The withdrawal of the Romans did not affect the growth of London
because what they did in Britain perished after they left.
In the 9th century, King Alfred made London the capital of his kingdom.
Later King William I established himself in England and developed the town of
London. He built the Tower of London and also rebuilt the London bridge.
Initially it was built of wood but he rebuilt it using stone.
Throughout the Middle Ages the growth of London was slow as a result
of wars, epidemics and commercial crisis.
When Queen Elizabeth I opened the Royal exchange in 1566 AD, the city
of London grew into an important city of the world. By 1580 AD Queen
Elizabeth I issued a proclamation which prohibited construction of any new
buildings within a radius of about 4 kilometres outside the city gates.
In 1665 AD London was affected by plague. The following year a great
fire burnt the city.
In 1667 the rebuilding act was enacted. It stipulated that all buildings be
of stone and brick. In the 1760s the walls and gates of old medieval city of
London were demolished. During the 19th century, London was modernised
through the construction of many suburbs, rebuilding of bridges and through
lighting of city streets. By the close of the century, London had grown into a
beautiful city served by a well developed networked of transport and
communication.
During the First World War, London became the German target. London
was heavily bombed. The Tower of London and the British Museum were
destroyed. Many other buildings were also damaged.
After the war, the British government reconstructed the war damage.
Many tall storey buildings were constructed such as the Museum Radio Tower
of the General Post Office building. This was followed by construction of
shops, residential houses, school, hotels and cultural centres.
The city of London got most of its water from river Thames. There were
several city markets which provided people with food, meat, fruits and flowers.
Today the city of London is under the control of the local government headed
by mayors.
Several factors contributed to the growth of the city of London. These were:
1. Development of transport and communication. London had a network of
roads and railways. Underground roads and railways were established in
underground tunnels to reduce traffic congestion.
Modern international airports such as Heathrow airport were also
established. London was connected to the rest of the world with
telegraphs, telephones and radio transmissions.
2. Trade enabled the town of London to grow into city status. Many people
migrated to London to conduct business as a way of earning a living.
The success of their businesses made them wealthy and they settled
permanently. As this process continued, the town also continued to
expand.
3. The establishment of industries attracted the people who came to seek for
employment and those who came to survive on cheap manufactured
goods.
4. The development of port facilities in London encouraged many people to
go and do the jobs of loading and unloading cargo. The sailors from
England also started their journeys from the seaports like London. Those
who came from abroad on their way to England regarded London as their
port of call. This contributed to the growth of London.
5. London served as a political and an administrative centre for a long time.
The Romans constructed a fort and surrounded it with a wall for security
reasons. The colonies Britain acquired were under the colonial secretary
who was based in London.
6. The city of London had several museums and theatres that made it an
important cultural centre. Many people were attracted by the activities in
the city making them to settle there in great numbers.
Functions of London
a) London is the capital of the United Kingdom. It acts as an administrative
headquarters.
b) It is an industrial centre that has both heavy and light industries.
c) It is a cultural and recreational centre. London has many theatres and
museums.
d) London is a centre of international transport and communication. This is
because there are international airports in London and there is the harbour
where ships from all over the world anchor.
e) London is a centre of learning. It has international Universities and
colleges.
f) It is also a commercial centre that has many banks and insurance. It has
many shopping centres.
g) London is a religious centre. It has many churches and cathedrals.
h) London is also the common wealth headquarter.
The problems London has encountered since it was founded
i) Problem of overcrowding of houses, vehicles and people.
ii) Epidemics such as plague affected London during the Romans era and in
1665 AD.
iii) London was burnt down in 1666 AD.
iv) There was the problem of unemployment.
v) There was the problem of rural - urban migration of the jobless.
vi) There was inadequate housing facilities and poor sanitation.
vii) There was high crime rate.
viii) There was pollution of the environment due to fumes from industries and
vehicles.
ix) London was bombed by the Germans during the First World War. This
resulted to deaths of people and destruction of property.
x) There was the demolition of the old city of London in the 1760’s.
Athens
The growth and prosperity of Athens is based on trade and commerce. The land
surrounding Athens was rocky. It could not support a large population. The
people of Athens depended mainly on imported food that they exchanged with
olive oil, wine and wool.
Athens was a famous centre of learning. The city state provided education in
such fields as philosophy, architecture, drama, science and medicine. The
democracy that is enjoyed in the world today originated in Athens where it was
actually practised.
Athens was surrounded by a protective wall for security purposes because of
constant wars with the other city states. The town itself looked clumsy. The
streets were merely narrow earth roads that became dusty during the dry spell
and muddy during the rainy season.
Some houses were made of unbaked brick while others were made of mud. A
few beautiful and well-built buildings such as Parthenon temple and the
temple of Athena Nike existed.
There was a market place in the centre of the town which also acted as a
meeting place for people and also the place where people assembled for debates.
On top of the high cliff was the Acropolis (Fortress) which provided protection
for the village below.
The biggest problem of Athens was that it had inadequate sanitary
facilities for disposing human waste and refuse. Due to this the town was
exposed to very bad smell from rotting garbage.
Athens weakened and lost its glory between 430 BC and 335 BC due to
the following reasons:
i) Athens was affected by constant rivalries and wars with other city states.
ii) Athens was conquered by King Philip of Macedonia and put under the
Macedonian domination.
iii) Constant epidemics like plague led to death of many Athenian citizens
therefore weakening the military might of Athens.
iv) The final blow, which made the town to disintegrate, was the death of
Alexander the Great whose empire controlled Athens. Other towns such
as Rome and Cathage rose to power to fill the political vacuum left by
Macedonia.
Emergence of modern urban centres in Africa
There are many urban centres in Africa that began when the Europeans acquired
colonies and settled there. Such towns never existed in Africa before the coming
of the Europeans.
Some of them began as administrative centres for the colonial authority.
Some emerged as mining towns, others as commercial centres some as
agricultural centres or farming centres while others began as industrial centres.
The Europeans at first settled in those places and established
administrative and commercial buildings. The emerging settlements attracted
rural people who also migrated there to look for employment, start business and
seek for other fortunes. Examples of the modern urban centres in Africa are
Nairobi and Johannesburg.
Nairobi
Nairobi began in 1899 during the construction of the Uganda railway. It first
started as a depot for storing the railway equipment before approaching the
steep rift valley escarpment.
The place looked suitable for a depot and for resting because of its mild
climate that was preferable by Europeans. There was also the Nairobi River
which provided water to the railway builders. The site was somehow flat for
construction compared to the land ahead of them before they reached the Rift
Valley. At the same time Nairobi was the midpoint between Mombasa and Lake
Victoria.
In 1907 the Imperial British East Africa (IBEA) company transferred its
capital from Mombasa to Nairobi. During the colonial period the Europeans and
Asians dominated the town.
Migration of Africans to Nairobi was restricted but quite a number went
there to work as labourers.
The town was associated with racial discrimination in employment,
commerce and housing.
Today Nairobi lies at the heart of Kenya’s rail and road network. It has a
modern international airport known as Kenyatta International Airport. It has
several other small airports such as Eastleigh, Embakasi and Wilson airports.
Nairobi is the seat of the government and the commercial centre of Kenya.
Nairobi is also industrial, cultural, educational, communication and transport
centre.
It has modern buildings that are used as offices, hotels and shopping
centres. The city attracts Kenyan citizens from all parts of the country and also
foreigners who include tourists from many countries of the world. However,
Nairobi City is facing a number of problems as below:
a) The city has inadequate drainage and sanitary facilities.
b) There is the problem of pollution as a result of many industries producing
fumes and noise.
c) There is acute problem of water.
d) There are inadequate educational facilities such as schools for the rapid
growing urban population.
e) There is congestion of traffic leading to traffic jams.
f) There is a high rate of crime such as robbery and prostitution.
g) There is inadequate housing facilities leading to development of slums
and overcrowding in residential areas.
h) There is high rate of unemployment. School leavers flock in Nairobi to
look for jobs.
Johannesburg
Johannesburg is a city of the Republic of South Africa, in Transvaal province.
The discovery of minerals during the second half of the 19th century was largely
responsible for the emergence of a number of towns in South Africa.
Location of the city of Johannesburg
Johannesburg mushroomed after large gold deposits were discovered in
Witwatersrand in September 1886. This was followed by a gold rush. At first
Johannesburg began with a very small population. Within a very short time
people flocked to Johannesburg on the Witwatersrand in great numbers from
Britain, America, Australia and other countries of Europe.
At first the early settlements were mere shanties made of galvanised iron. These
shanties were the basis of a miraculous growth of the city of Johannesburg.
Within a decade, the town had a population of about 100,000 people.
Other factors that contributed to the growth of Johannesburg are:
1. There was cheap labour from the Africans. Labour was also obtained
from the neighbouring countries like Malawi, Namibia and Botswana.
These labourers increased the population of the city.
2. River Vaal provided enough water for mining, industry and domestic use.
3. There was development of transport and communication in form of road
and railway.
4. The land surrounding Johannesburg was suitable for farming. This
provided enough food for the people in the mining centre and industries.
5. The availability of other minerals such as iron ore and flourspar in the
outskirts of the city contributed in the industrial growth.
6. The availability of coal, which provided energy also, promoted industrial
development.
Today, Johannesburg is the largest city of the Republic of South Africa and the
industrial and commercial centre. It is the centre of the country’s gold mining
industries and the site of the Johannesburg stock exchange.
It is a strategic rail, road and air hub with an international airport. It is a
mining as well as an industrial centre whose industries include manufacture of
mining and railway equipment, automobile parts, chemicals, textiles, electrical
and communication equipment.
Johannesburg is a cultural and educational centre of South Africa. It has a
number of museums, theatres, a symphony, orchestra and an opera company. It
has schools and universities.
Review Questions
b) What problems did each of the two towns above encounter that
affected its growth.
3. Explain the factors which led to the decline of the city of Athens in the
first millennium AD?
4. Describe the major problems of the modern urban centres.
5. Explain the growth of Johannesburg as an important urban centre.
1
a)
b)
What is urbanisation?
What favoured development of early urbanisation in Africa?
2. a) Describe the factors which contributed to the growth of:
i) London
ii) Kilwa
7. Describe the functions of Nairobi City.
Students’ Activities
1. Compare the factors that led to the growth of the
early urban centres with those which led to the
growth of modern urban centres.
2. Draw a map of Africa and indicate the
locations of Nairobi, Cairo, Meroe,
Johannesburg and Kilwa.
