BASIC CONCEPTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL GROUP
COMMUNICATION
ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY
COM 100 - INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN COMMUNICATION
ASSIGNMENT 2024
A. Brief Overview of Course Content
This chapter discusses the definition of group/organizational communication, the function
and style of group/organizational communication.
B. Guidelines for Studying the Material
Clearly understand the content of the material on the definition of group/organizational
communication and the function of group/organizational communication.
C. Learning Objectives
1. Students are able to know the definition of group/organizational communication.
2. Students can know the function of and group/organizational communication styles.
3. Students are able to explain the definition of group/organizational communication.
Course Content:
7.1 Definition of Group/Organizational Communication
There are several definitions of group/organizational communication put forward by
experts, including: 83
a. According to Wayne (2001), organizational communication is defined as a
performance and interpretation of messages among communication units that are part
of a particular organization. An organization consists of communication units in
hierarchical relationships between one another and functions in an environment.
b. GoldHaber (1986), Organizational communication is the process of creating and
exchanging messages in a network of interdependent relationships to cope with an
uncertain or changing environment.
c. Arnold and Feldman (1986), Organizational communication is the exchange of
information between people in the organization, where the process generally includes
stages: attention, comprehension, acceptance as true, and retention.
d. Wiryanto (2005), Organizational communication is the sending and receiving of
various organizational messages in formal and informal groups of an organization.
Formal communication is communication that is approved by the organization itself
and is oriented towards the interests of the organization. It contains the inner workings
of the organization, productivity, and the various jobs to be done in the organization.
For example, memos, policies, statements, press conferences, and official letters.
While informal communication is socially approved communication, its orientation is
not to the organization, but rather to its members individually.84
e. Devito (1997), Organizational communication is the sending and receiving of
messages both within the organization in formal groups and informal groups of the
organization.
7.2 Organizational Communication Functions and Styles
There are several functions of organizational communication, namely:
a. Proaction and regulation
b. Define the purpose of the organization
c. Define the problem area
d. Evacuate performance
e. Command, instruct, lead, and influence innovation.
f. Get new information
g. How to communicate something new in socialization and improvement
h. Member self-esteem
The above verse is used as a foundation in communication. Every human being needs
communication, needs a friend to talk to because humans are social creatures who always
want to interact with other humans.
The function of communication in organizations can be divided into four functions,
namely informative, regulative, persuasive, and integrative.85 The functions can be
explained below:
a. Informative Function
Organizations are seen as systems that produce and process and process information.
Members of the organization have the right to supply information and get appropriate
information. This is to support the performance of everyone who is in communication.
b. Regulative Function
This function is related to the rules that apply to an organization. In all organizations,
there are two things that affect this regulative function, namely superior or managerial
hierarchy. This means that the hierarchical superiors in the organizational structure have
a regulative role. However, whether or not the regulation is obeyed depends on the
validity of the leader in conveying the message, the leader's power to sanction, the
subordinates' trust in the superior, and the level of credibility of the message content.
The next influence is the message in the regulation itself. Regulative messages are
basically oriented towards improving performance.
c. Persuasive Function
This function is to succeed the performance of employees or members of the
organization, because with regulations alone, messages usually cannot be received and
carried out properly by subordinates, so a persuasive approach is needed that can create
a voluntary attitude to comply with regulations.
d. Integrative Function
This function is a combination of various media or information channels used by an
organization to achieve common goals.
In achieving organizational goals, a leader must have a style of communication. Some
communication styles in an organization are the controlling style, the equalitarian style,
structuring style, dynamic style, and the relinquishing.86 The explanation of the style can be
explained below:
a.
The Controlling Style
This controlling style is characterized by a desire to limit and regulate the behavior of
subordinates by the leader. People with this style usually use one-way communication.
b.
The Equalitarian Style
This communication is based on the principle of equality between leaders and
subordinates. This communication is characterized by the application of two-way
communication.
c.
Structuring Style
This communication style utilizes written and unwritten verbal messages to solidify
orders that must be carried out.
d.
Dynamic Style
This communication style tends to be aggressive because the sender understands the
work environment.
e.
The Relinqushing
This communication style emphasizes the leader's willingness to accept suggestions,
opinions or corrections from others, rather than the desire to give orders.
Some of the above leadership styles influence an organization to achieve its goals.
When the organization applies varied styles according to the conditions of the organization,
the organization can achieve better organizational goals.
Organizational Group Communication Theory:
8.1 Definition Theory
In general, theory is an analysis of the relationship between one fact and another fact
in a set of facts that are arranged systematically, logically (rationally), empirically (reality),
and also symbolically in explaining a phenomenon. Here are some definitions of theory
according to experts. 87
a. According to Littlejohn and Karen Foss
A theory is a system of abstract concepts and relationships of concepts that help us to
understand phenomena.
b. According to Kerlinger
A theory is a concept related to each other that contains a systematic view of
phenomena.
c. According to Stevens
A theory is a statement that contains the causes or characteristics of some phenomenon.
d. According to Manning
A theory is a set of assumptions and logical conclusions that relate a set of variables to
each other. A theory will generate predictions that can be compared with observed
patterns.
e. According to Fawcett
A theory is a description of a particular phenomenon, an explanation of the relationships
between phenomena or predictions about the causes and consequences of other
phenomena.
f. According to Travers
Consists of generalized theories intended to explain phenomena and generalizations
must be predictive. Theory consists of generalizations intended to explain and predict
phenomena.
g. According to Gardner Linzey
A theory is an unproven "provisional guess" hypothesis or speculation about a fact that
is uncertain.
h. According to Emory-Cooper
A theory is a set of concepts, definitions, propositions and variables that are related to
each other in a systematic and common way so that they can explain and predict certain
"factual" phenomena.
i. According to Calvin S. Hall
A theory is an unproven "provisional guess" hypothesis or speculation about a fact that
is uncertain.
j. Theory is a process of developing ideas that help us explain how and why events
happen - JONATHAN H. TURNER.
k. A theory is a set of ideas, constructs or variables, definitions, and propositions that
provide a systematic description of a phenomenon or event. by determining the
relationship between variables - Creswell.
8.2 Communication Theory Groups/Organizations
Learning about theory is often confusing. Especially if the language put forward by
experts is difficult to understand. Therefore, learning theory requires a high level of
concentration and analysis to interpret the sentences contained in the theory.
After we understand the definition of theory from several experts above, then in this
section we will discuss the theories of group/organizational communication that are often
used. Here are some group divisions of organizational communication theory:
a. Sociopsychological Tradition:
1. Weber's Theory of Bureaucracy
Max Weber defined an organization as a purposeful system of interpersonal activities
designed to harmonize individual tasks. He considered a bureaucratic organization to be the
most efficient form of organization. The ideal organization is a bureaucracy where activities
and goals are rationally derived and the division of labor is clearly defined.
Weber's bureaucratic model illustrates well the machine metaphor of organization. It
follows a mechanistic top-down view of how large groups should coordinate their activities
to achieve goals. The cybernetics tradition, which has had a great influence on
organizational communication theory, views the coordination process in a more complex
way than this bureaucratic theory.
b. Cybernetics Tradition
In a very different approach from the sociopsychological tradition, cybernetics
theories view organization as something that emerges from patterns of interaction in
organizations. Here, we look at three theories that represent this cybernetics tradition.
Namely, Weick's theory of organizational processes, Taylor's theory of co-orientation, and a
theory of networks.
1. Organizational Process
One of the most influential theories from the cybernetics tradition is that of Karl
Weick. According to this theory, organizations are not arrangements formed by positions
and roles, but by communication activities. Specifically, the interaction that makes up an
organization consists of an action or a statement or behavior of an individual. Weick
believes that all organizational activities are multiple interactions. Patterns of interaction
unite people into groups and unite groups into larger networks.
2. Taylor's Co-orientation Theory of Organization
Following Weick, James Taylor and his colleagues viewed organizing as a process of
interaction, but they extended this idea in a different way. In a broad, interdisciplinary
theory drawn from linguistics, discourse, and organizational theory, Taylor and his team
created a picture of how organizations are structured in conversation.
Taylor began his thinking with the idea that organizational activity occurs when two
people interact around a particular issue focus. Taylor calls this co-orientation, the idea that
two people are oriented around a common object (topic, issue, concern, situation, idea, goal,
other people, group, and organization).
3. Network Theory
Networks are social arrangements created by communication between individuals and
groups. When people communicate, a chain is created. These are the channels of
communication within an organization. Some of them are defined by organizational rules
and underlie the formal network, but these channels only reveal part of the organization's
structure.
The structural idea of network theory is connection. The idea that there is a fairly
stable pattern of communication between individuals. Unit The basis of organization
according to network theory is the link between two people. The organizational system
consists of many links that divide people into groups and connect them to the organization.
An organization never consists of a single network, but is formed by many overlapping
networks.
c. Sociocultural Traditions
Sociocultural theories are actually less relevant to the network of relationships
between individuals and more focused on the shared meanings and interpretations formed in
the network and the implications of this arrangement for organizational life. In this section,
there are four theories that represent the sociocultural tradition, namely structuration theory,
organizational cognition theory, and organizational culture.
1. Structuration Theory
Structuration is the process of unintended consequences of actions creating norms,
rules and other social arrangements that limit or influence future actions. Structuration
occurs when organizational members act in accordance with organizational decisions that
constitute the site of reception. For example, after the decision is made to establish a creative
arts college, a dean will be appointed, several department heads will meet with the new
dean, and teaching communication channels will change as the new college enters the
organization.
In addition to organizational structure, organizational climate can also arise from
structuration. Traditionally, organizational climate is seen as one of the key variables that
influence communication and employee productivity and satisfaction. Poole and Mcphee
define organizational climate structurally as a collective attitude that is continuously
generated and re-generated by member interactions.
2. Organizational Control Theory
You can't do everything you want to do in an organization. Philip Tompkins, George
Cheney, and their colleagues have developed a new and useful approach to organizational
communication. These theorists are interested in the ways that ordinary communication
shapes control over employees.
Organizations must have a way to draw individuals with all their variable interests into
a common identification with the organization. Identity differences, or even conflicts, can be
handled if there is at least an overall identification with the organization as a whole. For this
reason, uncontrolled plurality and diversity cannot be tolerated by an organization.
3. Organizational Culture
Theories of organizational culture emphasize the ways in which humans shape
organizational reality. The organizational culture movement has been very extensive
touching all aspects of the organization. Organizational culture is something that is
generated through daily interactions within the organization. Not just work tasks, but all
types of communication.
d. Critical Tradition
The critical tradition in organizational communication is also concerned with
culture, but more specifically with the power relations and ideologies that emerge in
organizational interactions.
1. Dennis Mumby's Discourse of Suspicion
Mumby calls it a "discourse of suspicion", or an attitude of questioning, and testing
about, the inner structure of ideology, power, and control in organizations. Mumby uses the
words discourse of suspicion to express how surface meanings and behaviors obscure the
deep structures of conflict and disempowerment that limit the possibility of a democratic
society.
Organizations have a certain structure, function and culture. We might criticize an
organization's culture for accentuating the power of one group over another. That is an
example of the discourse of suspicion.
2. Deetz on Managerialism and Organizational Democracy
Deetsz envisions the organization as an alternative, an ongoing achievement, where
shareholders can reclaim responsibility and agency within the company. Democracy with In
other words, it must happen in daily activities, and this is where organizational culture
change begins.
3. Gender and Race in Organizational Communication
A study by Joan Acker argues that, organizations are shaped by gender, organizations
are social formations of gender. Another scholar who has put forward this theory is Angela
Trethewey, a feminist organizational communication scholar. In each case studied, she went
inside an organization and talked to women about their experiences rather than looking at
the organization from the outside.
Furthermore, Karen Aschraft and her colleague Brenda Allen expanded feminist
studies in organizations, suggesting that fundamentally, organizations are not just gendered
areas, but they are also racialized.Karen and Allen offer some implicit messages about race,
namely:
a. Race is a single concept, a separate interest in people of color.
b. Race is relevant when it gives rise to organizational interests such as creativity and
productivity.
c. Cultural/racial differences are seen as similar to international differences.
d. Social discrimination stems from the common identity and disadvantages of racial minorities
in the workplace,
e. White workplaces and workers are the norm.
Internal and External Organizational Communication and Leadership in
Organizations:
9.1.1 Internal Communication
Internal organizational communication is the process of delivering messages
between members of the organization that occurs for the benefit of the organization, such as
communication between leaders and subordinates, between fellow subordinates, etc. This
internal communication process can take the form of interpersonal communication or group
communication. Also communication can be a primary or secondary communication process
(using non-mass media).89 There are several types of internal organizational
communication. These types are: 90
a. Vertical Communication
That is communication from top to bottom and from bottom to top. Communication
from leaders to subordinates and from subordinates to leaders. In vertical communication,
leaders provide instructions, instructions, information, etc. to their subordinates. Meanwhile,
subordinates provide reports, suggestions, complaints, and so on to the leadership.
b. Horizontal or lateral communication
It is communication between people such as from employee to employee, manager to
manager. Messages in this communication can flow within the same section of the
organization or flow between sections. This lateral communication It facilitates the exchange
of knowledge, experience, methods, and problems. This helps organizations to avoid some
problems and solve others, and builds morale and job satisfaction.
9.1.2 External Communication
External communication is a communication activity commonly carried out by PR
practitioners in fostering good relations with external publics. The goal is to seek the growth
of positive attitudes and images from the public towards an organization.
Another definition also suggests that, external organizational communication is
communication between organizational leaders and audiences outside the organization. In
large organizations, this communication is done more by the head of public relations than
the leadership itself. What is done by the leadership itself is only limited to things that are
considered very important. For example, conducting press conferences, meeting with mass
organizations, and others.
According to Effendi, external communication is communication that takes place
between leaders or people or groups that represent them and the target public which includes
the surrounding community, organizations, government agencies, consumers, and
customers, mass media.91
Another opinion suggests that external communication is communication between
the leadership of the organization and Another definition of external communication is
communication that takes place between an organization or company and the community or
public that exists outside the organization or company.93 Thus, external communication is
communication that occurs between the organization and the community outside the
organization.
9.2 Leadership or Managerial
Undoubtedly the role that attracts the most attention in any discussion of groups is
that of the leader. The basic role of a leader is to coordinate the activities of individuals so
that they contribute to the overall goal of the group and to the general adaptability of the
group.
Leadership is exercised through communication. Leaders are responsible for the
achievement of specific goals. The basic functions of leadership fall into two categories. 94
These categories are:
1. Group Maintenance Function
a. Promoting participation
b. Organizing interactions
c. Promote need satisfaction
d. Enhance cooperation
e. Mediating conflict
f. Protecting individual rights
g. Modeling behavior
h. Assume responsibility for group failures
i. Promote group development
2. Goal Achievement Function
a. Inform
b. Planning
c. Orienting
d. Integrating
e. Representing
f. Aligning
g. Clarify
h. Evaluate
i. Awakening the spirit
Apart from the above leadership functions, leadership also has an approach or theory.
Leadership is an interactional process that helps people in organizations manage their
environment. Effective leaders plan and choose actions that help organizations or groups
achieve their goals. In addition, they can help individuals to understand the obstacles they
face in completing their tasks so that they can be overcome. There are various perspectives
on the presence of good leadership. There are several approaches to leadership.95 Some of
these approaches include:
a. A Good Leader's Approach is to be born
This traditional view believes that, leadership is an innate ability inherited from the
parents. In this perspective "good leaders are born, not made." The assumption is that
leadership qualities are inherent in one's personality. Either we possess these qualities or we
do not. According to this approach, the challenge of leadership is to find people who have
the right talent. This theory is often used to keep certain groups of people in leadership
positions, and is no longer widely followed today.
b. One's Best Style Approach
This approach views leadership as a matter of style. Decision-making can be
completely centralized or it can be completely diffused among group members. If decision-
making is centralized, the leadership style can be characterized as autocratic. In this
particular type of leadership, the leader strictly controls information within the group,
assigns roles and responsibilities to members, and has a formalized accountability system.
When authority is shared, the leadership type is referred to as democratic or participatory.
Based on studies comparing leadership styles and their effects, the main thoughts are
is that the democratic style is superior in terms of group productivity and morale.
c. Contextual approach
Approach Contextual approach views leadership as a result of individual abilities,
group goals, external pressures on the group, and the ways in which members of the group
talk, work or relate to each other.
But regardless, it's not about which leadership style you choose, but it's important to
remember a few things that communications expert J. Kevin Barge reminds us of:
a. Leadership enacted through communication.
b. Leaders improve, develop, and modify the organization's delivery system or group to
maintain survival in a complex changing environment.
c. The key to successful leadership in the future is the ability to coordinate diverse groups
of people working on different tasks, in a changing and volatile environment.
Leadership also has different types of roles. As a communicator, an organizational
leader, manager, or administrator must choose one of a variety of communication methods
and techniques tailored to the situation at the time of communication. As a communicator, a
manager must customize the delivery of his message to the people his role that he is doing.
In this regard, Henry Mintzberg, a professor of management at McGill University in
Montreal-Canada, stated that the formal authority of a manager causes three roles to arise,
namely interpersonal role, information role, and decision role.
The interpersonal role of a manager includes three things, namely the role of a figure,
leader, and liaison.96 The roles are:
a.
The role of a figure. Position as head of an organizational unit, making a manager
perform tasks that are ceremonial in nature. In this role a manager has the opportunity
to provide information, explanations, appeals, invitations, and others.
b.
The role of the leader. As a leader, a manager is responsible for the smooth running of
the work done by his subordinates. Some activities are directly related to his
leadership at all stages of management: determining policy, planning, organizing,
mobilizing, supervising, and assessing.
c.
Liaison role. In a liaison role, a manager communicates with people outside the line,
both formally and informally.
The role of information. In his organization, a manager functions as an information
center. He develops an information center for the benefit of his organization. The
informational role includes the following roles:
a.
Monitor role. In performing his role as a monitor, the manager views the environment
as a source of information. He asks various questions to his colleagues or to his
subordinates, and he also receives information from them without being asked thanks
to the personal contacts he always maintains.
b.
The role of disseminator. In his role as a disseminator, he receives and collects
information from outside that is important and beneficial to the organization, which is
then disseminated to his subordinates.
c.
Spokesperson role. This role is similar to the liaison role in that it communicates
information to an external audience. The difference is in the way: if in his role as a
liaison he conveys information interpersonally and not always officially, but in his role
as a spokesperson it is not always in personal contact, but always officially. In his role
as spokesperson he must also communicate information to influential people who
exercise oversight over his organization. To audiences outside his organization he
provides information in order to develop his organization. He convinces the audience
that the organization he leads has done a good job social responsibility as it should. He
also assured government officials that his organization was operating in accordance
with the regulations as it should.
Furthermore, the last role is the role of deciding. A manager plays a very important role
in the decision-making system in his organization.
Organizational Innovation:
10.1 Definition Innovation
Innovation is any new idea or idea that has never existed or been published before.
Another definition suggests that, innovation itself is an idea, item, event, method, which is
perceived or observed as a new thing for a person or group of people (society), whether it is
the result of invention or discoversion.
Innovation that occurs in an organization is a process of organizational progress, but
various obstacles and obstacles will occur when the innovation begins to enter the
organization. By understanding the innovation process in the organization, at least it will be
able to reduce organizational turmoil in carrying out innovation diffusion.
10.2 Innovation Process Organization
Decision making in an organization has a very important role, because the impact of
choosing these decisions will affect the sustainability of the organization. The right decision
making will have a positive effect on the organization, on the contrary, if the decision
making is wrong, it will actually harm the organization.
The innovation process is a series of activities carried out by individuals or
organizations, from awareness or knowledge of innovation to implementing innovation. The
word process implies that the activity is carried out over time and changes occur every time.
How much time is used during the process will differ from one person or organization
to another depending on the pressure of the person or organization on innovation. Likewise,
during the innovation process, there will always be continuous changes until the process is
declared over.
10.3 Organizational Sensitivity to Innovation
Sensitivity here means relating to the extent to which the organization is sensitive to
innovation (faster to accept innovation). There are several variables that affect
organizational sensitivity to innovation, namely: 97
a. Size of an organization. The larger the size of an organization, the faster it accepts
innovations.
b. Characteristics of organizational structure, which include;
1. Centralization. Authority and power in the organization is controlled by a select few.
This has a negative relationship with organizational sensitivity.
2. Complexity. This means that an organization consists of people who have high expertise
and knowledge. This has a positive relationship with organizational sensitivity.
Formality. This means that this organization always emphasizes procedures and
standard rules in organizing. This has a negative relationship with organizational
sensitivity.
3. Familiarity of relationships between members. This also clearly has a positive
relationship with organizational sensitivity.
4. Organizational flexibility. This means the extent to which the organization is willing to
accept outside sources that are not formally related. This has a positive relationship with
organizational sensitivity.
5. Characteristics of individuals (leaders). When a leader has an open attitude towards
innovation, the faster the organization accepts innovation.
6. External characteristics of the organization. This relates to the system adopted by the
organization. If the organization adheres to an open system in the sense that it is willing
to accept influences from outside the system, then the organization will quickly accept
innovation.
10.4 Purpose of Innovation Organization
The fundamental reason organizations need change is because something relevant to
the organization has changed, or will change. Therefore, the organization has no choice but
to change as well. This change happens because of the urge to change, which comes from
the organization external and internal encouragement.98 The encouragement is :
a. External Encouragement
The external impetus that drives the organization to make changes comes from the
general environment of the organization. New rules of production and competition,
politics, new laws, court decisions, etc. will affect the organization. In addition, various
dimensions such as technology, economy and sociocultural also influence the
organization to make changes.
b. Internal Drive
Basically, the internal drive comes from within the organization itself. A revision of the
organization's strategy by top management will result in organizational change. Other
internal drives may be reflected by external drives. For example, workers' attitudes
towards their work will shift, as sociocultural values shift. As a result they demand a
change in working hours, or a change in working conditions.
10.5 Innovation Decisions in Organizations
Decision making in an organization is very important because it concerns the future of
the organization, whether the decision brings success or failure due to mistakes in making
decisions.
In relation to innovation, the method or method is not the same as ordinary decision-
making steps where the risks are known, so the difference here is that innovation decision-
making starts with uncertainty.
In organizations, things or factors that stimulate innovation are the occurrence of
performance gaps, namely conditions where there is a difference between what is shown and
what should be done when decisions are made. In this case, it can take the form of various
organizational problems.
There are several things that cause the need for innovation in organizations, namely :
a. If the determination of the success criteria for an organizational program is not appropriate.
For example, requirements that are too high and not balanced with performance and human
resources.
b. If an organization wants to improve its quality. For example, when an organization is
running steadily, there are no significant problems. But the leader really wants to improve
the quality by adding New requirements and such that cause what the leader expects is not
the same as what the members do.
c. In case of internal organizational changes:
1. A new leader or official brings new rules and expectations.
2. Technological changes.
d. If there are changes outside the organization (environmental factors).
1. Inquiry needs or services from society changes.
2. The change is due to the widespread use of new technologies.
3. Organizational changes occur as a result of cooperation with external parties.
10.6 Types of Innovation Decision Making in Organizations
There are two types of innovation decision-making that are often used in
organizations, the difference is the extent to which organizational members can participate
in the decision-making process, the two types are :100
a. Authority Decision
Authority decisions are made by one or a small group of people who are often referred
to as the "dominant group" in an organization. In this case, the decision to reject or accept
the innovation is forced upon the members organization by the higher-ups of the
organization. There are two types of authority decisions that are often used in formal
organizations, namely:
1. Authority decisions with the participation of organizational members
(participatory approach).
Rogers and Soemaker (1971) hypothesized that the speed of acceptance of innovation is
faster using an authoritative approach.
2. Authority decisions without the participation of organizational members
(authoritative approach).
Zaltman, Duncan and Holbek (1973) suggest that changes propagated using
authoritative approaches are much less sustainable than changes propagated using
participatory approaches.
Authority decisions are usually seen as more efficient because the sequence of stages of the
decision-making process can be carried out in a shorter time.
b. Collective Decision
Rogers and Soemaker (1971) define collective decision as a way in which members of
a social system accept or reject innovations by mutual agreement and all members must
accept the decisions that have been made together. Collective decisions are usually used by
voluntarily formed organizations, such as arts or sports organizations.
According to Schein, there are two things that hinder the implementation of decision
making, namely:
1. Minority members often feel that there is not enough time to discuss what is being
decided, so they do not have a deep understanding.
2. The minority group considers that there are two competing groups in the vote, they are
currently losing and they will wait for the opportunity to fight for victory in the next vote.
10.7 Elements for Successful Change
There are several elements needed to make a change. These elements are ideas, needs,
adoption, implementation, and resources.101 Further explanation can be seen below:
a. Idea
Ideas are new ways of doing things. No company remains competitive without new ideas.
With new ideas, the sustainability of the company is more assured because it is able to
survive in the increasingly fierce competition.
b. Needs
A perceived need to change when managers see a gap between actual performance and
expected performance in the organization. With this gap, managers can see the problems
that occur so that they can be immediately analyzed and researched for the root of the
problem.
c. Adoption
Adoption occurs when the decision maker chooses to move forward with the proposed
idea.
d. Implementation
Implementation occurs when organizational members use a new idea, technique, or
behavior. From the idea, it is then realized.
e. Resources
Resources are the human energy and activities needed to bring about change. Resources
are the fuel of change, because without resources, change cannot be carried out because it
does not have the energy to drive the various expected change plans.
