INTRODUCTION STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS

A fairly recent innovation in the teaching of undergraduate mass

communications, strategic communications combines the teaching of business

principles alongside campaign theory and the older, more established discipline of

integrated marketing communications (IMC) skills, to achieve a prepared student

(Hallahan, K., Holtzhausen, D., van Ruler, B., Vercic, D., & Sriramesh, K., 2007).

The comprehensive approach brings, among other advantages, knowledge,

credibility and self-efficacy to the communications classroom (Ragas & Culp,

2014). The teaching of strategic communications also draws from other

traditional mass communications disciplines including public relations and

advertising.

A combination of business acumen and multi-tiered communications skills,

the study of strategic communications at an undergraduate level provides

opportunities for professional education, which encourages students to become

more business savvy, and better equipped to answer business questions and

thoroughly prepared to provide cogent counsel in communication. In addition,

strategic communications instruction fosters the ability for practitioners to

articulate and explain their value as part of the bottom line. Students trained in

strategic communications can provide additional value for business and for their

own contributions to it (Public Relations Society of America, 2011).

Similarly, Hallahan et al., (2007) define strategic communications as

deliberate and purposeful communications:

“Six relevant disciplines are involved in the development,

implementation and assessment of communications by

organizations: management, marketing, public relations, technical

communication, political communication and information/social

marketing campaigns. …A growing number of organizations have

recognized that various communications disciplines share common

purposes and that their objectives and strategies for achieving

these objectives are similar. They differ primarily by their tactics and

are being pressed to adapt to changing environment by their

organizations desire to coordinate communications, by the

convergence of media, and by the blurring of communications

genres. Organizations are seeking integration as well as enhanced

effectiveness through synergy, enhanced efficiencies, and reduced

redundancies.” (Hallahan et al., pp. 1, 5)

What is Strategic Communications? It’s Complicated…

There are many types of communications used in the pedagogy, teaching,

and practice of strategic communications. Some are applied knowledge, some

are specialty fields of communication within a larger discipline, and some involve

the development and cultivation of skill and traits. This study mines those

various areas of communications and determines what specific factors should be

included for a successful strategic communications program. More specifically,

this research seeks to define a strategic communications outlook by including

answers to the following areas: What applied communications should be taught

to attain a strategic communications orientation? What specialty communications

aptitudes are necessary to practice strategic communications? Finally, what

individual skills and traits are necessary for practitioners to obtain in order to

succeed in strategic communications? Why is This Study Important?

This inquiry is important because it addresses a path of instruction for

strategic communications at the undergraduate level. It attempts to identify a

distinguishing differentiator of strategic communications from other mass

communications disciplines (integrated communications, public relations, and

advertising) currently practiced, and provides recommendations as to how other

programs can adopt a strategic communications outlook.

Moreover, distinctions of strategic communications may be moot if they

are not taught in an environment where they can be applied and their value(s)

reinforced. The student-run agency offers an excellent laboratory for building

strategic communications practitioners. More pragmatically, in terms of

employment and future opportunity for college students in many fields of study,

experience has become as important, and in some cases more important, than

academic performance (Thompson, 2014). In other words: “Experience has

become the new GPA.” From teaching hospital models, to externships,

internships, and practicums, a contemporary onus of higher education is to

provide immersive opportunities to students as part of their courses of study. A

popular delivery system to meet this need is based in academic service learning,

which has its roots in social cognitive theory.

Part 2 Social Cognitive Theory, Applied Service Learning and Integrative

Learning with Student-run Agencies

In the field of mass communications (to include public relations,

advertising, and integrated communications) hands-on instructional opportunities

often consist of internships, campaigns classes, or student-run agencies. From a

global perspective, these experiences mimic real world conditions when the

students are provided opportunities for “real work with real clients.” The

arrangement delivers students an experience complete with the challenges,

responsibilities, and successes associated with working in the field.

Described in the literature by various derivatives of academic service

learning, experiential learning or integrative learning (Bush 2009;

BushBacellis,1998; Maben, 2010; Maben & Whitson, 2014; Ranta, 2014a), the

student-run agency concept permits aspiring communicators the opportunity to

run their own firms within the confines of a university setting and under the

supervision of one or more faculty members.

Student-run advertising and public relations agencies represent a unique,

immersive opportunity for soon-to-be practitioners to gain real-world experience

in a controlled environment doing real work for real clients. As noted in table 1.1,

Student-run agencies are modeled after professional firms, giving students

opportunities to work on real campaigns for real clients in a professional

environment. To further define student-run firms for the purposes of this research,

a student-run firm provides “…undergraduate students the opportunity to work as

if they were employed at a professional public relations agency,” (Maben &

Whitson, 2014, pg. 2). While Maben and Whitson only looked at PR, this study

incorporates a broader view and includes advertising and marketing as part of

the definition. As Bush (2009) states, student-run agencies allow journalism

students to apply learning to practical situations “…in which students implement

public relations, advertising and integrated marketing communications programs

for professional clients,” (p. 27).

Student-run agencies develop professionalism, hone tactical skills, and

cultivate strategic thinking and planning while providing strong networking outlets

and portfolio materials. Clients served by student-run agencies may include

notfor-profits, start-ups, NGOs, corporations and even publics within the

university setting (Maben & Whitson, 2014). More importantly, many student-run

agencies have diversified into an integrated or even a strategic communications

agency approach, enfolding public relations, advertising, and marketing

communications functions under one umbrella while adding training and

education on business principles.

Leadership models for student-run agencies are varied, depending upon

the institution. Bush (2009) categorized them into four groups with distinct

characteristics: Accountability, Faculty Involvement, Levels of Learning and Risk

of Dissolution. In a presentation to the Public Relations Society of America

(PRSA) Educators’ Academy, Ranta (2014a) explored best practices for

studentrun agencies. Among those highlighted were strong student-run agency

branding, peer-to-peer training using real world knowledge and experiences,

dedicated work space, as well as teambuilding and client interaction. A clear

organizational structure and providing students leadership opportunities to serve

as both account executives and team members for varied accounts were also

identified as benefits.

Regarding leadership selection, some student-run agencies elect their

leadership, others appoint or assign leadership, and still others offer competitive,

paid slots for those students most interested in taking on the mantle of leadership

(Bush, 2009; Bush & Miller, 2011; Maben, 2010; Maben & Whitson, 2014;

Swanson, 2007 and 2011).

Internships

Related to the student-run agency experience is the student internship

experience. Internships are seen as a way for students to obtain immersive

experience in performing various tasks for companies on either a full- or a

parttime basis. In the literature, internships are considered a “valuable learning

experience by members of the public relations academy” (Daugherty, 2011, p.

470). Furthermore, “…perhaps no one aspect of public relations education has

generated more discussion and diversity of implementation than the

recommended ‘supervised work experience,’” (The Commission on Public

Relations Education, 2006 p. 57). Some internships are paid, and others are not

(Beebe, Blaylock, & Sweetser, 2009). Expected development in internships

includes skills acquisition, professional experience, real world exposure, and

gaining a better understanding of the field (Daugherty, 2011).

Both student-run agencies and internships are considered by industry,

faculty, and mass communications professional organizations as exceptional

opportunities for gaining experience and equipping students for future work.

Both experiences can also be considered an outward application of academic

service learning theory, which is an evolution, in part, of social cognitive theory.

Agencies, Internships, Academic Service Learning and Social Cognitive

Theory

In 1986, Albert Bandura put forth the idea of social cognitive theory as a

way to provide insight into the processes underlying learning and instruction.

Using various terms including imitative learning, modeling, and self-efficacy, the

researcher held the opinion that learning is accomplished via a complex

collection of behaviors that stimulate recognition, rehearsal and, imitation.

Bandura’s theory lends itself well to the immersive study of strategic

communications competency and the student-run agency. Accepting that some

excellent ways of imparting knowledge (training) are through imitative learning

and accepting that the goal of a successful student agency/internship experience

is to prepare students for real world experience, the student-run agency provides

prime opportunities to impart knowledge via informed instruction and imitation.

Social cognitive theory emphasizes four conditions which must be present

for learning to take place: an environment where the learner has some control

over decisions; a psychology or collection of personal traits that allow for a sense

of well being (with innate knowledge); an overall cognitive ability to effect change;

and finally, a mastery of skills necessary to effect change, (O’Rorke, 2006).

When compared to the classroom actions of student-run agencies, the

work accomplished within delivers upon these conditions. Students are allowed

to have control over decisions. Specific skills and traits are taught and cultivated

as part of the agency, and there is a consistent expectation for beneficial change

on behalf of a client via an exclusive, focused skill set. Moreover, student-run

agency participants are encouraged to take responsibility and work directly with

the client to help determine needs and deliverables. These exercises require

time, planning, communication, self-evaluation, instructor evaluation, and client

evaluation. And, as part of accomplishing beneficial change on behalf of the

client, students are encouraged to provide new ideas, new data and new

executions of those ideas.

Finally, a key purpose of the student-run agency experience is to practice

and implement new and previously acquired skills congruently. When all of these

conditions are met, learning takes place and self-efficacy is developed. Based on

original study and extensive experience as a student-run agency adviser, the

following table addresses how student-run agencies fulfill some of the tenets of

social cognitive/social learning theory (Ranta, 2014a).

Table 1.2 Student-run Agencies/Internships as a Route to Student Social

Cognition

Fulfillment conditions present at

Condition student-run agencies

A positive environment with Student-run agency participants are encouraged

learner control to manage a client relationship, make decisions, plan and

execute deliverables.

Non-referenced original content

Figure 1.1 Strategic Communications in Relation to Communications Disciplines

and Practices

Moving Forward

Strategic communications represents a paradigm shift for mass

communications education. It consists of combining the disciplines of integrated

communications, public relations, and advertising under a single umbrella. It also

requires mastery of various elements of applied communications, specialty

communications, and specific skills and traits. Figure 1.1 illustrates how these

factors are related for purposes of this research.

Summary

The convergence of mass communication disciplines has demanded the

tearing down of silos and the blurring of lines between traditional disciplines of

integrated communications, public relations, and advertising. Recently developed

as an umbrella discipline, strategic communications offers unique solutions for

the challenge of preparing the next communicator for this changing landscape.

One of the best applications for strategic communications is the

studentrun agency. Hands-on, integrative education offers substantial

opportunities to foster self-efficacy, deliver real-world experience and produce

capable, skilled communicators. However, the exact definition of strategic

communications is still an open issue. A solid measure of what strategic

communications is would be beneficial in terms of how it should be taught to the

next generation of communicators and assist educators in efforts to prepare

students to meet the rising tide of demand for multi-platform communications

professionals.

Navigation for this Document

Chapter 2 continues the discussion of student-run agencies, academic

service learning, and strategic communications with a literature review. It

concludes with a set of hypotheses and research questions addressed in this

study. Chapter 3 discusses methodology used to gather data on the studied

subject. Chapter 4 reports analysis of results. Chapter 5 provides conclusions,

limitations, and recommendations for further study.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

This literature review addresses four areas pursuant to incorporation of

strategic communications into education. Part 1 details existing research on

student-run agencies and internships and what roles they fill in preparing

students for work in strategic communications in the outside world. It highlights

the benefits students, faculty and hiring publics receive from the student agency

approach in communications-related fields. Part 2 discusses the appeal of

academic service learning and explores the imitative modeling that takes place

as students are immersed in a capstone experience as well as addresses

pragmatic values of student-run agency and student internship experiences. Part

3 of this literature review addresses the rise of strategic communications within

the communications profession and the perceived need of communications

faculty to continue their efforts to prepare students to compete in the global

marketplace. Part 4 discusses the operationalization of a strategic

communications definition in terms of original research for this study.

Part 1 Student-run Agencies as a Strategic Communications Training

Pathway

Similar to internships, student-run agencies offer a great deal of autonomy

and empowerment to the participating students. Both offer a pathway to Strategic

Communications Training. And, although there are significant differences

between them, for the purposes of this study the shared benefits and challenges

of student run agencies and internships will be addressed.

The number of studies of student-run agencies is limited but growing

(Bush, 2009; Bush & Miller, 2011; Gibson & Rowden, 1994-95; Maben, 2010;

Maben & Whitson, 2014; Ranta, 2014a, and Swanson, 2011). These studies

provide typology of agency structure, best practices of operations, and

discussions of student and adviser experiences.

The Public Relations Student Society of America (PRSSA) is a strong

supporter of student-run agencies and offers opportunities for them to affiliate

nationally with PRSSA leadership. As a way to train students for the agency

environment and to standardize the efforts put forth by student-run agencies,

PRSSA publishes a student agency guidebook, which provides step-by-step

instructions for student-run agencies to receive national affiliate designation

(Public Relations Student Society of America, 2015). This designation check-list

addresses successful completion of the requirements, along with a self-study of

compliance issues, and includes various management functions including client

contracts, a formalized structure, adherence to the PRSA code of ethics, and

accountability for hours used and clients served. Once completed, a student-run

agency’s affiliation package is sent to PRSSA for evaluation. In 2016, there were

36 PRSSA nationally affiliated student-run public relations agencies in the U.S.

Appendix B part 2 of this document lists those agencies and their associated

universities (Public Relations Student Society of America, 2016).

True to Bandura’s 1986 tenets of modeling, the student-run agency

guidebook is specifically designed to be imitative of practices currently in use at

professional agencies. According to the 2015 Association for Education in

Journalism and Mass Communications (AEJMC) directory, there are 134

universities reporting a student-run advertising agency, a student-run public

relations agency or both (Association for Education in Journalism and Mass

Communication, 2015). Appendix B part 1 of this document lists those

universities.

Student-run Agencies from a Student Perspective

From a student’s perspective, the advantages of participating in a

studentrun agency over general classroom instruction include generating feelings

of leadership/ownership, self-empowerment, providing opportunities to make

significant decisions, and experiencing professional and personal growth by

managing the client/vendor relationship (Aldoory & Wrigley, 2000). In addition,

the student agency experience, much like an internship, provides many positive

benefits to the students enrolled including positive effects on GPA, better job

prospecting and faster post-graduate job placement (Astin,1993; Callanan &

Benzing, 2004; English & Koeppen,1993; Fang & Lee, 2005; Gault, Reddington

& Schalger, 2000; Knouse, Tanner & Harris, 1999; Neidorf, 2008).

Researchers Kearns, Puglisi and Shelton (2014) offered some interesting

quotes from their research subjects in a study conducted of students’

experiences and perspectives working with student-run agencies:

“Working with a real client has really improved my

expectations for myself. In other classes I do not put nearly

the same amount of effort as I do with Agency. …I feel that

joining Agency has given me a glimpse on what to expect in

an agency for my internship or potential career…” “I can

honestly say that the class emphasized critical thinking and

personal reflection while encouraging me to gain a sense of

community…I’ve learned that working with real clients

presents unique challenges…I learned, along with my group,

to take often desperate wishes from the client and come up

with solutions which satisfied them…” (Kearns et al., 2014).

(Excerpted from Slides 17-20)

As can be seen from these statements, in the minds of the respondents,

student agency participation contributes significantly to a level of professional

self-efficacy, and student-run agency membership also inspires decision-making,

client expectation management and problem solving.

Student-run Agency/Service Learning Benefits from the Faculty Perspective

From a faculty perspective, a study of advantages of academic service

learning in public relations courses, and as manifested in student-run agencies,

included comments stating the single most rewarding outcome of the experience

is skill development for students. In addition, planned categories of outcomes in

academic service learning courses are real-world application/practical skills; an

increase in teamliness/interpersonal skills; client interactions and civic

responsibility/citizenship (service) (Werder & Strand, 2011; Witmer, Silverman, &

Gaschen, 2009). In addition, Witmer et al. (2009) mentions a general consensus

among faculty respondents that all public relations professors should be involved

in some form of academic service learning in their classroom approach.

In terms of benefits to the communication profession, Bush (2009) states,

“Student-run firms fill a void in the curriculum by exposing students to disciplined

business practices that may be missing in campaigns or service learning

courses.” (p. 35). Similarly, according to Swanson (2011), “While there is no one

answer for maintaining excellence in teaching and learning with fewer resources,

one strategy that has proven successful for public relations programs is the

implementation of a student-run public relations firm,” (p. 499). In addition,

Gibson and Rowden (1995) advocate the student agency model to ”…overcome

the limitations of classroom instruction and provided structured responsibilities

and tasks not always associated with internships,” (p. 30). Hazdovac (2012) also

states student participation in a student-run agency yields an integrative learning

experience with immediate exposure to real-world clients, something “…that

cannot be replicated through hypothetical classroom discussions or case

studies,”

(p. 19).

Bush and Miller (2011) point out that student-run agencies also have the

benefit of introducing students to the “convergence and integration” common in

the contemporary public relations professional environment. Bush (2009) also

suggests a larger benefit from student-run agencies is the development of

students’ professional identities. These identities include leadership and

management, team motivation, client negotiation, and professional confidence.

This conclusion mirrors nicely the tenets of Bandura’s perceived self-efficacy

(Bandura, 1998). In a quick snapshot of still more benefits provided to students,

Hazdovac (2012) and others offered the following information in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Faculty Opinions of Positive Effects of Student-run Agency Participation

on Students

Positive Effect Citation

Mutual accountability (client, each other, and

instructor)

Hazdovac, 2012

Gain more confidence through acquiring Gibson & Rowden, 1995 new

skills and refining old ones Swanson, 2014

Portfolio development

Gibson & Rowden, 1995

Bush & Miller, 2011

Swanson 2011

Student-run Agencies—the In-House Internship

While they are the preferred vehicles for this research, student-run

agencies are only one of several forms of hands-on training used in

contemporary curricula that may be suitable for teaching strategic

communications. Many universities and institutions of higher learning provide a

variety of hands-on instructional opportunities with an academic service learning

component. Some of these include internships, capstone classes, campaigns

classes, and other electives. This multi-dimensional approach provides myriad

opportunities for interactive service learning and is recommended by the

Association of American Colleges and Universities (2007); the Public Relations

Student Society of America, (2015) and Beard and Morton (1999).

PRSA felt so strongly about the value of internships and the value of

student-run agencies, it released a “Port of Entry” study, which encouraged their

student organization, PRSSA, to provide a national affiliation program

(Commission on Public Relations Education Report, 1999). In addition to the

opportunity for national affiliation, the program also includes best practices in

ethics, client contracts, management of expectations, and even billing and job

sheets (documentation) as points of self-reflection.

The Port of Entry Study also encourages practitioners to embrace the

internship process and improve the overall utility of the internship experience.

Some additional research findings contributing to the successful internship

experience include ensuring a mentorship relationship with leadership;

participation by internship sponsors in the assessment process; a dedicated

location for internship work; a clear idea of the work requirements for internships;

a reflection opportunity for the students; a clear point of contact; coordination

facilitator at the sponsoring university; whenever possible, some sort of

compensation for student work; a periodic review of student work during the

course of the internship; a final reporting opportunity in the form of a portfolio;

and a written report or oral presentation at the conclusion of the internship

(Alpert,

Heaney, & Kuhn, 2009; Basow & Byrne,1993; Beebe, Blaylock, & Sweetser,

2009; Brown & Fall, 2005; and Todd, 2009). Based on these findings, it seems

clear that student-run agencies and internships offer many benefits for students

and faculty in terms of skills development, employability, self-efficacy, and other

variables not obtainable elsewhere.

Part 2 The Appeal of Academic Service Learning in Strategic

Communications Instruction

Service learning roots stretch as early as Campbell (1995) and Dewey

(1938). Relevant learning theories that have developed from service learning and

are attached to student agency creation, management and educational benefits

include experiential learning, applied learning, integrative learning, work

integrated learning, problem-based learning, and academic service learning.

Among those praising academic service learning are the Association of American

Colleges and Universities (2007); Blakeman (2015); Bush-Bacellis (1998); Cohen

and Kinsey (1994); Drake (2000); Jacoby (1999); Strage (2004); and Witmer, et

al., (1998).

In particular, the Association of American Colleges and Universities

(AACU) praised service learning as a promising, high impact activity, which

engages students and promotes learning. In communications instruction

particularly, the concept of the internship and/or the student agency are well

established (Panici & Laske, 2002). Bush-Bacelis (1998) states: “The use of

Academic Service Learning has enabled students to feel they are spending time

wisely. They are not simply meeting the assignment for the class; they are

genuinely accomplishing needed tasks while meeting class requirements,” (p.

28).

Aldoory and Wrigley (2000), citing Schine (1997), summed up the Academic

Service Learning appeal: “…service learning has attracted support from

practitioners, policymakers, researchers, governments at all levels, and from the

broader community (p. vii).”

From the Real World Perspective, Academic Service Learning = Jobs

Looking at education programs from a pragmatic prism of “real-world”

strategic communications skills, those competencies practiced and perfected in

student-run agencies and in other experiential class offerings were found to be

extremely beneficial by researchers investigating expectations and employability

(Neff, Walker, Smith, & Creedon 1999; Todd, 2014). Benigni, Cheng and

Cameron (2004) found that “…students with considerable ‘real-world’ application

are more competitive in today’s job market” (p. 206). Practical experience was

also seen as critical in the post-graduation job hunt where students who have

student-run agency and/or internship experience generally found jobs faster than

their non-interning colleagues (Benigni et al., 2004). Student-run agencies have

also been historically seen as a solution to the need for students to have more

on-the-job training before they get to actual jobs.

Academic Service Learning: “Hands-on Meets Need, Head-on”

When reviewing studies of public relations pedagogy, it is apparent that

both students and future employers feel new graduates need more training in the

tactical skills than in leadership (Paskin, 2013; Swanson, 2014; and Todd, 2014).

There is also strong evidence, and faculty agreement from the literature, stating

theory is best reinforced with hands-on experience as found in service learning

and in student-run agencies (Brooks, Cornelius, Greenfield, & Joseph, 1995;

Hazdovac, 2012; Paskin, 2013; Swanson, 2007; and Todd, 2014).

Consider the following quotation from faculty on the need to keep students

current with trends in the industry:

“Those of us who teach public relations within higher education are

always under pressure to provide the most relevant knowledge and

skills to our students. We aim to provide students with an

appropriate balance of theoretical/conceptual skills and ‘hands on’

training. We want new college graduates going out into the public

relations workplace knowing not only what to do, but why they’re

doing it.” Hazdovac (2012) (p.15).

Creedon, Neff, Smith, and Walker (1999) state the most desired skills for

hiring new communicators includes critical thinking, problem solving, writing

skills, practical experience, communications skills, and effective characteristics

of a good attitude and being a self-starter. Further, from a faculty perspective,

the use of real clients in classroom instruction generates many positive benefits

Table 2.2 details.

Table 2.2. Benefits of Using Real Clients in Classroom Instruction

Student Benefit Explanation

Context

Students learn context and understand relevance

Theory Students see theories in practice—enhance student buy-

in.

Motivation

Students seem to find working with clients interesting,

creative and frustrating which all positively impact

motivation.

Management Teaches strategic planning with real constraints,

Skills budgeting with real money, research before planning and

time management due to client schedules.

Flexibility

Client plans change and students need to learn flexibility,

adaptability and patience.

Empathy Students express understanding for client needs, concerns,

problems, “ups and downs.”

Professionalism

Students are taught how to speak with clients, meet with

the client, dress, ask questions, and present solutions.

Value

Students value their own work and take campaign

planning very seriously.

Economics

Deciding client service based in part on economics.

Psychological

Issues

Deal with loss of autonomy, teamliness, timelines, and

multiple reporting responsibilities.

Client constraints

Manage expectations positively, deal with client

availability, goal articulations, etc.

Negotiation Teachers and clients have to balance priorities of

coursework and client needs. Students have to budget

time to dedicate to work.

Time

More time is spent preparing for classes and for client

meetings.

Excerpted from Aldoory & Wrigley (2000)

When considering a service learning approach, student-run agencies

resemble a hybrid of capstone campaigns classes and internships in terms of

curricula, benefits, and results. Maben (2010) states, based on the similarity of

internships to student agency work, it is valid to address student-run agencies in

the broader context of internships. “The campus newspaper and public relations

firm are essentially in-house internship programs…” (p. 30).

Similarly, a 2000 study by Dickson, interviewing the CEOs of the top 50

public relations firms, indicated 89 percent felt internships and work experience

were very important to future employment. Fitch (2011) and Schön (1982) point

this out, with Fitch stating as future professionals, students need to learn how to

work in situations with “complexity, uncertainty, instability, uniqueness, and value

conflicts” (p. 14). In short, real-client projects are essential for future practitioners.

Internships—and by default, agencies—are also seen as valuable tools for

employers as they deliver practical experience, one of the key differentiators in

hiring entry-level practitioners (the Commission on Public Relations Education

2006 and Todd, 2009 and 2014). When regarding public relations training

specifically, van Ruler (2005) commented that university learning and teaching

“should not focus on knowledge reproduction but, on the development of learning

capability and creativity in finding acceptable solutions for clients” (p. 164).

In contrast, Royal (2005) added that “…teaching without focus on

integration, judgment, and perspective in the new media environment will

ultimately fail students who suddenly find their skills outdated, outmoded or out of

sync with the real world” (p. 412). Based on these two differing opinions it seems

the best solutions is to find a way to teach both.

When considering the influences specific internships (and student-run

agencies) have on students, Maben (2010) found multiple positives including

positive relationships with GPA, greater choice of employability and more. Table

2.3 synthesizes Maben’s findings.

Table 2.3 Positive Effects of Student Internship Service Learning

Service Learning Internship Effects

on Students Citation

Positive effect on career choice

Fall, 2006

Offers new perspectives for students Getz, 2002

Correlates positively with students’ GPA Astin, 1993; English &

Koeppen, 1993; Knouse, et

al., 1999

Assists in finding and securing jobs Neidorf, 2008; Callanan &

Benzing, 2004;

Fang & Lee 2005

Excerpted from Maben 2010

Similarly, Hazdovac (2012) reminds us that researchers Aldoory and Wrigley

(2000) found students working with real clients present several positive

psychological developments including gained confidence, and

improved/increased self-esteem. Cohen and Kinsey (1994) found students were

much more motivated to complete real work for real clients than hypothetical

ones and Sallot (1992,1996) found student tolerance for ambiguity increased, as

did self-esteem and confidence, when working with actual people.

Looking more globally, service learning in communications is defined by

Muturi, Soontae, and Mwangi (2013) as a form of teaching that incorporates

community service with the acquisition and/or exercise of skills and knowledge

that tie directly back to the classroom’s learning objectives. It is associated with

boosting critical thinking, improving theory and practice integration, and assisting

in career planning.

Convergence (Integration) and Strategic Communications

Sometimes called new media, the phenomenon of convergence refers to

the merging of technology, content and tasks needed to take maximum

advantage of technological growth and change (Brooks, Kennedy, Moen, &

Ranly, 2010). As Grant (2009) points out, convergence is a multi-dimensional

phenomenon that stretches from the ways news is reported in contemporary

society, to aspects of behavior in a widely diverse selection of audiences and

Assists in finding jobs sooner

Gault,

et al.

, 2000

operators. Integration, in contrast to convergence, is not as technology driven but

does require significant work in assuring messages are prepared and

disseminated through as many message platforms as possible. Consequently,

the rise of communication integration of various types of media, thanks to widely

available new communication technologies and the explosion of social media

usage, has demanded that communications agencies and organizations make

changes to accommodate this rising demand, leverage the ability to influence

over various news platforms, and train those who will meet the converged

communications needs for their organization(s) (ESPN, 2009 and 2013, Ranta,

2014b). The fundamental need for strategic communications education is rooted

in several phenomena. One example is public relations. Historically, public

relations, as a discipline, has attracted practitioners who are more used to the

qualitative or output related practices than the hard analytics used by most

business practitioners. In fact, many public relations practitioners are famously

math averse and do not easily conceptualize nor embrace quantitative analytics

as part of their job description (Fleet, 2006; Hanson, 2010; & Williams, 2014).

Public relations’ emphasis in the past has often been about the soft skills areas of

relationship building, issues management and other items including event

planning. While there is merit in all of these areas, there is also a very real, and

developing, need for analytical processes which include things like crisis

planning, reputation management, social media positioning and corporate social

responsibility. As the approach to customer relations, shareholder relations and

stakeholder relations is changing, the demands from the industry have translated

to requiring many public relations practitioners to become more business savvy

and analytically informed.

Public Relations, Advertising and Integrated Communications, What is the

Difference?

In an update to their 2007 publication, Holtzhausen and Zerfass (2015)

stated that their earlier article defining strategic communications “brought about

an identity crisis” (p. 3) in the public relations scholarly community. The conflict

being, that historically, strategic communications was perceived as the “express

mission” of the public relations field. Holtzhausen and Zerfass continue, stating

“the intent of developing the study of strategic communicatiA combination of

business acumen and multi-tiered communications skills, the study of strategic

communications at an undergraduate level provides opportunities for

professional education, which encourages students to become more business

savvy, and better equipped to answer business questions and thoroughly

prepared to provide cogent counsel in communication. In addition, strategic

communications instruction fosters the ability for practitioners to articulate and

explain their value as part of the bottom line. Students trained in strategic

communications can provide additional value for business and for their own