PSYCHOLOGICAL STATE OF INDIVIDUALS IN THE
ORGANIZATION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 450 - ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
WEEK 5
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter the reader is expected to be able to:
1.
Recognize individual psychological factors in organizations
2.
Analyze the psychological state of individuals in organizations
A.
Emotions at Work :
Some organizations, in this case companies, will prioritize organizational life that is
bound by regulations and work targets that must be achieved by employees. Competition
between organizations and competition between employees, coupled with daily activities and
routines that are sometimes boring. This condition causes emotions in the workplace.
Emotions do not have to be interpreted as something negative, an employee who is in
direct contact with customers, for example must be able to show emotions that are
appropriate to the situation and conditions experienced by the customer.
Experts in human relations and human resources more often discuss employee feelings in
organizations from the side of meeting needs. However, along with the realization that
organizational life is becoming more complex over time, the emotional side of employees
began to receive serious attention.
Emotions are intrinsically part of work, work consists of tasks and cognitive functions.
An emotional view of organizations can lead to new ways of understanding and thinking
about the workplace. Emotions in organizations arise from relationships with colleagues and
others, and consider broader notions of emotion regulation and emotional intelligence.
Emotions as part of work, including interactions with customers. Interacting with
customers is an important part of the job. Communication between employees and customers
contains emotional or affective content in many ways. In this case, the term emotional labor
is used to refer to work where employees are expected to display certain emotions to meet
organizational role expectations.
The front office and service staff of the organization must consider emotions in customer
service. Emotional labor is therefore seen as a way to increase organizational success and
profits. Sometimes employees experience emotions at work and express them in interactions.
Emotional labor also sometimes affects people who are not in direct service duties, but in
professional positions in fields such as healthcare, education or human resources employees
in these roles rarely have instructions on how to deal with emotions explicitly in employee
handbooks or in training courses. For example, a nurse must deal with genuine emotions,
such as grief over the death of a patient. In interviews with employees in various service
positions, employees communicate emotionally by recognizing, communicating, and
responding. Employees who Doing emotional work should pay attention to the
compassionate needs and details of customers' lives that lead to good communication. They
then need to connect with the customer by taking the other person's perspective and creating
an empathetic relationship. Finally, they must respond with verbal and nonverbal behaviors
that can influence problem customers.
Emotions are an important part of the employment relationship, as they are a defining
part of one's work. Individuals in all organizational roles feel emotions at work. When people
talk about work and their feelings, they rarely talk about what they do at work or the meaning
of work. They talk about their involvement in group life. Feelings are not identified with job
evaluation, even less with personal growth and development. Instead, strong feelings are
identified with a person's place and activities in group life and their place of work. Some
aspects of work relationships are largely emotional. We often have coworkers or bosses
whom we like or dislike, who evoke joy or irritation, who are exhilarating or irritating. Work
with such coworkers may create and sustain emotions, including anger, frustration, joy,
excitement or boredom. At the most extreme level, the emotional content of work
relationships may include the psychological abuse of others through workplace bullying.
Workplace bullying can take the form of verbal and nonverbal workplace aggression that
includes personal attacks, social exclusion, and many other hurtful messages and hostile
interactions.
B.
Emerging Stress, Turmoil, and Social Support in the Workplace:
Stress often occurs in everyday life, as well as in an organization or company. Job stress
is an interaction working conditions and employee characteristics that change physically and
psychologically for better or worse. This shows that job stress is a job demand that does not
match the employee's ability. Greenberg (2004) says that "job stress as a combination of
various sources of stress sources in the job, individual characteristics and stressors from the
work environment. Conditions that tend to cause stress are called stressors. Although stress
can result from a single stressor, employees usually experience stress due to a combination of
stressors. Stress as an interaction between the individual and his/her stressor environment,
lies in the interaction of the individual with the individual's surroundings."
While Robbin (1996) defines "stress as the interaction of a dynamic condition in which
an individual is confronted with a situation, challenge or demand that is associated with what
is highly desirable and the result, perceived as something very important. "43
Stress itself is classified into 2 types, namely:44
1.
Eurastres
Eustress is positive stress that creates challenge and a sense of achievement, and acts as a key
motivator for many employees.
2.
Distress
Distress is negative stress and often leads to poor employee behavior such as repeated
mistakes, low morale and morale, indifference and absenteeism.
Factors that cause stress:
1.
Individuals
Individual causes of stress include: the individual's personality (calm, unflappable, or
otherwise sensitive and reactive). Individuals with a calm personality tend to see things with
a cool head. Conversely, sensitive individuals will see problems from the negative side. The
age of the individual also has an effect, usually the older a person is, the calmer and wiser
they will be in responding to everything, including work problems.
2.
Work Environment
The work environment, including the supervisor, is a major factor in the emergence of stress.
High workloads and authoritarian bosses, for example, can easily stress subordinates.
Competition between employees can also trigger stress. Conflicts with coworkers, for
example, can trigger hostility and conflict that makes one or even both employees experience
stress.
Employees suffering from job stress need urgent social support. Social support can come
from coworkers, subordinates, superiors or family. Social support can positively influence
employees to reduce workplace stress. However, when social support is absent or very little,
employees' workload can become heavy. According to Sarafino (2002), there are four forms
of social support, namely:
1.
emotional support in the form of expressions of empathy and concern for individuals;
2.
appreciative support in the form of affirmative statements and positive appraisals of others'
ideas, feelings and performance;
3.
instrumental support in the form of financial assistance or help with specific tasks;
4.
information support in the form of direction and feedback on how to solve problems.
As social creatures, humans need other people to fulfill their needs. Needs are not only in
the form of physical or material needs, but moral support or assistance in completing work, in
this case social support to reduce stress is also needed by someone in the work environment.
Social support can come from the work environment itself, namely from coworkers and
superiors, as well as from outside the work environment, such as family and friends. Social
support can reduce a person's stress, so social support can be said to be a pattern of support
that arises from personal interactions involving one or more aspects of emotion, judgment,
knowledge and tools to reduce social support. burden borne by the individual. In fact, not all
workers have social support. The presence or absence of social support affects a person's
mental health. According to Robbins (2008) that "social support, namely relationships with
colleagues, coworkers or superiors, can buffer the impact of stress. The logic underlying this
opinion is that social support acts as a reliever, which reduces the negative effects even for
high-stress jobs for workers who have poor or no relationships with coworkers and superiors,
involvement with family friends, and communities outside the work environment can provide
support especially for those who have high social needs that they do not get at work, and this
makes job stressors more tolerable."
Straus and Sayless (2006) revealed that there are 3 sources of social support in the work
environment, namely
1.
Family
It is the first group before an individual enters society. The family is the most important
source of security for individuals when facing problems. Social support in the family can
provide attention, tangible materials and encouragement to relieve tension.
2.
Friends
Employees' social support is not just friends, but they have a deep connection, so there is
cohesion within the organization work group, which in turn can increase camaraderie,
warmth, emotional closeness.
3.
Supervisor or trainer
Social support from superiors is not a behavior that keeps subordinates in power, but rather
provides warm and supportive treatment so as to view subordinates as colleagues.
Practice Problem:
1.
What causes stress in the workplace?
2.
What is Eurastres, explain.
3.
What is the role of superiors in handling stress from subordinates?
4.
How employees' emotions play a role in dealing with clients.
5.
Discuss with your peers how stress can have a positive impact in organizations.
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION
Learning Objectives:
After studying this chapter the reader is expected to be able to:
1.
Understand contemporary issues of organizational communication.
2.
Explain various contemporary issues of organizational communication.
A.
Women and Minority Group Issues in Organizations:
As mentioned in the previous chapter, the organization consists of a diversity of members
with various backgrounds, ranging from age, race, ethnicity, religion, etc. Organizations must
be able to manage and utilize this diversity as a skill and asset. Diversity itself can be defined
as differences between people based on age, ethnicity, gender, race or other dimensions.
Organizational diversity is no longer a taboo in this fast, vast and borderless global era. It
should also be noted that there are many problems in multicultural organizations, especially
for minorities themselves, who face discrimination in these organizations.46
1.
Tribalism
A person who has the belief that their culture, tribe and race are superior and better than
others.
2.
Prejudice
It is a person's feeling or opinion towards another person that is detrimental. This opinion is
unconfirmed and not based on reality.
3.
Stereotypes
It is a rigid, exaggerated, unreasonable, and usually negative belief or image associated with a
certain group of people.
4.
Discrimination
Treating people differently based on prejudicial attitudes and stereotypes.
5.
Glass ceiling
The invisible barrier that separates women and minorities from top leadership positions.
Until now, there is still discrimination that we often find related to streotypes about
women whose position is always under men. This is still anchored in development and in
society as a minority and discriminated against. In the world of work, equality is often a
problem that does not always find a clear solution, Women are sometimes undervalued in the
world of work. This is the so-called glass ceiling where women struggle to reach the highest
level of leadership in the organization.
As an organizational leader, it is important to create equality between men and women
and opportunities for minorities to develop and realize themselves better. Some organizations
sometimes neglect just to make a profit without the welfare of the organization's employees.
Therefore, it is important for organizational leaders to develop inclusive leadership,
where the leadership of today's global organizations must be able to create leadership that
ensures that everyone, men and women, ethnic minorities, youth, disabled people, the elderly,
ethnic minorities and people of all skin colors can get equal opportunities and be treated
fairly and respectfully.
Organizational leaders in today's modern era are required to be able to create
justice and equality at all levels in the organizational structure. The importance of tolerance
and justice in a heterogeneous organization. It is also necessary to create equal opportunities
for everyone in the organization, especially for minorities to be able to develop themselves
and improve their lives. Providing equal opportunities and fairness to both minorities and
majorities.
B.
The Concept of Multiculturalism in Organizations :
Organizations are formed to bring together a group of individuals to achieve a common
goal. A group of individuals often have different cultural backgrounds. Different cultures, of
course, create their own challenges for organizational leaders. Each individual will have
different values, beliefs, behaviors, habits in viewing every problem that occurs in the
organization.
The competence of leaders in developing a multicultural culture has recently become a
necessity. This is based on the idea that diversity in the organization can produce a
competitive advantage. In practice, it is not easy to unite organizational members from
different backgrounds. In fact, it often happens that the existence of cultural diversity in the
organization actually creates conflict. Misunderstandings, misinterpretations or interactions
can cause conflict between individuals or disagreements. Conflict can also arise from
individual fears, mistrust and prejudice.
Diversity will emerge in an organization when its members are different from one
another. Organizational culture, multiculturalism, and diversity are closely intertwined.
Diversity can be a source of competitive advantage as members can come from a wider
spectrum and be of high quality. Therefore, there are several individual strategies that can be
used to reduce the risk of conflict in organizations:47
1.
Understanding
Understanding from one member of the organization to another is absolutely necessary to
maintain a conducive work atmosphere. Awareness and respect for each individual with
different traits and cultures. In an organization we must understand the nature and meaning of
diversity and multiculturalism itself. We must be able to understand that everyone is different
and try to understand each person.
2.
Empathy
Giving attention and understanding to other individuals, including how to put ourselves out
there and understand other people's perspectives. Empathy is related to understanding, where
when we are in an organization we must try to understand the point of view of others.
3.
Tolerance
Tolerance is necessary to accept another person's point of view or behavior. Understanding
and empathy are necessary to understand another person's perspective, but tolerance is also
necessary to accept that person's perspective.
4.
Communication
Willingness to communicate openly with other members of the organization to avoid
misunderstandings. Communication can be done without suspicion or fear. We are often
afraid, reluctant to open up and afraid to face problems that arise in diversity. Whereas good
communication can provide positive results for each individual.
C.
Concepts and Theories of Media Technology Use:
In today's technological era, the use of media technology is a must. Some people even
argue that the existence of media technology is one of the determining factors for the success
of an organization. The use of media technology in the daily operations of an organization is
able to guarantee the efficient use of resources, build a new organizational culture that is
more unified between units, which ultimately increases the productivity and competitiveness
of the organization.
However, the use of media technology also has both positive and negative sides. To
avoid the negative side in the use of information technology, there is a need for selectivity.
This selectivity refers to cultural values, themes and messages to be conveyed.
Factors that influence the use of technology in organizations are as follows:
1.
Member perception of new medium & HR responsiveness.
2.
Organizational values, norms & culture.
3.
Member interaction (interpersonal relationship patterns).
4.
Decision-making patterns.
Five pillars in the era of information technology:
1.
Numbers are used to represent all information.
2.
The numbers are expressed as 1s and 0s.
3.
The computer transforms the information by performing arithmetic on the numbers.
4.
Communication systems move information around by moving the numbers.
5.
Computers and communication systems combine to form computer networks that eventually
become the basis of the information market space.
1.
The Role of Media Technology in Organizations:
a.
Opportunities for face-to-face contact are lost and knowledge based on non-verbal cues is
reduced. This also reduces the opportunity for indiscriminate and spontaneous information
sharing. Leaders must structure work and relationships to provide more face-to-face
opportunities (via text and icons). Informal messaging and crossing hierarchies will increase
as the emergence of new forms is justified as a natural process of electronic networks.
Organizational structures and formal information flows are redefined.
b.
Channel effects reduce effective and valuable messaging. Digital data with minimal context
and interpretation is the norm. This inhibits rather than supports decision-making. Ambiguity
of data interpretation increases and decision quality decreases because the context and values
of the organization are not understood. Organizations must work harder to communicate
organizational history and values. Leaders must find new ways to communicate the affective
part of the message. New and improved decision-making styles are also needed.
c.
Trust plays a different role in communication. Trust is created through shared experiences,
values, give and take and human communication. The advent of satellites, email and other
electronic communication networks can reduce the level of trust we are used to. New
communication networks can replace this role.
d.
Computerization exposes the discipline to linear thinking. Data processing takes place at a
pace that matches the development of technological devices. As a result, people become
impatient and less tolerant of communication styles individuals. Organizations may also
become less tolerant of employees who don't think or think linearly. You must find ways to
support and protect non-linear thinking and communication.
e.
Performance expectations are based on the condition of the electronic equipment. With our
adaptation to the speed and accuracy of computers, we can expect employees to have the
same quality and produce in the same way. Employees of the organization may find this
demand inhumane and coercive. Trade unions can raise such a work environment as a
problem. Then the organization must define and implement performance standards according
to the new conditions.
D.
The Influence of Technology in Organizational Communication
Here are some of the effects of technology use on organizations:
1.
Able to overcome time & space constraints
2.
Changing one's communication distance & territory
3.
Reduce the intensity of face-to-face meetings that occur within the organization
4.
Reduce personal, geographical, traditional hierarchical, positional/structural boundaries
within organizations & organizational norms.
5.
Change the communication pattern of the organization.
6.
Change work practices, work habits.
7.
Allows reshaping of organizational processes & structures.
8.
Makes it easy to recognize issues & problems
9.
Allows for interdependence of tasks and resources among organizational members
Impact of Media Technology Use:
1.
Increase collaborative knowledge that impacts customer relations and corporate culture.
2.
Easier to get product and service information, including news
3.
Easier to send messages electronically and communicate interactively
4.
Facilitate services related to travel and accommodation
5.
Financial services/Banking
6.
Access entertainment (games, movies and music), streaming radio and TV
Social Media and Media Technology in Indonesia:
Media technology within an organization is related to organizational structure. Although
some literature suggests that there is not always a close relationship between technology and
organizational structure, there is empirical evidence to the contrary. Organizations in any
industry must be able to adopt media technology, in order to compete. Of course, the decision
to adopt technology must be adjusted to the level of complexity of an organization. A simple
organization in a small scope, for example, does not need to adopt complex media
technology. Regardless of the circumstances, the presence of technology can affect the
amount of efficient organizational operations, the level of competition, and the general public
perception.
Practice Problem:
1.
Explain what is meant by glass ceiling.
2.
Explain the factors that influence the use of technology in organizations.
3.
What are the differences between analog communication and digital communication.
4.
Briefly explain the role of media technology in organizations.
5.
Discuss with your peers whether women and minorities are still an issue within your
organization.
COMMUNICATION AND LEADERSHIP STYLE
E. Leadership Style Approach:
The approach to leadership styles by experts is classified in the classic approach and the
modern approach, including the style of leadership in an era of change. These leadership
approaches are discussed in further detail:
1. Traits Theory Approach:
This theoretical approach emphasizes on the personal attributes/character possessed
by a leader. This theory stems from the premise that the success of a leader is determined by
the traits or character, personal qualities possessed by a leader. These qualities involve
physical and psychological aspects. Some examples of personal qualities include a person's
condition with variable personality traits such as initiative, perseverance, enthusiasm,
responsibility, authority and so on.
The physical aspects include height, appearance, energy level and so on. Another
example relating to the traits of the leader is as expressed by Stogdill as follows:
1) Capacity which includes intelligence, alertness, speaking ability,
originality and judgment;
2) Achievements such as degrees, knowledge and success in sports;
3) Responsibility;
4) Participation which includes being active, sociability, cooperation and adaptability;
5) Status such as social standing, economy, fame.
This theory has been challenged by management experts, because the success of a
leader is not only based on a person's traits but there are other variables that determine.
2. Behaviour Theory:
This theory was developed starting in the early 50s, due to the dissatisfaction of the trait
theory. This theory focuses more on the success of a leader influenced by the behavior of a
leader. This is because in Basically, leadership is the process of influencing the activities of
a person or group in an effort to achieve predetermined goals (Wahyo Sumidjo, Basics of
Leadership and Management). The figures of this theory flow are:
1) Halpin and Winer in -The Leader Behavior Description Questionnare‖ in 1957;
2) Robert Tannenbaum and Waren H. Schmidt in -The Leadership Conyinuum Model‖;
3) Blake and Monton in -Managerial Grid‖;
4) Likert in -Likert's Management System‖;
5) Geizel and Guba in -The Three Factor Theory‖ in 1957;
6) Liphan and Rankin in -The Four Factor Theory‖ in 1982;
7) W.J. Reddin in -The 3-D Theory‖.
In this Diklatpim Tk. III material, what will be discussed is the theory of W.J.
Reddin, who is famous for the 3-Dimensional theory -The 3-D Theory‖. In discussing this
theory, the author only takes from the Situational Management Module which has been
compiled and developed by Prof. Dr. Buchari Zainun, MPA and team. However, before you
examine this theory further, you are asked to fill in worksheet 1 (one) facilitated by
widyaiswara to identify your behavioral tendencies. After you get your behavior tendency,
then read the following description:
Three-Dimensional Behavioral Leadership (The 3-D Theory). This theory was
developed by W.J. Reddin in his writing entitled "What Kind of Manager". According to
this theory, there are three basic patterns used to determine leadership behavior:
1) Task-oriented (TO) behavior, such leaders have a tendency to carry out tasks to the
maximum. The result is less attention to cooperative relationships with superiors,
subordinates and peers. In addition, there is also a lack of attention to the results that should
be achieved by the organization.
2) Behavior that is oriented towards cooperative relations / human relations (Relationship
Oriented / RO), Leaders who are more concerned with human relations / cooperative
relationships, either with subordinates, peers, or superiors.
3) Effectiveness-oriented (E) leadership behavior.
From these three orientations Reddin classifies into 8 (eight) leadership styles,
namely:
1) The Deserter, someone who has none or only a few of the three orientations.
2) The Bureaucrat, someone who only has effective traits with a low task orientation.
3) The Missionary, someone who just has orientation to relationships only with low task
orientation.
4) The Developer, someone who has effectiveness with high relationship orientation and low
task orientation.
5) The Autocrat, someone who has a task orientation only, while other orientations are low.
6) The Benevolent Autocrat, someone who has effectiveness with a fairly high task orientation
while low relationship orientation.
7) The Compromiser, someone who is less effective but has adequate task orientation and
relationship orientation.
8) The Executive, someone who has all three of the above orientations.
The further characteristics of each leadership style according to W.J. Reddin are as
follows:
1) The Deserter shows little attention to either the task or the company. He is not or not
effective, not only because he lacks attention, but also because of his negative influence on
morale. He or she not only actively avoids work duties but also actively hinders the success
of others' work by interfering or withholding information. Deserter types are often found in
large organizations. He feels he is being treated unfairly, so he decides to abandon the
organization, or if he has time he will destroy the organization from within. Sometimes this
type can be so cunningly obstructive that only close observers can tell what is being done. In
its most aggressive and negative form this person steals something from the organization. In
its most subtle form, it appears to be opposed to change but if it agrees to it then secretly
sabotages it, creates difficulties in all areas that reduce work output, incites others that cause
adverse effects on employee morale. The cunning Deserter type produces something just to
cover up others' suspicions of his existence. He remains uninvolved in all activities, when he
is a leader he is happy to send every problem to the committee to relieve himself of any
responsibility however small. A person is made a Deserter by a major mistake of his
superiors. Because in general people do not enter an organization with such a level. They are
pushed into this type by their superiors and the environment they are in.
2) The Bureaucrat. Similar to the Deserter, he has no real interest in duty (TO) or association
(RO). He himself, however, is effective because of his strict adherence to the rules. He
maintains an atmosphere of compliance but lacks personal life and involvement in his
problems. The Bureaucrat sees himself as the most efficient. He obeys rules of the
organization, following the path that has been outlined. He is someone who sticks to the
details and his main orientation is -the rules of the game‖. For him, only existing and
applicable regulations and past experiences are the guidelines that must be obeyed and
followed. This group of bureaucrats usually grows up in a government service environment.
He is often found in organizations whose achievements are sometimes difficult to measure /
assess. This type is very effective in terms of adherence to rules but this type of bureaucrat is
difficult to encourage increased production and does not want to develop his subordinates.
He thinks that healthy and mature relationships are difficult to achieve and that long-term
planning is a bad idea. He is very attached to what happened in the past in his organization.
3) The Missionary, is someone who is kind, friendly and puts socializing above all else. This
group is ineffective because his intention is only to be a -good person‖ which is an obstacle
for him to take risks. His leadership style is ineffective because he never solves problems.
He always avoids clashes and chooses the better policy of transferring or giving promotions
or raises to people who like to cause trouble. He is willing to change his stance to keep the
peace. The worst thing in his opinion is to do something that always has to turn out the best.
4) The Developer, is someone who constantly places trust in others. In some ways he is the
envy of the Missionary class but is more effective by motivating others. He sees his main
task as developing the talents of others. In most organizations this group is not very
prominent. He just sits down to work on turning a "technical expert" into a "general
manager" (leader) and no one notices until he leaves his position. His/her job duties are seen
by others as very enjoyable because of the wide range of people he/she usually associates
and works with. Skill in creating conditions
-That -advancing others‖ sometimes happens without anyone knowing it. The developer
group has an exciting assumption about work. He believes that -work‖ is -natural‖ and as
natural as the human need to -rest‖ or -play‖. He believes that humans are willing to train to -
walk alone‖,
-self-control‖ and achieve a high level of sense of responsibility. He believes in what most
managers find hard to believe, namely that intelligence, imagination and creativity are
widespread in all people and not just in leaders.
5) The Autocrat is the type of person who puts duty above all else. He is less effective because
he is less social, and less trusting of others. Many are afraid of him and dislike him so much
that people only want to work when he uses violent pressure. The Autocrat assumes that
people are generally the same, that is, they do not like to work and avoid work if possible.
Therefore most people must be controlled, ordered and if necessary threatened with
punishment so that they work as he wants. This type assumes that people generally prefer to
be bossed around, avoid responsibility and are relatively lackluster at work and seek -safety‖
above all else. The Autocrat views workers as part of the machine. Their job is to carry out
orders.
6) The Benevolent Autocrat, develops a modicum of confidence in sound methods and
procedures of what should be done. He is concerned with and effective in obtaining results.
His main skill is commanding others to do what he wants, the mark creates a feeling of
discouragement in the person to do so. He has a feeling of orientation with the Autocrat,
although he is more subtle and more effective. This style is very popular in today's industrial
environment. He often reflects good leadership and seeks to improve his skills by learning
from his mistakes. The Benevolent Autocrat is usually ambitious, knows the rules and
methods of the organization very well. When he reaches the top with high production, he no
longer knows how to get along with his subordinates. He is fully engaged, but the
subordinates who work with him are not.
7) The Compromiser, recognizes the benefits of task orientation (TO) and relationship
orientation (RO) but is unable to bring these orientations together into a sound decision. An
attitude of compromise and equivocation is characteristic. Strong influences on his decisions
are -heavy pressures‖ from the left and right. He tries to reduce problems rather than increase
production in the long run. He tries to make the people who influence his career happy with
him as much as possible. The Compromiser as the name suggests never does things
completely. He pushes but does not mean it. While he does not tolerate poor performance,
he does not expect high performance. All this perpetuates his ineffectiveness. The
Compromiser believes that optimum production is a pipe dream. He assumes that every plan
must be a series of compromises. He only sees that what can be done is done. He wants to
live and let others live too. If it seems that something is going to work, he will support it.
8) The Executive, is a leadership style that is an example of
-a highly effective manager‖. He is someone who sees His job is to get his subordinates to do
what they do best. She sets high standards and achievements, but knows that she must treat
each person differently. He is effective, in that his adherence to duty and association is
reassuring to everyone and is a role model for all. The Executive group realizes that and
works to produce an effective one that runs smoothly, she creates a climate that gives the
group fresh influence to move towards a common goal. He evokes participation and thereby
fosters a sense of interconnectedness in his subordinates. He evokes a sense of involvement
in planning and thereby gets the best out of everyone's thinking. He knows that every mature
person -needs both freedom and attachment‖. He understands that the individual needs and
organizational goals of a team to reach a common consensus. The Executive Group accepts
disagreement and dissent on any of the tasks. He views such attitudes as necessary, normal
and appropriate. He does not suppress, turn away or avoid disputes. He is of the opinion that
all differences can be reconciled and disputes resolved and when this is achieved, the result
is a binding agreement. He does not have a "galvanizing" spirit but rather his team has
experience and a strong unity with high morale. He does not
-He does not want to shift the blame to a collective decision (team), but all team members
will each feel their own involvement in both failure and success.
3. Situational Approach:
This theoretical approach was born because the trait theory and behavioral approach
did not provide many answers in leadership styles. Why is that?
Because the success of a leader is not only influenced by factors originating from him, but
also other variables, including the vision and mission of the organization, the nature of work,
the organizational environment and the characteristics of individuals involved in the
organization. This approach provides considerable meaning for leaders in practice, by
including consideration of the overall situation in the design of activities.
This theory was formulated by Hersey and Blanchard (1992-1997) which is the latest
development of the consingency or fiedler model developed by PAUL HERSEY and
KENNETH BLANCHARD which was originally called Life Cycle Theory.
The following presents a situational leadership model. Further research shows that
leadership behavior tends to vary from situation to situation. In situational leadership the
leader must be able to carry out a good diagnosis of the situation, so that the leader must be
able to:
1) Change behavior according to the situation and conditions;
2) Treat subordinates according to their different maturity levels.
Based on the description above, it can be concluded that leadership behavior tends to
vary from situation to situation. Behavior patterns vary according to the situation and
conditions.
These four behavioral tendencies constitute the four basic behaviors of situational
leadership with the following characteristics:
1) Directive Type (Telling):
This type focuses more on one-way communication, the leader limits the role of
subordinates, showing subordinates what, when, where the work is done. Problem solving
and retrieval decisions are the responsibility of the leader and are conveyed to subordinates.
This type is often referred to as the telling type.
2) Consultative Type (Selling)
Considerable directive and decision-making. Two-way communication, the leader is willing
to listen to complaints from subordinates in making decisions. But the decision remains in
the hands of the leader.
3) Participatory Type
The roles of subordinates and leaders in decision-making are balanced. Two-way
communication, increasingly improved, leaders pay more attention to their subordinates.
Leaders think that subordinates have sufficient skills and knowledge to complete tasks.
4) Delegative Type
Leaders discuss problems with subordinates and then delegate decision-making to
subordinates. Subordinates are given the right to determine the steps of how decisions are
implemented. Subordinates are considered to have skills and are highly trusted.
4. Visionary Leadership
Is there a need for visionary leaders in this era of change? What is meant by change? Why
does change happen and what is a visionary leader?
1) Definition and Background of Change
Change as a future concept is often referred to as renewal or reform. The word reform has
become a very popular word among us, so what exactly is called change or reform? Change
or reform is a transformation process that leads to the realization of a new situation, a better
condition compared to the previous situation (Wahyo Sumidjo, Leadership Module, LAN,
1999). The transformation does not only involve one aspect of life in total. Such as in the
fields of social, political, economic government and culture. In the aspect of government, it
includes aspects of administration, management, organization, work processes, human
resources and so on. In such conditions, change is a necessity for every organization, both
government bureaucratic organizations and private organizations. This is in line with the
vision and mission of each organization as well as the dynamics of changes in the
development of science and technology. Why the change? The following summarizes some
general backgrounds by experts on the background of change as follows:
a) The crisis that is being experienced by organizations in various parts of the world, whether it
is an economic crisis, cultural crisis, social crisis, political crisis, including a socio-cultural
crisis;
b) Future success forces us to challenge the concepts and practices that underpin future
organizations;
c) Formulations and approaches that have been successful in the past are now considered
ineffective; d. The need for new management theories and practices to replace obsolete
theories and practices; e. New solutions to actual problems (current issues) are needed to
reform or recreate organizations and business entities. The need for new management
theories and practices to replace obsolete theories and practices; e. New solutions to actual
problems (current issues) are needed to reform or recreate new organizations and business
entities. In addition to these macro symptoms, change is also influenced by internal factors
and external factors.
Internal Factors:
Stephen R.Covey in his book "The Principle Centered Leadership" said that the
chronic disease for countries that are Developing countries are demanding a change in the
reform of the -situation‖ in government. These internal factors include:
a) Lack of common vision and values (mission).
b) No clear strategic framework and flow.
c) Weak alignment between vision and system.
d) Leadership style that does not match the vision.
e) Lack of competition and integrity.
External Factors:
Some external factors that influence change include socio-cultural, technology,
legislation, politics and so on.
2) Change Leader Roles and Profiles:
A leader in the era of renewal is someone who is able to create an innovative
environment that does not inhibit genuine creativity and potential work force. The renewal
leader provides direction and outlook for the needs of subordinates. The leader helps to
create an environment of pride and loyalty, not fear and intimidation. The role of a renewal
leader involves the following strategic matters:
a) To improve the performance of human and other resources and to improve quality, increase
output, and simultaneously to generate pride in the morale of subordinates;
b) Not only to find and record human resource failures, but to produce the causes of failures,
helping subordinates to perform better tasks;
c) Creating a productive work environment, displaying innovative leadership, and training
subordinates to carry out tasks. The commitment of visionary leadership behavior according
to James M.
Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner in his book -The Leader Challenge‖ is summarized as follows:
1) Seek Challenging Opportunities:
This view means that a leader is expected to always strive so that -status quo‖ or -static
establishment‖ does not need to be maintained, it should be changed immediately in order to
adjust to the waves of change that occur. In order for the realization of this commitment to
be implemented in real terms in organizational life, among others, it is necessary:
a) Treat each work assignment (assigment) as one
-adventure‖ is exciting and filled with the hope of discovering new secrets or mysteries of
future success.
b) Actively caring and questioning the meaning of any -status quo‖ or -static establishment‖ and
earnestly seeking the right strategies and ways to change the situation so as to plan for
change or new opportunities.
2) Dare to try and be willing to take risks:
This commitment has the same meaning as having a strong determination and the deepest
sincerity to try to learn from success and failure, even though it is forced to pay the price of
experience with expensive and great consequences. Leaders in this concept, see how
important the courage to be willing to learn from successes and failures is.
-take risks‖ as a result of trying to move forward. In fact, many believe that being a leader is
living in the realm of risky life. This means that leaders must be willing to develop a value
system and work culture full of loyalty for all members to dare to try and take risks. The
values contained in this concept:
a) Create mechanisms to accommodate innovative ideas.
b) Start conducting experiments on a small scale.
c) Establish innovative working groups.
d) Appreciate every job.
e) Analyze the results of the experiments.
f) Foster a mentality of daring to try.
3) Leading the Future:
Every leader must present a person who exudes a vision or foresight of a strong picture of
the future form. The main task of the leader is to create a clear vision for the improvement of
the future life of the organization and the people in the organization. Some concrete
practices that need to be done in developing this commitment are several principles that need
to be implemented, namely:
a) Introspection (recognizing oneself correctly).
b) Define the expected future.
c) Planning what no one else has thought of.
d) Train intuition and keen sense.
e) Always be forward-looking.
4) Fostering a Common Vision:
Fostering cooperation or striving for people to be willing to work in one word and the spirit
of togetherness is the task of a leader. The principle of fostering cooperation is to increase
the integration of organizational potential through common goals and foster mutual trust
among organizational members. Some things that need to be considered are:
a) Creating togetherness.
b) Create opportunities for interaction.
c) Creating openness.
d) Not dwelling on old failures.
e) Involve other parties in every process.
f) Develop an atmosphere of mutual trust.
5) Strengthening partners:
Leaders are obliged to share or provide power and information so that all parties involved in
the renewal process have the same power or resources for renewal. Some efforts that can be
developed are:
a) Get to know each partner.
b) Develop interpersonal relationship skills
c) Serve the other party with sincerity.
d) Develop flexibility for others to take responsibility.
e) Develop information openness for all.
f) Foster partnerships by providing support.
6) Demonstrate Exemplary:
Leaders have an obligation to enable others to act by setting an example for further growth.
Equalizing philosophical underpinnings and values, understanding the core values accepted
by the individual or group is a strategic step. Some possibilities are:
a) Don't miss out on every opportunity
b) Create more opportunities for the spread of the vision and spirit of renewal
c) Maintaining an image as a leader who is consistent in realizing his vision
d) Make every opportunity a learning opportunity.
7) Planning for Gradual Success:
In addition to the leader having a big plan in realizing his vision, the leader is also obliged to
make a plan in detail gradual according to the opportunities and capabilities that are possible
at each pace of development. So basically, leaders must be able to create small successes
gradually and continuously by fostering deep commitment from all parties involved. Some
things that can be done include:
a) Plan carefully.
b) Creating models of renewal.
c) Complete each stage of renewal thoroughly.
d) Make reasonable use of the innovation acceptance process.
e) Give them the opportunity to choose freely.
8) Valuing Each Individual's Role:
Leaders must be able to appreciate every role that has been played by all parties by taking
part in creating success. In appreciating each individual role, then some things that need to
be considered are:
a) Set performance measures.
b) Create a mechanism for measuring the results of reform work.
c) Create a creative reward system.
d) Try to get the successes right.
e) Keep track of reformers who get it right.
f) Assist in the dissemination of successful innovations.
9) Being grateful for every success:
Being grateful for every success is the leader's obligation in every success as a collective
success. In fact, success should also be scheduled as a golden opportunity to educate and
teach new values to many parties. There are several steps that need to be considered:
a) Plan for success as a learning opportunity
b) Show commitment in an orderly manner in person
c) Appreciate and love even small successes.
F. Conflict Management:
Humans carry out activities and react to the activities of others in the organization
either leaders or fellow members, giving rise to a variety of behavioral dynamics in the
organization. Conflicts usually arise as a result of personal relationship problems
(incompatibility of the employee's personal goals or values with the behavior that must be
played in his position, or differences in perception) and organizational structure (struggle for
limited resources, interdepartmental battles and so on).
In essence, conflict is a win-lose battle between groups or individuals who have
different interests from each other in the organization. In this organizational dynamics,
several important things will be discussed, among others:
1. Dynamics of Conflict in Organizations:
Conflict is any kind of conflicting or antagonistic interaction between two or more
parties. The emergence of conflict or opposition in the organization is a continuation of
communication and information that does not meet its target. Conflict is motivated by the
different characteristics that individuals bring to an interaction.
2. Types of Conflict in Organizations:
The types of conflict in organizations are grouped as follows:
a. Personale conflict: role conflict that occurs within a person. This conflict essentially asks for
people's awareness to comply with existing rules or requires people's loyalty to the
organization.
b. Inter-role conflict: conflict between roles, which is a problem that arises because one person
serves one or more conflicting functions. This conflict can be avoided by redefining the
duties of the role has first been specialized and allocated to a specific person so that the
negative effects of dual functions are minimized.
c. Intersender conflict: conflict that arises because one person has to fulfill the expectations of
several people. This can be avoided by treating all interested parties equally.
d. Intrasender conflict: conflict that arises because conflicting information is conveyed.
In addition to the division of conflict types above, there is still a division of conflict
types that are distinguished according to conflicting parties, namely:
a. The conflict within the individual that occurs when an individual faces uncertainty about the
job he or she is expected to perform.
b. Conflict between individuals within the same organization, which is often caused by
personality differences.
c. Conflict between individuals and groups. which relates to individuals responding to the
pressure for uniformity imposed by their work group.
d. Conflict between groups within the same organization due to conflicting interests between
groups.
e. Inter-organizational conflicts that arise as a result of economic competition in a country's
economic system.
Individuals in organizations have many organizational operating pressures that cause
conflict. More conceptually, Litteral suggests four causes of organizational conflict, namely:
a. A situation where goals do not match
b. Presence of unsuitable equipment or inappropriate resource allocations
c. A problem of status inaccuracy
d. Perception differences
Within the organization there are four structural areas, and it is in these areas that
conflict often occurs, namely:
a) Hierarchical conflict is conflict between different levels of the organization,
b) Functional conflict is conflict between the various functional departments of the
organization,
c) Line-staff conflict is a conflict between line and staff, 4). Formal-informal conflict is a
conflict between formal organizations and informal organizations.
Traditionally the approach to organizational conflict has been very simplistic and
optimistic. The approach is based on three assumptions, namely:
a) Conflict can be avoided
b) Conflicts caused by troublemakers, troublemakers and prima donnas
c) Forms of legalistic authority
d) Victims are accepted as inevitable When the state of mutual incomprehension and the
situation of assessment of differences between members of the organization is so severe that
consensus is difficult to achieve, so conflict is inevitable.
In this case the leader can take various actions but must see the situation and
conditions, namely: Using power, Confrontation, Compromise, Smoothing the situation,
Resigning Various Positive Aspects of Conflict as follows:
1) Conflict in organizations:
a. A change of leadership that is more authoritative, full of new ideas and new spirit.
b. Changes in organizational goals that better reflect values adapted to changing situations and
conditions.
c. The institutionalization of conflict itself means that conflict is channeled without destroying
the organization's structure.
2) Conflicts with other organizations may be possible:
a. Unite the members of the organization more.
b. Breathing new life into organizational goals and values
c. Make members more aware of the opponent's strategies and tactics.
d. As a community oversight institution.
After all, conflict is something that takes thought, time, energy, and others to resolve.
But at first glance it seems that conflict is very difficult to avoid and resolve, but in this case
do not assume that the existence of conflict means that the organization has failed, because
no matter how difficult a conflict can certainly be resolved by members by looking at the
problem and placing it in reasonable proportions.
3. Sources of Conflict:
Sources of Organizational Conflict, the main sources of organizational conflict can
be described as follows:
1) The need to share limited resources. This conflict can arise because organizational groups
compete for the lion's share of available resources.
2) Differences - differences in objectives.
Organizational groups tend to become specialized or differentiated as they develop different
goals, tasks and personnel. These differences often result in conflicting interests or priorities,
even if the organization's overall goals are agreed upon.
3) Interdependence of work activities. Potential conflict is greatest when one unit cannot begin
its work because it must wait for the completion of another unit's work.
4) Differences in values or perceptions. Differences in goals among members of various units
within an organization are often related to differences in attitudes, values and perceptions
that can lead to conflict.
5) Organizational ambiguity. Intergroup conflict can also stem from ambiguously defined job
responsibilities and unclear goals.
6) Individual styles. These conflicts generally occur when group members are very different in
terms of traits such as work characteristics, age and education.
4. Interpersonal Conflict:
One analytical treatment of interpersonal conflict can be obtained by studying the
different ways in which a -personal‖ interacts with other personalities. According to the
Johari Window, a person's personality is divided into 4 namely:
1) Open self, this form of interaction is where people recognize themselves and others.
2) Hidden self, this form of person knows themselves but not others.
3) Blind self, this form of person recognizes the person of others but does not recognize
themselves.
4) The undiscovered self, this form of person does not recognize either themselves or others.
The Johari window only suggests possible interpersonal patterns, but does not
describe possible situations of interpersonal conflict. However, the Johari window is very
useful for analyzing these conflict situations.
The seven guidelines for providing feedback for effective interpersonal relationships
can be broken down as follows:
a) Being more descriptive than judgmental
b) Be more specific than general
c) Tackling things that can be changed
d) Give feedback if desired
e) Paying attention to the motives for giving and receiving feedback
f) Provide feedback during the behavior
g) Provide feedback when its accuracy can be checked with other people
5. Organizational Conflict
In this case, Litterer suggests four causes of organizational conflict, among others:
a) A situation where goals do not match
b) Presence of unsuitable equipment or inappropriate resource allocations
c) A problem of status inaccuracy
d) Perception differences
6. Structural Conflict
In classical organizations there are four structural areas where conflicts are frequent
happened:
a) Hierarchical conflict, i.e. conflict between different levels of the organization
b) Functional conflicts, which are conflicts between the various functional departments of the
organization.
c) Line-staff conflict, which is conflict between lines and staff.
d) Formal - informal conflict, i.e. conflict between formal and informal organizations.
7. The Role of Conflict in Organizations
Traditionally, the approach to organizational conflict has been very simplistic and
optimistic. It is based on the following three assumptions:
a) Conflict by definition can be avoided
b) Conflicts are caused by troublemakers, troublemakers, and prima donnas.
c) Legalistic forms of authority such as running through channels or adhering to rules‖.
And the result is a new set of notions about conflict that almost exactly contradict the
traditional ones:
a) conflict is unavoidable
b) conflict is determined by structural factors such as the physical form of a building, the
design of a career structure, or the nature of the classroom system.
c) Conflict is an integral part of the nature of change.
d) Conflict can help or hinder the implementation of organizational activities in varying
degrees.
e) The minimal conflict level is optimistic.
On the basis of the above assumptions, organizational conflict management has
adopted a new approach. A fairly representative approach is the three basic strategies for
reducing organizational conflict put forward by the literature, namely:
a) A buffer or mediator can be placed between the parties in conflict.
b) Helping parties in conflict to develop a better view of themselves and how they affect each
other.
c) Redesign the organizational structure to reduce conflict.
8. Conflict Resolution Strategy:
Controlling conflict means maintaining a level of conflict that is conducive to
organizational development so that it can function to ensure optimal organizational
effectiveness and dynamics. However, if the conflict has become too large and
dysfunctional, then the conflict needs to be reduced in intensity, among other ways:
a) Reinforcing or creating common goals. The need to develop collective goals among two or
more work units that are shared and cannot be achieved by one work unit alone.
b) Minimize conditions of interdependence. Avoiding exclusivism among work units through
synergistic cooperation and forming coordinators of two or more work units.
c) Enlarge organizational resources such as: increase work facilities, personnel and budgets so
that they meet the needs of all work units.
d) Establish a joint forum to discuss and resolve common problems. The disputing parties
discuss the causes of the conflict and solve the problem on the basis of common interests.
e) Establish an appeal system, where conflicts are resolved through an appeal channel that will
listen and make decisions.
f) The institutionalization of formal authority, so that the authority held by superiors over
conflicting parties can make decisions to resolve disputes.
g) Increase the intensity of interaction between work units, so it is expected that the more often
parties communicate and interact, the greater the possibility of understanding each other's
interests so as to facilitate cooperation.
h) Redesign evaluation criteria by developing measures of merit that are considered fair and
acceptable in assessing ability, promotion and reward.
