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Poultry production
Poultry is the most numerous species of farm animals. The domestic chicken constitutes 98 % of the total
poultry population and is the most important. Out of an estimated population of 27.7 million domestic
chickens about 70% are categorized as indigenous chicken.
INTRODUCTION
Chicken are the most popular poultry species worldwide in terms of their economic importance. Chicken are
believed to have been domesticated from the jungle fowl.
Domestic chicken originated from 4 wild ancestors from Asia, these include; Gallus bankiva- red jungle fowl of
java
Gallus sonnerati- grey jungle fowl of south india Gallus Lafayette- also called Ceylon jungle fowl
Gallus varius also called single wattled fowl of java or green jungle fowl
Domestic chicken is called gallusdomesticus, which was domesticated approximately 150 yrs BC Other
undomesticated poultry include swan, pheasant while partly domesticated are wild quails, guinea fowl (do not
breed under confinement) ostrich which are domesticated in ranches
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Figure 1 | Phenotypic diversity of domestic animals. The illustration shows the phenotypic diversity of
different breeds of domestic chicken in comparison with the wild ancestor, the Red Jungle Fowl (a male and
female are shown at the bottom). (Painting by StaffanUllström.)
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Features of gallus species
i. They posses combs and wattle
ii. Poultry birds are warm blooded tetrapods
iii. Body is covered with epidermal feathers
iv. Neck id flexible and long
v. The forelimbs are modified as wings for flight. Feather provided with muscles at the base
vi. The hind limbs are covered with scales and armed with claws
vii. The beak is horny and there is no teeth in the mouth
viii. Hind limbs are modified for walking or hoping in land and perching on trees and in aquatic or
semiagualic birds for swimming
ix. The digestive system includes a crop and gizzard, the rectum opens into cloaca, no urinary bladder.
The ureters communicate with cloaca, the urine is semi solid
x. The heart is four chambered with two atria and two ventricles aarotic arch persists. No sinus
venosus
xi. Eyes with sclerotic plates with eyelids and nictitating membrane
xii. Ear , the auditory aperture lies behind the eye sunk deep hidden by feathers
xiii. The sexes are separate, the right ovary and oviduct are usually absent, fertilization is internal
xiv. Eggs have large yolks covered by hard cell
xv. The fertile eggs undergoes metablastic segmentation. The incubation of egg is external
xvi. There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves
xvii. All species are sedentary (line on land)
xviii. They are omnivores
xix. Vocalization differs along species
xx. Males of wild spp have spectacular feathers coloring
Reasons for domestication
i. To get meat and eggs (utility)
ii. For recreation especially cork fighting
iii. For pleasure and fancy use of feathers for making ornaments
Importance of chicken for supplying food
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i. Poultry meat and eggs are high protein quality and are more palatable compared to other meals.
Chicken meat is low in cholesterol except the skin
Population increase causes high demand of poultry meat
ii. Chicken requires relatively small space and thus ideal for intestie or indoor rearing system
iii. There are a high preference for poultry meat therefore quaranteed market utlets Nb market survey
is important for commercialization
iv. Returns on invested capital is quick iehave a short life cycle eg broilers ready for 2 months, local
chicken 6 months
Factors that influence commercial chicken production and distribution
i. Availability of grains cereals and by products- areas of more grain growing has high chicken
production due to high population and high rainfall
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ii. Availability of commercial feeds- this influences promixicity to rearing chicken availability
iii. Ready market
iv. Nomadic mode of life- this does not favor chicken production
Limitations that hinder commercial chicken production in Kenya
i. In availability of quality chicken feeds – due to luck of raw materials of feed manufacturing firm,
this causes fluctuations in supply of feed. Lack of appropriate raw materials
ii. Inadequate breeding stock- lack of insufficient information (genetic) of parental stock lead to low
genetic stock in market for local hatcheries.
iii. Lack of technical knowhow in management of chicken
iv. Scarcity of investment capital that promote manoevouring of inferior feeds
v. Endemic diseases such as Newcastle, fowl typhoid, gumboro
vi. Lack of proper marketing channels- e.g. broilers need ready market
Uses of poultry
i) Used for food meat and eggs
ii) Industrial uses
iii) Manufacture of paints and cosmetics from egg yolk
iv) Laboratory uses
All vitamin and minerals deficiency diseases are done using chicken because they are much sensitive
v) Egg yolk used in preservation of semen and production of vaccines
vi) Fertilized eggs are used in embryological studies e.g. disease testing
vii) Decoration by using feathers
Terminologies
Class male female young
Chicken cock hen chicks
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Cockerel pullet chicks
Ducks drake duck duckling
Turkey tom or turkey cork turkey hen pouts
Geese gander goose goslings
Cork_ is a male breeding bird more than one year
Cockerel_ male less than a year
Capon _castrated male before puberty less than 6 months
Stag _castrated male after puberty
Pullet year _period between the laying of first egg by a pullet and the end of 12 months. Pullets start laying
after 5 months. The peak laying is good for hatching
Broiler chicken raised for meat. It has high feed conversion efficiency and tender meat. Has
high growth rate.
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Spring chicken_ young chicken less than 12 weeks mostly from the egg industry
Roaster _young chicken kept for 4 months, has relatively high fat
Boiler _ olds corks and hens. Also include indigenous chicken, good for boiling
Breed is a group of animals which closely resemble each other in shape and outward appearance
Strain---is a group of animals within breed which resembles each other in more specific ways
POULTRY REARING SYSTEMS
Three systems are common;
Intensive, semi intensive and extensive systems
Extensive systems/ free range system
Chicken are left to roam about
Little or no management given to them
Sleeping on resting in the farmers house or locatd housing Mainly done for subsistence
Suitably for handy indigenous chicken Normally for small holder
Advantage
It’s a cheap way of raising chicken
Disadvantages
i. There are losses of chickens or eggs birds lay their eggs everywhere and are sustable to predators
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ii. Cause disagreement among neighbor and destroy vegetation
Semi intensive system Improvements
a. Supplementary feeding during good grain harvest, thus there is supplement on protein and energy.
Maize should be grinded and protein source incorporated inform of soyabean , fish. This boost
their growth and performance
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b. Deworming is also done to control internal parasites and other diseases
c. Vaccination is important to enhance immunity
I. Fold system
is a system in which structure called fold or hatch are made for the birds. Fold is made of wire mesh to
enhance feeding of grass
Contain laying nets, feeder and breeder
The fold is kept moved from one place/ run to another.
Suitable where land is unlimited and the land should not be waterlogged. Movement gives grass time to grow
I. Paddock system
The field is paddocked and a house is raised at the centre for the animals to sleep in. Facilities like feeders,
laying nets are put in the house.
Supplementation of feeding is done in the hse
Advantages of semi intensive as compared to free range
i. Returns are higher as compared to free range
ii. Losses are minimal
iii. Strong birds are obtained
iv. The system is good/suitable for layers and pullets but not chicks and broilers
v. Use perimeter fence to deter the chicken
Intensive system
Characteristics of intensive system
i. Have a large number of birds in alimited area
ii. Birds have no access to runs
iii. Birds are fed on complete ratios
Examples include, deep litter, battery cage and slatted floor
The intensive system began in 1930 , all birds suffered rickets and all laid weak shelled eggs because of lack of
calcium , phosphorous and vitamin D
a) Battery cage system
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most intensive of all system.
Principle is based on confinement of birds in cages , the number of birds per cage varies from one to four
depending on;
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The size of the birds
Size of the cage
Farmers preference
The cages are arranged the whole length of the building, the cages are placed in tiers completely off set such
that they rest on top of another
The lowest cage should be at least 0.75 -1m above the ground to allow easy cleaning.
There should be enough space between the cages to allow for walking at least 0.75 to 1 m apart.
Requirements for success of battery cages
The house should be solid wall and concreate floor
Proper drainage ,
good ventilation and
proper lighting
front end side designed to form roll away laying nest
Drinking nipple should be red in color for easy identification
Advantages
i. Operation can be mechanized for feeding and watering thus less human labor
ii. Space economy reduce feed consumption
iii. Reduced risk of infections
iv. Allows better flock supervision
v. Clean eggs are laid
vi. Bird monitoring
vii. Broodiness is minimized
Disadvantages
i. More capital requirements because of cage, solid wall and concrete floor
ii. Not good for broilers because they develop breast blisters thus degrade the carcus and avenue for
microbes
iii. Cage fatique is a common problem
iv. Not good for broiler breeders and pullets or growers, the eggs produced in cages cannot be used
for breeding
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v. Birds are easily develop cage fatigue because they stand throughout the life. Cage fatigue is caused
by lack of calcium by withdrawal of calcium from the bones thus birds become weak. So birds
should be given 4% of calcium for battery cage , for deep lifter 3% of calcium per day.
b) Deep litter system
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Birds are kept under confinement without access to runs in a large house without partition but has absorbent
litter.
The house can be permanent or fabricated with wooden materials or iron sheets
The front side of the house should be sealed to the top but other side 2/3 should be sealed, the remaining side
should have wire mesh
The floor should be concrete for easy cleaning and keep away parasites Litter should be able to absorb 40% of
its weight and remain dry
Litter materials commonly used are wood shavings, sawdust, chopped straw, dry coffee husks, crushed maize
cobs, dry rice husks
Saw dust has limitation such as –
become cake too fast,
as a lot of dust
Cause crop impaction if eaten by birds
Litter at the beginning should be 2.5 cm in thickness. It will increase due to droppings from birds, feed
spillages.
For broiler the thickness builds up to 10 cm Layer 40-45 cm
Management of litters
i. Always rake the litters for maintenance of dryness
ii. Add ca(oH)2 Hydrated lime to dry it up
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iii. Place drinkers on raised levels so that the birds spill out water Dry litter controls coccidiosis
iv. Avoid licking roofs to safeguard the litter
Facilities in litter houses Feeders
Long wooden or feed hoppers
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For long wooden or linear feeders spacing should be 10cm per bird For hopper- 1 hopper per every 15 adults
birds
Watering Drinkers
Types include;
Fountain type Trough type
Permanent channel type
Linear long metal drinkers allow 1.5 cm drink space per bird
Water fountain- you require one water fountain for 8-10 adults birds
Perches/roosts
Are wooden structures for resting. This is because birds still has the instinct of resting in air or trees
Perches should be movable for scattering of drops
Laying nests
Can be individual or communal
Communal nest should measure 180cm by 60 cm by 50 cm to cater for 50-75 birds Nests should face the wall
and dark as possible
Top should be slanted to avoid birds resting on Floor space for layers 4- 6 birds /m2
Broilers 11-15 birds/m2.
Grit and shell container
The grit is provided to supply additional surface area of the feed by grinding those inside the gizzard
Limestone, oester shell etc are common grits
Dust birth
Provide an earthen pot or a hole in the ground filled with clean sand or ashes
Advantages
i. Its cheaper compared to battery cage
ii. It yields high quality of manure for crop production
iii. Flexibility in the use of the house; broiler and layer
iv. The litter itself acts as a source of food supply. The built up litter provides animal protein, vitamin
and hormone to the birds
v. Lower labor intensity because poultry pen is not cleaned daily
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vi. Hygiene and conditions are good thus control coccidiosis
vii. The deep litter maintains its constant temperature. The birds burry themselves when air
temperature are high and thereby cool themselves
Disadvantages
i. vices develop very fast ie egg eating feather picking vent pecking toe pecking
ii. layers develop broodiness too fast because of comfort of litter- minimization of broodinss is done
by broody coop so that broody birds are transferred into it for more stress
iii. disease control can be a problem if theres water spillage which encourages coccidiosis and lack of
deworming and crowding and mixing of birds together
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iv. individual attention to birds is imposible by not knowing the non laying nb best system because its
cheap and flexible
c) Wooden mesh/ wooden slatted floor/raised floor Wooden slated is the best for easy dropping of
the feces Should be raised up to 0.75m
Concrete floor and the walls should be solid, solid roof of iron sheet Spacing is the same as deep litter
For all poultry housing provide light with translucent iron sheets evenly distributed for lightning.
Due to animal welfare there are ban in battery cage system , instead this is advocated for
Types, breeds and hybrid of chicken Types of chicken
Chicken types are categorized depending on the end products They include
Layers
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Broilers
Indigenous chicken
Breeds and hybrids of chicken
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Modern poultry breeding is carried out by crossbreeding, or hybridization, within one breed orby
crossing lines from different breeds
Although pure breeds as such are no longer in circulation for direct commercial use, they still have a
large significance as components of the modern commercial endproducts. These breeds are described
briefly here.
White leghorn
features
The WL is a light white feathered bird, laying white eggs.
Has low body weight that enables it to withstand high ambient temperatures better than heavier birds,
The bird is also rather nervous. Has a low carcass value.
Medium weight breeds are Rhode Island Red (RIR), New Hampshire (NH), and Light Sussex (LS).
Rhode island red
The RIR is dark brown feathered and lays brown eggs. The bird is heavier, quiet tempered, but more
susceptible to high ambient temperatures than the WL. However, under poor conditions its viability is
probably somewhat better. Its carcass value is higher, but so is its feed consumption.
New hampshire
The NH has roughly the same characteristics as the RIR, its feather colour being lighter brown.
Light sussex
The LS has been an important component in some of the medium weight laying hybrids.
It is a white bird with black striped neck feathers and a black tail (Columbia feather design).
White cornish
The WC is a heavy, white feathered breed, laying brown shelled eggs. It has been developed for the
quality and quantity of its meat.
White Plymouth rock
Has same features as WC though to a lesser extent, to the WPR. The WPR retains a higher egg producing
capability.
NB Broiler breeder stock is almost entirely composed of White Cornish (WC) and White Plymouth Rock
(WPR).
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Initially, in the fifties, crossbreds originating from breed crossing were used. Their performance and
viability (hybrid vigour) was better than those of pure breeds. However, in the sixties more and more
crossbreds originating from line crossing were produced.
Breed crossing is still applied in some developing countries. They still have a better performance than
pure breeds, whereas the breeding method is simpler than line crossing, and it is also cheaper. Large
commercial poultry enterprises, however, always use modern hybrids originating from line crossing.
They may cost more, but their performance is much better under favourable conditions. Indigenous
chicken
Has got no breeds but categorized depending on
ecotype and
genotype
Classification of chickens
