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Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
The Government of Zimbabwe implemented various national development
initiatives and programs which prioritized improvement in the standard of living through
poverty reduction to achieve the goal of social security. The study examined patterns and
models of social security programs that are undertaken globally as a development
strategy in the context of current shifts in focus regarding deficits in social security
measures and proposals for remedial action. This was intended to potentially culminate in
the reviewing of the enabling policy to ignite feasible reforms that might be deemed
necessary to ensure the provision of a sustainable social security system. The national
policy priority must emphasize the creation of a robust social security system which
reflects current reforms and trends in social policy implementation.
Social security involves protection of citizens against vulnerability, risks, and
deprivation via public interventions directed at assisting citizens to reduce risks that make
them vulnerable. The World Bank (2012) said social security is the provision of benefits
to households and individuals through public and collective arrangements to protect them
against low and declining living standards. Social security has gradually been interpreted
in different societies as the most generic and inclusive term for formal systems of
protection against loss of means of livelihood for citizens (Shrestha, 2004). It involves
measures taken to protect society against socioeconomic risks resulting from
unemployment, employment injuries, maternity, invalidity, old age, stoppage, or
substantial reduction in income resulting from illness (International Labor Organization,
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1984). The government has the duty to ensure the protection of citizens against economic
uncertainties and misfortunes as a right and is expected to create the necessary
institutional platform in the form of measures to coordinate and monitor operations of
social security schemes in the country.
Through an appropriate institutional framework, the government can provide
citizens with social insurance, social assistance, and social services financed by general
revenue. Mouton (1975) said traditional social security systems have evolved in African
society, and coverage has been extended to previously excluded groups, leading to a
notable impact in terms of percentage of social security compared to gross domestic
product expenditure. There is a need for a policy framework which states and clarifies
underlying mandates for social security providers in terms of how schemes are designed,
managed, and coordinated as well as cost involved. A regulatory or institutional
framework when created must facilitate synergy among stakeholders and control social
security institutions and consequently enhance value of money in social security systems.
A legal framework which balances efficiency and equity in policies and guides service
providers in the social security industry in Zimbabwe must be developed and
institutionalized via national development programs focusing on poverty reduction
strategies.
The study was intended to contribute to the building of political consensus and
providing recognition that social security should be a government obligation and promote
public confidence in the insurance and pension industries through addressing policy
deficits. It was primarily undertaken with a focus on the welfare of recipients of social
3
security and former government employees in terms of preserving their standard of living
after leaving full time employment. Through a process of reflecting on the socioeconomic
environment of citizens, the study could ensure reallocation and redistribution of
resources to guard citizens against interruptions income.
Chapter 1 includes the introduction to the study, background, problem statement,
purpose of the study, research question, theoretical framework, nature of the study,
definitions of terms, assumptions, scope and delimitations, limitations, significance, and
implications for social change. The introduction to the study included a description of
social security highlighting the importance of this subject, Zimbabwean experiences, and
the need for the study. This includes research related to specific aspects of the topic that
were addressed in the study and addressing various positive effects and then highlighting
conditions justifying validity of research.
The heterogeneity of the social security concept and need for social security
policy reform in Zimbabwe were explained. The research problem and its relevance and
significance in terms of social and behavioral sciences were identified. The purpose
involved the research paradigm and intent of the study. The research question was
provided. Origins of the conceptual framework on which the study was based were cited.
The nature of the study and choice of the research design were identified, as well
as data collection methods and analysis. Terms with multiple meanings were defined.
Assumptions of the study were addressed as well as the scope and delimitations and
limitations of the study, and the significance of the study were highlighted. Potential
4
implications for positive social change were described. The chapter concludes with a
summary of main points and a transition to Chapter 2.
Background of the Study
Zimbabwe experienced several economic challenges that robbed social security
recipients of their social security entitlements and these people did not have any legal
recourse against their service providers (Chikova & Kaseke, 2014). The country
experienced macroeconomic instability between 1998 and 2008, which reached
hyperinflationary levels of 231 million percent by 2008, resulting in citizens losing
lifetime savings in terms of insurance policies and retirement pension benefits (Central
Statistical Office, Zimbabwe, 2008). The Commission of Inquiry into the Conversion of
Insurance and Pension Values (2017) said:
Social security recipients blamed the government for failing to provide policy and
regulatory guidance to the insurance and pension industry at the time of
conversion, during inflation and when local currency was debased in 2006, 2008,
and 2009 resulting in a free for all scenario, (p. 152).
The government was accused of having contributed to the loss of rights and
reasonable retirement pensions and insurance policy benefits through a policy lapse. As a
result, citizens who could no longer fend for themselves and their dependents due to old
age or any other form of incapacitation were exposed to socioeconomic challenges. The
government was further accused of having failed to undertake its obligation to protect
citizens as enshrined in the national constitution of Zimbabwe which recognizes the need
for the state to extend social security to its citizens. The Zimbabwe national constitution
5
(2013) requires the state “to take all practical measures, within the limits of the resources
available to it, to provide social security and social care to those in need” (p. 33).
The social security savings that were lost included investments in pension funds
and shares of publicly quoted companies. Generally, there was a systematic downward
movement in values of retirement benefits which pensioners could receive when they
retired. This largely volatile and unstable economic environment that was experienced in
Zimbabwe from 1980 required that the country undertook a complete shift in order to
develop an efficient system to achieve viability of social security schemes, build
confidence in society, and improve the social security governance system. Such actions
could address governance, management, and regulation of social security schemes that
were being run in the country under the existing policy framework.
The unstable economic environment which Zimbabwe continued to experience
raised concerns regarding the effectiveness of government protection of citizens against
economic uncertainties. This included developing and implementing a regulatory or
institutional framework that could control all social security programs within the country.
This could provide an environment for the creation of social security schemes that could
protect citizens in times of vulnerability by redistributing income among beneficiaries in
a manner that ensured the prevalence of social justice, peace, and equity among citizens.
The regulatory framework created in this manner could provide benchmarks and control
insurance policies and pension benefits administrators and ensure the involvement of
government in the important issue of social security provision across all sectors of the
economy.
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The Government of Zimbabwe did not adequately protect citizens in terms of
policy or regulatory framework when the country experienced hyperinflation between
2007 and 2008. Pension and insurance companies that had promised to meet certain
future financial obligations in return for payments of monthly premiums for individual
citizens and employers in the end paid very small lump sum payments. Prejudiced
policyholders and pensioners did not have any form of recourse, and the government did
not have a compensation framework to enable members to receive rightful benefits. This
contradicted the creation of public measures to establish a governance system that gives
beneficiaries room to exercise control over schemes and processes linked to the
management of their scheme funds. Consequently, socioeconomic and political
challenges involving poverty and vulnerability persist in Zimbabwe and they need to be
addressed in order to achieve universal social security schemes based on global best
practices.
A governance system or policy framework which stipulates liabilities and
obligations of those who are entrusted with the management of social security schemes is
a necessity. An operational framework needs to be set up by law with government
making policy and adopting legislation specifying those to be covered by the scheme, and
the type and level of benefits to be provided. Social security schemes should be
established by statute to insure workers and their dependents against interruption or loss
of earnings (ILO, 2002). Establishing an effective and coherent legal framework is
crucial for improving effectiveness and equity of social assistance programs that involve
forms of cash, or in-kind approaches involving coverage or employment-related and
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universal schemes (Asian Development Bank, 2015). Specifically, social security is
equated with income maintenance in cash value that is secured by statute and appropriate
legal frameworks in order to meet specific unexpected needs.
The Centre on Budget and Policy Priorities (2018) said other than serving as a
basis of income that workers can use to prepare for their retirement, social security is a
valuable social insurance source for workers and their families during times of
incapacitation of whatever form. However, in general, attitudes towards the provision of
adequate social security benefits remain ambivalent despite expressions of support (ILO,
2011). Practical expressions of this ambivalence involve complete absence of or
contradictory policy designs and implementation in various economic segments. An
integrated portfolio of country-specific tried and tested policies that put employment and
social security at the center of crisis response must be put in place. The objectives of such
policies must be to critically analyze and propose integrated and harmonized policies that
can be used by government to promote and strengthen social security nationally as well
as global strategies for social security. It is usual to observe one wing of government
attempting to promote social security measures while another wing busy opposing such a
move.
International institutions dealing with issues of social justice in their efforts to
promote measures in providing and transforming social security are focusing specific
intervention measures on the minimum package that enables beneficiaries to live a decent
life. However, practical state interventions by their nature reach only those few
individuals who often are the richest members of society. Consequently, the impact of
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such interventions is limited, with benefits accruing only to those individuals targeted by
such interventions. There are few attempts aimed at redressing macro level policy biases
in social security provision (ILO, 2012). There are no comprehensive policy packages
involving macro and micro policies to create favorable socioeconomic environments to
enhance the efficacy of specific intervention measures like minimum social security
benefits packages and indexation of social security benefits (International Social Security
Association, 2017). In such an economic environment, good intentions and policies are
rendered irrelevant, inadequate, ineffective, or repressive.
Strong and well-functioning social solidarity and dialogue between men and
women, those in and out of work, and the rich and poor is required to achieve social
cohesion in terms of building and managing social security policies. Beneficiaries or their
representatives in some countries have expressed dissatisfaction with the administration
of social security schemes and calls for reform involving a review of the role of the state,
responsibilities of the social partners and the desirability of greater participation of the
private sector have been presented as the solution (ILO, 2012). Others have pointed to
deficiencies in the level of protection and scope of coverage, arguing that in times of
increased unemployment and other forms of labor insecurity, social security had not
responded to new demographic challenges such as ageing and changing family structures
(World Bank, 2012). It is in cases of this nature where governments play an important
role by developing and operationalizing vital legal frameworks for strengthening
democratic governance and representation for the interests of social security recipients
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and all stakeholders in the national insurance policies and retirement pensions
administration paradigm.
History indicates that African community members are known to be generous on
sharing surplus products and hence providing some form of social security by extending
assistance to poor members of the community. The ILO (2006) said the concept of social
security and approach to social welfare had always been intrinsically linked to the
evolution and civilization of human beings founded in their desire for security against
social and economic uncertainties. Community members with access to means of
livelihood felt the desire to freely extend help to other members of the extended family or
clan thus providing means of economic security for the aged and infirm. Community
members who were assisted in this way expected that assistance as their right, and people
informally alleviated the suffering of their fellow citizens. This rudimentary system of
social security was similar to what was provided in more advanced countries of the world
where social security was constitutionally considered a human right and governments
enacted legislation and developed policies to ensure citizens did not suffer from poverty
and economic insecurity.
Social security plays an important and effective role as a program for alleviating
the suffering of people in times of incapacitation. Progressive societies, notably the
United States through its Social Security Act of 1935 and New Zealand through her Act
of 1938, took the lead in promoting social security as a social and economic necessity for
enabling people to cope with economic, political, demographic, and societal challenges
(ILO, 2011). The ILO adopted social security as an inclusive expression of the
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aspirations of all citizens, applied it in the workplace and embarked on a coding process
of the concept between 1952 and 1982. ILO codes of practice or international labor
standards currently guide all member countries of this organization in the way they
administer labor matters, and through these standards, member governments are required
to provide social security to citizens as a right. As society grew economically and became
socially complex, a societal norm developed which saw the phenomenon of economic
insecurity as a problem afflicting the poor (World Bank, 2012). The forms of social
security which were rooted in history and tradition became progressively inadequate to
meet the new situation (ILO, 1984). Governments, on realizing the challenge of coverage
of social security, gradually assumed responsibility for social security in many countries.
Governments developed social security policies in order to bring together
workplace parties to engage in discussions that result in the shaping of retirement security
in response to prevailing demographic, economic, and workforce trends (Schreur &
Veghte, 2017). An effective social security policy development approach should be
holistic in manner and lead to the creation of comprehensive and broader social
assistance schemes and establishment of institutional mechanisms for the holistic
implementation of social security policies (Nishino & Koehler, 2011). Falange and
Pellerano (2016) said:
In order to fight extreme poverty and recognize the importance of protecting the
poor and vulnerable population, the government structured social security into
four categories comprising efforts to boost the consumption level of the poor and
the vulnerable population, improving nutrition levels and access to basic health
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care and education services, prevention and responding to risks of violence,
abuse, exploitation, discrimination and social exclusion, and development of
institutional capacity to implement and coordinate the basic social security sub-
systems (p. 13)
Through this framework, the Mozambican government created a social security
system that guaranteed its citizens access to nationally defined essential goods, services,
and income transfers that ensured they were not hungry, did not suffer from treatable
illnesses, remained uneducated, had to resort to unsafe water, or remained homeless
(Cichon et al., 2011). Mozambicans were thus secured against welfare risks because their
right to social security was enshrined in the national constitution, and comprehensive
policies and legislation to safeguard citizens against economic crises and shocks were
developed (Cichon et al., 2011). This indicates that social security is indispensable when
it comes to risks associated with loss of means of livelihood and poverty alleviation
through a process of generating necessary funding.
Reforms undertaken to achieve adequate funding for a successful social security
system should be based on higher and regular benefits for targeted citizens. Funding
which is meant to raise pension reserves requires that there be a combination of extra tax
revenues and benefits that are reduced unless investments increase as a result of placing
pensioners’ contributions in assets that generate the highest possible yields (Turner,
2013). Biggs (2013) said social security systems are a pay-as-you-go system which
adequately fund themselves and therefore adequately meet financial needs of the working
age, retirees, and other beneficiaries. In order to protect the poor and vulnerable groups in
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society, social security managers must always focus on closing perennial funding
shortfalls by adjusting social security programs to match changing circumstances of
target beneficiaries (Aaron, 2018). Social security measures should be linked to social
and economic development as a way of reducing income poverty and enhancing social
cohesion.
Social security programs should be based on plans involving financing programs
even during economic downturns and when national resources are inadequate. Social
security plans should restore adequate social security provision without resorting to
drawing from general revenues, but should preserve the basic structure of the program
while strengthening social insurance functions for which the program was created
(Diamond & Orszag, 2003). Reformers of social security systems should engage
international and national experts regarding social security systems in order to benefit
from international best practices and promote social dialogue across all stakeholders to
obtain their support when implementing social security activities. Social security must be
seen as a real solution to needs for social assistance and to design and implement
contributory schemes with participation from the entire population in the country,
including those making a living in the informal economy (Holmes & Scott, 2016). If
there was any interest to participate in the formulation of social security policies by social
security recipients, their actual engagement was limited, rendering them powerless when
it came to holding the government and social security administrators accountable.
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Problem Statement
The research problem was lack of knowledge regarding how the social security
system in Zimbabwe was perceived by recipients and government employees and what
specific reforms might be sought. The presence of a reformed social security system is
essential for decentralizing government power and creating mediation for diverse forms
of interest within the system.
There was need for a study that informed the development of social security
programs and policies for the establishment and maintenance of a universal minimum
package that could provide universal access to health care and minimum income security
in the form of basic old age and invalidity pensions and cash benefits and basic education
for children (ILO, 2012). This study was intended to analyze global trends in social
security, the social security system in Zimbabwe, its principles of application,
universality, social solidarity, social dialogue, application of the law, and the role of the
government in providing a framework for good governance and decent living standards to
recipients of social security and former government employees.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore perceptions of recipients of social
security and former government employees regarding the existing social security system
in Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform. It was necessary to analyze salient
issues regarding social security systems and accompanying policies as well as deficits
within it by highlighting international statutes and policies that emphasize the need for
adequate social security benefits. The study involved assessing the extent to which social
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security had or had not positively influenced the development process in Zimbabwe. The
study involved evidence of the role of social security recipients and former government
employees on the development of the social security system to address socioeconomic
factors such as levels of poverty and financial incapacitation, as well as how research
findings could influence the social security system and policy in Zimbabwe. A qualitative
case study involving an analysis of the social security policy framework in conjunction
with interviews with social security recipients and retired government employees in
Zimbabwe was undertaken in order to make a case for a comprehensive review of
relevant policies.
Research Question
The overarching research question was: What are perceptions regarding the
current social security system in Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform
according to current recipients and former government employees?
Theoretical Framework
The study was based on the welfare state theory of Lord Keynes. The objectives
of a welfare state support living standards and reduce inequality, minimize costs and deter
behavior that is conducive to moral hazards and adverse selection. In order to advance
individual freedom, the state must adopt an active role in social reform whose measures
result in the simultaneous introduction of old-age pensions, unemployment insurance,
sickness benefits, and progressive taxation (Bar, 2004). Since social security relates to
basic needs of life and has evolved in terms of dynamics of the movement and struggles
for fundamental human rights, there was a need for a study that identified weaknesses in
15
legislation and drew attention to necessary improvements that could be made to the
applicable legal framework.
Based on this theoretical framework, a qualitative case study was undertaken to
conduct a detailed examination of the perceptions of recipients of social security and
former government employees regarding the social security system in Zimbabwe.
Nature of the Study
Given the nature of the research question which emphasized social security
perceptions as an explanatory factor and the theoretical framework which was developed
to guide a detailed inquiry, the case study design was found to be appropriate. The case
study design is appropriate in a study which focuses on a contemporary phenomenon
within a real-life context (Yin, 2009). The main advantage of the design is that it allows
an in-depth study of single or multisite cases using different data collection techniques
(Marshall & Rossman, 1989; Snow & Thomas, 1994). It can be designed to improve
construct validity using strategies such as multiple sources of evidence, allowing key
informants to review case study reports, and maintaining chains of evidence (Yin, 2009).
With a qualitative case study approach, it was possible to address what perceptions of
social security recipients and former government employees had about the social security
system and analyze and describe the social security phenomenon based on their
experiences. The qualitative case study research approach was used to generate data that
was used to explain what social security recipients and former government employees in
Zimbabwe regarded as the most appropriate social security package.
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The qualitative case study research method involves providing answers to
questions relating to how and why social security had been identified as an influential
factor in shaping the behaviors, opinions, and experiences of recipients of social security
and former government employees, and this information in turn provided a rich
understanding of their viewpoints. This method generated information for understanding
and interpreting social lives of participants in their natural settings. It facilitated an in-
depth and unstructured analysis of the study topic, and involved opinions and life
experiences of recipients of social security and former government employees. The
validity of the results of a qualitative case study can be ensured by creating case study
protocols and developing a case study database (Yin, 2009).
Unlike the quantitative method, the qualitative research method is more useful in
terms of site-based study and data analysis (Ulin, 2002). The purpose of this study was
not to identify variables or constructs and use them to describe, explore, or test certain
hypotheses to predict and establish relationships between them, but rather to obtain views
regarding lived experiences of participants. A qualitative case study research design was
therefore found to be more appropriate than a design with a predictive orientation or a
mixture of both designs.
In-depth interviews were used to collect data from 20 recipients of social security
and former government employees to obtain a detailed study of perceptions regarding the
social security system in Zimbabwe. Twenty participants, which is the minimum number
of participants required for rigor in dissertations, provided adequate evidence for the
study. Interviews were held virtually using telephones and lasted approximately 30 to 45
17
minutes. Interview data were manually reviewed and analyzed to develop a list of
significant statements that identified common patterns. NVivo was used to organize data
and develop themes.
Definitions
Main terms used throughout this proposal were defined in this section.
Defined Benefit Scheme: A financial system for pensions under which
contribution rates are increased throughout the cycle of a pension scheme on a step-by-
step basis (where the duration of the individual step is called the period of equilibrium).
In practice, the contribution rate is calculated for a defined period of years, often ranging
from 10 to 25 years with the objective of equating, at the end of the period, income from
contributions and investment income with expenditures on benefits and administration
(Cichon et al., 2004).
Defined contribution scheme: A scheme under which contributions are paid to an
individual account for each scheme member. The benefit depends on the account balance
at the date of benefit withdrawal, the amounts contributed and interest earned and
accumulated in the account, as well as administrative costs to be deducted (Cichon et al.,
2004).
Decent work: Productive work under conditions of freedom, equity, security, and
dignity, in which rights are protected and adequate remuneration and social coverage are
provided (ILO, 2005).
Measures: Statutory action programs in an industrial system intended to “protect
employees and their families against contingencies like disability, sickness, employment
18
injury and unemployment and thus promote the welfare of the population by providing
sufficient resources for food, shelter, health and well-being for vulnerable citizens”
(Pradeep & Kalicharan, 2016, p. 47).
Minimum package: Essential healthcare and benefits for children, informal
workers, the unemployed, older persons, and persons with disabilities. It provides the
platform for broadening and extending social protection as fiscal space is created. It has a
significant impact on poverty alleviation, improvement of living standards, reduction of
inequalities, and promotion of economic growth, and has been shown to be affordable
even in low-income countries using existing resources if properly managed (African
Union, 2008).
Provident funds: Funds which exist primarily in developing countries and are
essentially compulsory savings programs in which regular contributions withheld from
employees’ wages are enhanced and often matched by employers’ contributions (ISSA,
2017).
Scope of coverage: Universal coverage of an entire population for involving
contingencies of old age, disability, and survivorship (ISSA, 2017).
Social allowances: Universal payments made to persons in designated categories
who have exceptional needs (such as children, older persons, persons with disabilities)
which are designed to assist them in the realization of their full potential. The objective of
social allowances is social compensation. Social allowances are financed via government
revenue and are not means-tested. They are paid to all persons falling within designated
categories, regardless of their socioeconomic position.
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Social assistance: A form of social security which provides assistance in cash or
in kind to persons who lack the means to support themselves and their dependents. Social
assistance is means-tested and is funded via government revenue. Normally the
beneficiaries are those who are not covered by any other form of social security. The
objective of social assistance is to alleviate poverty through the provision of minimum
income support.
Social insurance: A form of social security designed to protect income earners
and their families against reduction or loss of income as a result of exposure to risks.
These risks impair one’s capacity to earn income. Social insurance is contributory, with
contributions paid by employers, employees, self-employed persons, or other
contributors, depending on the nature of the specific scheme. Social insurance is aimed at
achieving a reasonable level of income maintenance.
Social justice: The exercise of political rights that frees people from dependency
and leads to effective conditions for inclusion and participation in economic and social
life as well as decision-making regarding public actions aimed at quality of employment
and living work conditions (ILO, 2011).
Social Security: Refers to public and private measures designed to protect
individuals and families against income insecurity caused by unemployment,
employment injury, maternity, sickness, invalidity, old age, or death. The main objectives
of social security are to: (a) maintain income, (b) provide healthcare, and (c) provide
benefits to families. For the purpose of this study, social security includes social
insurance, social assistance, and social allowances.
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Assumptions
Assumptions are unproven and unprovable but are necessary prerequisites for
conducting this study.
I assumed that the Government of Zimbabwe recognized and acknowledged that
social security was an important component of poverty alleviation and sustainable
socioeconomic development. Social security could promote employment in the economy.
The government was concerned about inadequate allocation of resources for appropriate
and comprehensive social security schemes and was therefore committed to strengthening
social security systems in the country through reasserting social policies that provide
proactive interventions for ensuring indexed social security.
I also assumed that recipients of social security benefits and individual former
government workers would cooperate by allowing me to enter their community and
answering questions during interactive sessions. In addition, I assumed they provided
their honest opinions and were adequately knowledgeable to respond to questions posed
during interviews.
Scope and Delimitations
Social security recipients had expressed concern regarding the use of existing
social security systems to maintain their standard of living after their working lives.
Delimitations resulting from conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions made
during the process of developing the plan for this study should be identified.
The study was confined to an analysis of perceptions of recipients of social
security and former government employees regarding the existing social security system
21
in Zimbabwe. I focused on the impact of changes in the socioeconomic environment on
the lives of recipients of social security and former government employees and
corresponding policy responses to ensure sustainable social and economic development.
The social security system had come under close scrutiny because of growing uncertainty
about job security. The study was intended to analyze perceptions of social security
recipients regarding how the government evolved a system of policy reforms to ensure
that goals and objectives of social security systems were realized.
This study was confined to purposively selected 20 recipients of social security
and former government employees aged 60 years and above residing in Kadoma who
provided their perceptions regarding the existing social security system in Zimbabwe.
These respondents were selected to ensure all parties who had experiences with social
security were represented.
The study avoided a full-scale analysis of the pension system in Zimbabwe, and
an analysis of records and interviews with stakeholders regarding private pension
schemes was not part of the inquiry which was undertaken, although relevant to the
study.
Limitations
This study was intended to raise awareness by providing insights regarding
perceptions that recipients of social security and former government employees had
regarding the existing social security system and need for potential policy reform in
Zimbabwe. Limitations out of my control were potential weaknesses in the study and
were therefore identified.
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The qualitative study design has limitations as it entails issues of credibility and
dependability which must be achieved to establish validity, reliability, and
generalizability of the study (Katz, 2015). The data used in this study relates to the
attitudes and beliefs of 20 former government employees aged 60 years and above who
resided in the City of Kadoma area only and reflects their perceptions and not the
experiences and views of the entire population of social security recipients in Zimbabwe.
The study may inherently contain elements of subjectivity arising from the use of the
purposive sampling approach and the researcher as the sole research instrument.
I maintained high standards of academic integrity and adhered to set procedures
for data collection and the interviewing protocol. I compiled and maintained clear records
of all procedures and research processes I used. I avoided my personal views during data
interpretation, and personally used member-checking to ensure that participants reviewed
drafts of findings for completeness and to establish reliability and validity of the study.
The political turmoil in Zimbabwe was also a limiting factor as one potential
participant withdrew from participating, citing her political affiliation. Number of
respondents was still adequate without including her. Amount of time set for the study
could also have contributed to lack of feedback from participants, because they might
have considered the time given for reviewing findings too short and decided not to
respond.
Significance of the Study
This study was unique because it involved addressing needs to undertake
measures to protect society against economic and social distress that could be caused by
23
the absence or a substantial reduction of income as a result of various contingencies, in
particular weak policies. Results and insights from this study should help governments,
employers, employees, and pension funds providers develop sustainable social security
policies, thus ensuring that workers’ livelihoods are not adversely affected in times of
economic shock. This study will lead to the provision of policy directives for pension
reserves which will be given special attention by government, employers, employees, and
pension fund administrators.
Implications for Social Change
The concept of the welfare state emphasizes the need to make social security
universal via the core values of solidarity, social justice, equality, inclusivity, and human
rights. This study highlights the need to cater for the underprivileged members of society
by applying internationally established standards to address their social security needs
and enhance service delivery.
Social security essentially shields citizens from various contingencies by ensuring
they gain access to basic necessities of life and are not exploited or suffer economic
shocks and crises. Citizens are afforded the opportunity to participate in, contribute to,
and enjoy fruits of economic growth while being afforded protection against economic
uncertainties and social misfortunes resulting from all forms of incapacitation.
This study will ensure mechanisms are readily available to protect citizens against
social security deficits that might emerge from inflation, industrial restructuring, job
losses, unemployment, demographic changes, and international economic adjustments by
24
using social security provision as an instrument for improving living standards for
citizens.
Summary
Chapter 1 included justifications for undertaking the study and its social
implications. This was reinforced by a brief synopsis of research related to key concepts
of this study. Chapter 1 also included the research problem as well as the focus of the
study and relevant questions. The section on the theoretical framework involved the
social security theory and qualitative method as well as concepts that were relevant to the
study. Key terms were defined and contextualized in addition to assumptions, scope and
delimitations, limitations, and the significance of the study. In Chapter 2, the study
continues with a review of literature as well as detailed background supporting literature.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Introduction
This study was conducted to address lack of knowledge regarding how the social
security system in Zimbabwe was perceived by recipients of social security and
government employees and what specific reforms might be sought. This involved a case
study design conducted to explore perceptions of recipients of social security and
government employees regarding the existing social security system in Zimbabwe and
potential need for policy reform. A case study involving an analysis of documents
regarding social security in conjunction with interviews with recipients of social security
and former government employees in Zimbabwe was undertaken in order to generate new
insights regarding the social security system.
The Insurance and Pensions Commission of Zimbabwe (2018) said:
It was crucial to establish and implement the new reforms, which are aimed at
improving sustainability, affordability, adequacy and the coverage of the pension.
The reforms are also meant to improve welfare of pensioners, harness long-term
domestic savings for economic development, as well as improving the legal and
regulatory framework for pensions. In addition, the proposed reforms are targeted
at strengthening the governance, management and efficiency in the delivery of
pension services within the country’s pension system. (p. 1)
Although the Zimbabwe social security system was administered through the
National Social Security Authority Act (17:04) of 1989, this law might not have helped in
terms of enabling citizens to reap expected benefits. Various schemes under this law
26
evidently lost value due to hyperinflation that reached its climax in 2009, and also as a
result of a statutory directive made by the government in 2018. It appeared that the
National Social Security Authority of Zimbabwe did not protect the purchasing power of
pensions under the Pensions and Other Benefits Scheme during this period, and citizens
lost their life savings on two different occasions within a period of 10 years ranging from
2007 to 2018. As a result, citizens generally ascribe high incidents of poverty prevalent
throughout the country to an ineffective policy framework.
The role of a social security system is to protect citizens against economic and
social distress which causes financial incapacitation by providing a series of public
measures that alleviate the suffering of citizens. Government involvement in the pension
market must be driven by the need to safeguard citizens against deprivation resulting
from challenges emanating from the economic market (Danzer et al., 2016). Although
hyperinflation and poor economic performance have persistently been confronting the
Government of Zimbabwe, it seems as if no measures had been instituted to safeguard
social security schemes in the country.
The National Age Network of Zimbabwe (2019) said:
Today Zimbabwe’s social security system supports an array of fragmented, poorly
targeted, and donor dependent programs, with different degrees of effectiveness.
Social security outcomes have been curtailed by limited fiscal space, economic
stagnation, poor infrastructure, widening inequality and exclusion of some
marginalized groups, partial or non-alignment of major laws and policies with the
new constitution, limited human resources capacity, poor retention of skilled
27
labor, limited exploitation of technological opportunities to improve efficiency
and effectiveness of service delivery. (p. 1)
Reforms must involve how recipients of social security and government
employees perceive the existing social security system in Zimbabwe. Insights obtained
from this information would ensure that social security schemes at least met the
expectations of recipients.
This chapter includes a literature review. This is followed by literature search
strategies regarding articles that were relevant to social security. Theoretical foundations
of the welfare state theory applied in the study, its origins, and rationale for its choice are
highlighted. This is followed by an explanation of the conceptual framework. The review
of literature involves concepts identified for the study and a comprehensive review of
existing literature. This is followed by a summary of Chapter 2.
Literature Search Strategy
Existing literature reviewed in this proposal was obtained from Academic Search
Complete, Business Source Complete, CQ Researcher, Dissertations and Theses @
Walden; ERIC, Google Dataset Search, govInfo (formerly FDsys), OECDiLibrary,
Political Science Complete, Political Science & Business Source Complete Combined
Search, ProQuest Central, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global, PsycARTICLES,
PsycINFO, SAGE Journals, SAGE Research Methods Online, Science Direct,
SocINDEX with full text, Thoreau Multi-Database Search, UN Data, United Nations
Public Administration Network, Walden Library, and the World Bank Open Knowledge
Repository.
28
Search Terms Used
The search terms used in retrieving existing articles on social security were:
Pension policy, social allowances, social assistance, social insurance, social protection,
social security, social security measures, social security policy challenges/shortcomings,
social security policy paradigm, and social security policy reform.
Iterative Search Process
These search terms were entered into databases and search engines. In cases
where existing research articles published within 5 years of this proposal were not found,
other search engines including Archie, Google, AOL, Ask.com, Bing, and Yahoo were
used to search for articles that were published within the required period.
Theoretical Foundation
The welfare state theory of Lord Keynes guided this study. The term welfare state
has no clear-cut meaning (Hwang, 2017; Jeffers, 2016; Stiglitz, 2018). The application of
Keynesian economics in the welfare state entailed greater state involvement in the social
lives of citizens, and in such an economic environment, the private sector made decisions
that did not benefit some citizens (Jeffers, 2016). Jeffers (2016) said the welfare state has
to be represented by governments that address national autonomy in social policy
formulation and not those whose social security policies are aligned with the market
liberalization plans. Anderson (2012) said, “the welfare state has always been forced to
adapt to contextual factors, including demography and international competition” (p. 32).
Notwithstanding the need to adapt to attendant changes in the economy, the welfare state
heavily relies political, ideational, and institutional factors.
29
Mok and Kuhner (2016) said the welfare state requires governments to meet
citizens’ expectations beyond human capital-focused family-oriented and work-centered
approaches that previously influenced the welfare discourse. This evidence was
corroborated by Hwang (2017) who observed that welfare states had shifted away from
the traditional functions of protecting citizens and adopted a productive welfare model
that greatly emphasized investment in human capital. With such a variety of divergent
views relating to welfare states, it was important to consider what a welfare state of today
would entail in order to address the welfare needs of citizens.
Stiglitz (2018) identified the 21st century welfare state as typically different from
the traditional model in that it provides a more dynamic and innovative economy, creates
individuals who take care of the less privileged, encourages social solidarity, embraces
social justice, life cycle support and enable communities to develop social security
programs that can support future generations.
These views were echoed by Jeffers (2016) who asserted that “the modern welfare
state is a political or governmental state assuming responsibilities of the social and
economic welfare of their citizens through spending on social insurance, housing,
education, social security and other social expenditure programs it may create” (p.11).
Underson (2012) added that, “a crucial point of modern welfare theory is that welfare
states not only differ regarding public expenditure levels, but even more in institutional
terms: What are the underlying principles of solidarity behind the rules of eligibility (who
should receive support) and entitlements (how much)” (p. 6). Anderson (2012) in her
30
citing of Briggs (1961) said in a welfare state organize power is used to guarantee
citizens a minimum income, narrow insecurity gaps, and provide social services to the
underprivileged.
Aravacik (2018) said:
Contemporary state understanding that undertakes the duty to ensure a fair
income distribution, protect the groups and classes in need of protection, direct
the social security practices and employment policies, practice the politics to meet
the basic requirements of society such as education, health, and housing and take
measures for regulating the working life, thanks to the tax and wage policies it
follows.” (p. 6).
In a welfare state, citizens look up to their government for the provision of their
social rights. Expectedly, government ought to develop social policy that addressed
“basic principles related to social needs, social problems, equal rights and social justice,
efficiency, equity and choice, reciprocity and obligation, difference and exclusion,”
(Aravacik, 2018, p. 6). The mere fact that one was a citizen of a particular country
bestowed upon that individual equal treatment in issues to do with social support.
Welfare state, through the concept of citizenship, entitles all citizens to the same
rights when confronted by equal risks and places an obligation on the state to provide the
necessary social security solutions and achieve social justice (Jeffers, 2016). Within a
welfare state, citizens ought to enjoy improved physical, mental, economic, political and
social conditions as the government takes steps to provide free social services to achieve
31
“equality, social security, economic democracy, and full employment” (Jeffers, 2016, p.
11). In this regard, the government has a duty to develop and implement policies intended
to control private providers of social welfare and social security services. Its involvement
in the lives of citizens must introduce the welfare state and social security to address
shortcomings that resulted from economic activities by devising appropriate policy
measures.
This led authors such as George (1968) to emphasize social security as social
policy developed to address education, housing, social insurance and public assistance
needs of minority groups. Merriam (1961) supported this view by placing provision of
cash income for individuals and their families who were under special conditions at the
center of social security. Laroque (1965) widened the meaning of social security to
embrace a guarantee by the entire community to at least maintain an acceptable standard
of living by sharing income as a means of national solidarity. Laroque viewed social
security as a program and its corresponding legislation as processes in transition from
forms of assistance and insurance to modern day schemes of social security as defined by
the ILO in its international labor standards.
The ILO, as the organization responsible for setting international standards on
labor related issues which are adopted by the International Labor Conference as
Conventions and Recommendations of best practices universally, considers social
security as the security that society provides for its citizens to shield them against certain
risks to which they are exposed. To ensure that each government undertakes the
responsibility of providing for its members of small means, the ILO standards were made
32
binding on all member governments to shoulder the task of ensuring that they create
policies that ensure decent living standards for their individual citizens. Convention 102:
Social Security (Minimum Standards), adopted in 1952 is closely related with the dictates
of the Welfare State theory. With this standard, the ILO laid down guidelines for
establishing a minimum level of benefits for the principal branches of social security
while giving allowance for the flexibility necessitated by the diversity of national
situations. After realizing that Convention 102: Social Security (Minimum Standards)
1952 excluded coverage of non-nationals, the ILO adopted Convention 118: Equality of
Treatment (Social Security), 1962 in order to guarantee social security coverage to non-
nationals under equal conditions with nationals and under conditions of reciprocity
between states. Convention 157: Maintenance of Social Security Rights, 1982: was
introduced to usher in an international system for maintenance of rights to sickness,
maternity, validity, old age, survivors, occupational accidents and diseases,
unemployment, medical care and family benefits for persons who are working or staying
outside their country. The ILO introduced Convention 168: Employment promotion and
protection against unemployment to promote full, productive, and freely chosen
employment by all, and appropriate means including components of social security such
as coordination of protection against unemployment using employment policy,
employment services, vocational training and vocational guidance (ILO, 1988).
Marsh (1943) confirmed the link between the philosophic perspective of social
security with the ILO perspective and highlighted three contingencies to be covered by
social security as income security and availability of medical care, which are specifically
33
identified in the ILO Income Security Recommendation, 1944 (No. 67), and the Medical
Care Recommendation, 1944 (No.69), respectively, as essential elements of social
security (ILO, 2010). Because of the binding nature of the ILO international labor
standards, member states should implement the Social Protection Floors
Recommendation, (2012) (No. 202), and extend social protection systems as a means to
accelerate poverty reduction and promote inclusive growth and social justice (ILO,
2016). The ILO further notes that the right to social security remains unfulfilled for the
large majority of the world’s population indicating that only 27 per cent of the global
population enjoys access to comprehensive social protection systems; the rest is covered
only partially or not at all. Many countries thus face the challenge of expanding their
social security systems, as well as of making those systems more sustainable. This is
especially important in countries with ageing populations (ILO, 2016). The ILO
facilitates national and regional social dialogue to ensure that economic policy-making
adequately considers social security needs and help in monitoring social security reforms,
including reforms of pension systems, and providing advice to ensure the adequacy of
benefits and coverage (ILO, 2016).
Gough (1989) observed that the creation of a welfare state is the ultimate goal of
government for which it is both responsible to achieve as the responsible authority for
providing welfare to citizens and creating the mechanisms for other parties to do so too.
Both Beveridge and Keynes shared the view that certain minimal objectives should be
guaranteed to the existence of society and they identified poverty and economic
insecurity as threats to the capitalist system (Cutler et al., 2010). The welfare state
34
ensures that social justice is done and that the rule of law is respected. A welfare state
uses organized political and administrative power to control activities of market forces so
that they guarantee minimum income and security during old age, unemployment and ill-
health eventually affording all citizens the best available living conditions (Underson,
2012).
Theoretically, welfare states differ both in the levels of expenditure they incur for
social welfare purposes as well as the institutional arrangements they undertake to ensure
provision of the service to society (Kim, 2006). To achieve this, government uses various
theories of the welfare state such as:
democratic politics which emphasizes the role of elections, the working class,
leftist parties and interest groups in developing welfare provisions, logic of globalization,
shown by a crisis resulting from retrenchments due to missed economic growth targets in
an increasingly globalized economy (Kim, 2006, p. 3); David Miller’s theory of
nationality, which emphasizes that strong welfare states require pre-political ties and
must be embedded in the ethical relations shared nationally (Neil, 2008, p. 5).
The social democracy theory of the welfare state was applied in this study.
Rationale for the Choice of Social Democracy Theory
The social democracy theory of the welfare state which confines social policy
development mainly to the role of social democracy and the mobilization of wage earners
in the development of social welfare was applied in consideration, analyzing and
explaining the appropriateness of the welfare state theory in this study. At the center of
the social democracy theory is the need to shape the political, legal and ethical spheres of
35
the modern society so that they defend citizens against harsh business decisions
(Thompson, 2007). Thompson noted that social democracy helps in democratizing
institutions of the modern society and is not meant to transform the process of production
or provide democracy at the work place. Such democratization process of the governance
institutions should entail fulfilling what individual citizens expect of their government in
the area of equality of treatment which should be used as a measure of how the state
shapes society (Pettit, 1987). The state must develop a constitution that demonstrates just
governance by embracing economic equality and generating and implementing policies
that ensure the provision of decent jobs, incomes, and social security for citizens (Graber,
2001).
A government that abandons the traditional social democracy and embraces a
modern social democracy is judged by the way it changes its policy components
previously used to set policy instruments, the instruments in use and its goals including a
host of those outside the envisaged policy. The development and implementation of new
policy setting instruments and a demonstration of a new political ideology resulting in the
achievement of social justice, social security and full employment are signs of a modern
social democracy (Merkel & Petring, (2007). Social democracy theory uses the state as a
social and regulatory mechanism that may be transformed during specific historical
contexts by shifting its welfare state pillars and legitimizing social democracy through
constantly adapting to its historical roots (Mavrozacharakis & Tzagkarakis, 2018).
36
Link of the Welfare State/Social Democracy Theory with Social Security
Preceding literature revealed that all welfare state theories include aspects of
social democracy and advocacy for the formalization and realization of basic human
rights underpinned on equal freedom, justice and solidarity values. The theories provided
principles that ensure that justice is observed in developing policies related to the
provision of unemployment insurance, healthcare and education to citizens. These
theories denote that the objectives of a welfare state should support living standards and
reduce inequality and should minimize costs and prevent behavior that results in
immorality and favoritism. Ideologically, social democracy theory requires the state to
play a leading role in social reform through providing measures for introducing old-age
pensions, unemployment insurance, sickness benefits and progressive taxation (Barr &
Diamond, 2004). It ensures the creation of inclusive social services policies thus giving
equal rights and equitable income distribution among citizens.
The social democracy theory connotes both a right and a universal discourse
(Bengtsson, 2001). The right discourse leads to the fulfilment of a political requirement
while the universal discourse entails the provision of the universal policy obligation for
the state to guarantee the delivery of the right to the citizens (Bengtsson, 2001). Various
researchers shared the assertion that the sharing of social universal rights forms the basis
for theoretical social democratic policy and legitimacy reforms (Hibbert, 2008). Although
current thinking is gradually drifting away from the welfare state theory due to the
globalization of markets and the reservations expressed on the bureaucratic nature of it,
37
the welfare state theory remains the surest way to guarantee freedom with all its
complexities to the citizenry (Holmwood, 2000).
After reviewing theories and empirical evidence relating to welfare state
development, those who had chosen to avoid it suffered a vacuum in the necessary
information required (Aidukaite, 2009). Lavers and Hickey (2016) weighed in saying
“the growing literature on social protection in low income developing countries has
tended to focus on definitional debates, policy design and impact evaluations, with
relatively little consideration of the ways in which politics shape policy” (p. 6). They
further argued that politics needs to be at the center of efforts to understand social
security and they outlined a new conceptual framework for investigating this, particularly
focusing on explaining the variation in progress made by low-income countries in
adopting and implementing social security. They proposed that an adapted political
settlements framework that incorporates insights from the literatures on welfare state
development - notably power constellations theory, discursive institutionalism and global
policy networks - can help frame political commitment to social security as flowing from
the interaction of domestic political economy and transnational ideas. Importantly, this
approach situates social security within a broader political and policy context and
highlights the influence of underlying power relations at multiple levels.
As Bergh (2004) argued in the literature on welfare state typologies, the concept
of the universal welfare state is not defined precisely enough to allow for comparisons of
universality over time and between countries. The author proposed that the term
universality be used to describe the provision of a specific welfare benefit independently
38
of individual income and/or other individual characteristics and that it should also be
used to describe the coverage of welfare benefits rather than their size. States use welfare
state approaches to deliver housing, education health care, food, cash handouts and all
other welfare support services to their citizens (Bar, 2004). Through these activities of the
welfare state approach, states improve standards of living, reduce the income gap, control
the cost of living and prevent immoral behavior and inculcate a sense of inclusivity
(Marcuzzo, 2006) among citizens. Ideologically, the welfare state theory helps states in
advancing freedoms of individual citizens as it enables it to assume a central role in
social reforms and in the development of new social welfare benefits such as old-age
pensions, unemployment insurance, sickness benefit and progressive taxation which are
key components of the social security system. Redistribution of these benefits can be
undertaken through the universal, corporatist and residual models with the universal
model providing the maximum redistribution followed by the corporatist and the residual
models (Underson, 2012).
The foundational theories provided and the concepts of social security that follow,
provided a clear process towards addressing the research questions that sought to uncover
how Zimbabwean former government workers who were receiving social security
perceived the social security system and what potential policy solutions they expected in
order to improve the sustainability of the social security system in Zimbabwe. Although
many studies had been undertaken on the welfare state theory, its application in the
designing of policies targeting the provision of social security for government employees
had not been fully explored and the application of the social democracy theory had been
39
deemed appropriate in this study because of its implicit action of delivering benefits to
citizens. Through the application of the social democracy theory, government could
potentially ensure that vulnerable members of society equally enjoyed freedom, care,
self-fulfillment and dignity as citizens of the country by developing policies that
safeguarded and guaranteed those needs of life.
Conceptual Framework
Social security as a concept originates from the communal co-existence and
interdependence of people. Its prominence continues to grow due to its application at the
workplace as a means of guaranteeing livelihood for the retired employees and their
dependents. Traditionally, social security has been practiced in communities as a system
of managing risks confronting the entire community (Fajana, 2006) and this practice has
been modified over time to its modern sophisticated systems of social allowances, social
insurance and social assistance.
In this study social security was defined in the context of the ILO which denotes
the term as a key component of the aspirations of the founders of the ILO as an
organization. Today the ILO uses social security as a necessary concept for upholding
human dignity and for promoting social justice and has placed it at the center of social
policy debates on employment and industrial relations, always emphasizing its impact on
the living standards of the working class. According to an ILO publication, (2005) social
security is:
The protection which society provides for its members, through a series of public
measures against the economic and social distress that otherwise would be caused by the
40
stoppage or substantial reduction of earnings resulting from sickness, maternity,
employment injury, unemployment, invalidity, old age and death; the provision of
medical care; and the provision of subsidies for families with children” (p. 155).
This broad definition highlights the need for social security to meet minimum
standards in medical care, sickness benefits, unemployment benefits, old age benefits,
employment injury benefits, family benefits, maternity benefits, invalidity benefits, and
survivor’s benefits as outlined in the ILO Convention 102 of 1952. These minimum
standards should be classified and provided in the form of social assistance and social
insurance schemes of social security. The ILO (2012) indicates that social assistance
schemes are nationally or locally provided by the state in cash or in kind and are derived
from means or income taxes. Also included in social assistance schemes are universal
benefits schemes which do not use a means test although they may be tax-based. Lack of
income and any other form of want is considered as a basis for acceptance as a
beneficiary in the social assistance scheme and individuals are screened through a means-
test which ensures that only members whose resources are below a certain level are
covered.
Social insurance, which is a social security program financed through
contributions made by incumbent beneficiaries and administered on the principle of
pooling of risks, guards the individual members against unforeseen losses (ISSA, 2017).
Pension schemes, which are largely motivated by population ageing and in the African
context, by socio-economic development, take this form. Although the concept of social
security closely resembles that of social protection, the latter is a broader concept
41
covering issues of social security that extend beyond the workplace (ILO, 2008). The
concept of social security should be distinguished from social protection which goes
beyond social assistance and social insurance to include social allowances that are public
actions provided to citizens in extreme poverty, vulnerability and deprivation such as
social safety nets (Norton et al., 2001). Social security is distinctly linked to the provision
of fundamental rights and protection to workers against all sorts of hazards during or after
their working lives using various schemes.
The schemes are provided as private or statutory, being run by the government,
covering matters of unemployment and pension benefits. Social security provided
through such schemes has been proven to have assisted communities to sustain their
livelihoods and that they provide equal opportunities in education and health care which
are necessary for human development in regenerating adequate and productive labor,
promoting peaceful co-habitation, social cohesion and social and economic development
within communities (World Bank, 2012). To maintain this harmonious co-existence and
peaceful communities, government should furnish society with security that involves
frequent assessment of the challenges or shortcomings and adequacy of its social security
systems. This entails reviewing the social security paradigm and measures, existing social
security policies and instituting appropriate social security policy reforms.
Literature Review
Findings of authors who studied the role of government in providing social
security to citizens in recent times is important as they provide different views and
perspectives regarding the need for social security, required processes, key components
42
of social security schemes, determinants for successful schemes, adequacy of benefits,
challenges and factors that guarantee a proper scheme of social security. Studies on why
social security should be reformed, issues that drive social security reform, route for
social security reform, indicators for a quality social security system, challenges to social
security provision, and structural elements of an ideal social security system were
reviewed to provide a firm foundation for the study.
Biggs (2013) aptly observed that debate on social security reform should be
opened up first and foremost with a view to the normative and rights-based perspective,
building on the notion that all citizens globally have a right to social protection which is
anchored in commitments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),
the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Rights
of the Child (CRC). Specific labor market interventions are therefore required across the
world in areas such as introduction of basic social security systems as a step towards
redistribution of wealth and poverty reduction and such systems could be financed
through progressive taxations and employers’ contributions (Kanyenze et al., 2016).
However, as the ILO Convention 102 of 1952 denotes, the degree and dimension to
which each system is reformed depends entirely on the capacity of the country involved
to provide resources for the chosen system.
ISSA (2017) considered social security as programs established by statute that
insure individuals against interruption or loss of earning power and for certain special
expenditures arising from marriage, death or birth. This definition includes allowances to
families for the support of children. Protection of the insured person and dependents is
43
usually extended through cash payments to replace a portion of the income lost as the
result of old age, disability, or death; sickness and maternity; work injury;
unemployment; or through services, primarily hospitalization, medical care, and
rehabilitation (ILO, 2013).
Measures or income maintenance programs and direct services are put in place to
provide cash benefits to replace lost income and benefits in kind respectively and
coverage takes the form of employment-related, universal, and means-tested systems,
(ISSA, 2017). Beneficiaries receive benefits as a right under the universal and
employment related schemes but under the means-tested scheme benefits are assessed
according to a beneficiary’s income against the standard of measure applicable to the
scheme (ISSA, 2017). Doubts have been expressed with regards to the extent and rapid
growth in the social security coverage in Africa based on the available statistics that show
that 5 to 10 per cent of the population in Sub-Saharan Africa and from 20 to over 70 per
cent in the Continent who are covered are from the middle-income countries (U. N.
Social Development Bulletin, 2015). It further indicates that high levels of informal
employment translate into large coverage gaps in many countries, where only small
minorities, usually formal sector employees, have access to comprehensive social
security protection. The Continent of Africa’s old age, work injury, disability,
survivorship, sickness, family allowances, unemployment benefits and maternity schemes
coverage are typically poorly developed (ISSA, 2017).
Historically, the workers and employers viewed retirement schemes as comprising
deferred wages and as a central component of the growth of the welfare state (Hassel et
44
al., 2017). The authors contend that workers and their families use the futuristic nature of
the use of pensions and usually plan their life after work on the basis of pension benefits
and in most cases without anticipating what could become of their savings. Examples of
the financial crisis of 2007/08 and the sovereign debt crisis leading to the loss of about
25% of asset values continue to haunt governments and fund managers who are yet to
recover from those crises with pensioners still waiting to be compensated (ILO, 2013).
The key lesson learnt is that while it is good business strategy to create the market and its
associate expansion models, there is need to develop appropriate governance mechanisms
to preserve prefunded pensions while reconciling interests of the pension industry and
provision of social security income to the workers (Hassel et al., 2017).
The initial entry of the state into the pension market resulted in the expansion of
the market with the creation of public pension schemes with their attended problems of
inadequate coverage and insufficient fiscal space, although the intention of the state was
to correct shortcomings of the market (Dancer et al., 2016). Consequently, complex
pension schemes have been modelled around the state provided poverty alleviation
focused scheme, the employer sponsored scheme and the voluntary or privately funded
scheme (Dancer et al., 2016).
All wants are at the core of poverty vulnerability and the scope and application of
a system of social security should regularly be analyzed to guard citizens against
suffering in silence from any forms of social hazards (Naik, 2016). A pension scheme
becomes a source of livelihood in old age, during permanent incapacitation to work and
provides for the dependents of a breadwinner who dies (The Centre on Budget and Policy
45
Priorities, 2018). Social security is a life assurance, injury insurance and a retirement
scheme and the anticipated benefits must be revised regularly and hedged against
inflation to ensure that they will be able to sustain the intended beneficiaries at the
appropriate time (The Centre on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2018). The International
Labor Organization (2013) noted that overall, the world’s population is getting older,
with the median age going up from 28 years in 2009 to 38 in 2050 further noting that by
then there will be four persons of working age for every person over 65, compared to 9 in
2000.
Consequently, government, as the authority dealing directly with policy on
demographic trends is invited to address social security concerns in the new demographic
context particularly the pension policy. Pension reform internationally has been a
common feature of public sector financial reforms since the 1990s. In Europe the reforms
have led to increased retirement age but a reduction in terminal benefits (OECD, 2007).
Similar reforms have been embarked upon in developing countries and those countries
that have attempted to undertake similar reforms have created pockets of poor members
of the society leading to more impoverishment of citizens as the state offloads the social
security provision burden and care of the aged to individuals.
In order to reform social security three hurdles of addressing the long-term
funding gap, protection of social security benefits for low level members and ensuring
that the new schemes accommodate the aspirations and conditions of the individuals
concerned need to be addressed (Aaron, 2018). Retirement plans are underpinned by
social security which provides the majority of retirees, their dependents and the disabled
46
with an affordable annuity plan protected from inflation and which can be enjoyed until
death. Aaron (2018) averred that the social security reform agenda should be progressive
through restoration of the actuarial balance of pension savings for some time, a period
during which revenues and expenditures should be matched but without affecting benefits
to workers. The scheme should restore social security losses caused by economic and
demographic changes and it must adjust economic and social changes.
It is important that authorities are made aware of the existence of all pension
schemes and the onus is upon the members to check and ensure that the schemes they
join are genuine and recognized by government. On their part, the authorities must
provide a clear communication process for people to use when communicating their use
of the scheme and the administrative procedures involved should be disclosed to scheme
members and must be easy to use (Kohli et al., 2017).
CQ Researcher (2016) revealed that owing to the pivotal role that social security
plays in retirement plans, it must be run as an annuity fully protected from market
changes and economic vagaries such as inflation. Government must, through its policies,
assure citizens that their contributions into a social security scheme are protected and
allay any fears that may arise from the possibility of losing their investment. The
assurance that social security funds are protected by government must be given and
guaranteed to exist in practice and in law.
Social security benefits fully financed by the employer and investment interest
from personal assets and savings are traditionally the mainstay of revenue for the retired
employees (Dush et al., 2017). As a social insurance program, social security guarantees
47
an inflation-indexed annuity that continues until death occurs to old age employees and
their dependents and is a bedrock for retirement as it provides a steady and dependable
source of income for aged households (Dush et al., 2017). It is on the basis of the
importance and substance of social security benefits as a mainstay of revenue for the
citizens of Zimbabwe that the policymakers and researchers are keen to ensure that the
benefits it represents are measured accurately.
As employees grow old and leave employment, social security takes over as a
source of income for them and their dependents. Sources that formerly provided income
will cease exposing the individual former employees and their dependents to incidents of
extreme poverty and vulnerability to inflation and potential widowhood (Munnell &
Eschtruth, 2018). A policy decision that ensures that social security benefits are indexed
against the inflation rates to preserve their values and safeguard the beneficiaries against
the ever-rising cost of living should be made and implemented (Munnel & Eschtruth,
2018). Pension schemes should not be kept static. Considering that the risks against
which the aged are insured continue to revolve all the time, it is necessary to also
progressively review the level of care and adequacy of benefits to ensure that resources
initially set aside guarantee sufficiency in economic security in old age (Bertranou,
2016). To achieve this goal, discussions must be undertaken at policy level to consider
various investment options including the need to request additional contributions from
individual beneficiaries or creating a social security insurance fund to boost the financing
of pension earnings (Bertranou, 2016).
48
The United Nations encourages governments to develop comprehensive, coherent
and just social policies that enshrine social security into national constitutions, policies
and legislation as a right as a way of giving impetus to social security and enhancing
social solidarity (U. N. Social Development Bulletin, 2015). The government, as the
ultimate guardian of the citizens’ welfare, must directly play a leading role in
safeguarding them against economic crises and shocks. This it can fulfil by introducing
social insurance, which is a scheme in which social contributions are paid by employees
or others, or by employers on behalf of their employees, in order to secure entitlement to
social insurance benefits in the current or subsequent periods, for the employees or other
contributors, their dependents or survivors (Holmes & Scott, 2016).
Concern continues to mount as a result of perennial economic crises and
recurring natural disasters, making all citizens, even those individuals and families living
above the poverty line, vulnerable to income shocks, among them rising food prices,
health care and natural disasters (Koehler, 2011). Increases in payroll taxes, retirement
age and shifting to private pension schemes, have contributed to deficits and shortfalls in
pension funding (Ahmed et al., 2016). The provision of social security to shield citizens
against hazards of life should be an organized activity and the program of social security
based on voluntary contributions has been proven to be inadequate (Naik, 2016).
The ILO (2011) emphasizes that as the national economies grow and become
more resilient the income security of people and their effective health care should
proportionately grow noting that the experience of the global economic and financial
crisis has illustrated the importance of social security schemes as automatic stabilizers
49
that play a key role in stabilizing aggregate demand and protecting human development
gains achieved and supporting structural change. It supports countries at all stages of
development of their social security systems to build a long-term vision in line with the
aspirations articulated in the Social Security (Minimum Standards) Convention, 1952
(No. 102) and higher-level social security standards. These ILO standards, especially
Convention No. 102, provide a unique set of internationally accepted minimum standards
for national social security systems and continue to serve as benchmarks and reference
point in the gradual development of comprehensive social security coverage at the
national level.
ISSA (2017) indicated that social security systems were required to be
established by statute which must categorically state that the purpose for its establishment
is to insure members and their dependents against interruptions or loss of income.
Hazards that usually result in the loss of income and hence the need for social security
such as old age, work injury, sickness, death, disability, unemployment, maternity, or
health care should be identified and the method of coverage through income maintenance
and benefits in kind measures highlighted. The insured members and their dependents
receive cash as a right through both the employment related and universal coverage
systems although the means tested coverage require a comparison of the beneficiary’s
resources with some kind of standard measure (ISSA, 2017). Besides other social security
programs such as compulsory workplace pension schemes, compulsory private insurance
policies and provident funds can be operated but must be governed by government
legislation.
50
Holmes and Scott (2016) observed that socio-economic challenges, inflation,
unemployment, changing employment patterns and diminishing fiscal space affect social
security in the developing world unlike in the developed world where economic
fundamentals are generally steady, and hence the need for government to provide the
regulatory framework for social security management. Pradeep and Kalicharan (2016)
found that government was widely regarded as the major regulator of social security in
order to provide a source of livelihood for the incapacitated individuals and their
dependents in society. This regulatory role ensures that part of the current earnings is
deferred from current consumption of both highly and lowly paid employees and utilized
to cushion the less privileged against workplace injury, death and other hazards
confronting citizens as they grow older (Silva et al., 2017). The government regulations
must focus on fostering an efficient system that meets the needs of beneficiaries by
setting minimum levels of benefits to be delivered to ensure adequate coverage.
Governments are responsible for the welfare of their citizens. Their interest in
regulating the social security system emanates from the desire to prevent citizens from
scaling down on their consumption habits, disposing of their means of subsistence,
terminating the schooling of their children and suffering or eventually dying from
treatable diseases (Dorfman & Palacios, 2012). An enabling legislative framework
leading to the provision of such measures as cash transfers, public works and social
pension directed at reducing poverty and vulnerability among citizens are means to
access basic household needs (Alves da Silva, 2017). Through regulations of social
security programs, the government can ensure that occupational pension schemes are
51
premised on clear investment plans which ensure that all risks that have a bearing on the
future earnings expected from the schemes are prevented. As Holder (2018) pointed out,
the trustees of the pension scheme must develop clear investment regulations and policies
for a long-term investment plan with mechanisms for regular evaluation of the fund if it
is to generate sustainable market returns.
The prevalence of public pension crises has become a common phenomenon in
the world today. Researchers and policymakers alike should earnestly apply their minds
and skills to a process of identifying and utilizing other sources for boosting social
security funds (Silva et al., 2017). Future retirements are anticipated to present a real
financial risk with the solvency of the social security system being considered as the
major factor. The government, through statute, must ensure that citizens receive a
pension as a right guaranteed by necessary legislation that ensure that government itself
has very limited powers to temper with the pension entitlements of citizens (Alves da
Silva, 2017). It is important to analyze the impact of the growing gap in income and
wealth among citizens and how this has influenced retirement provisions for workers.
This would assist in reversing the factors that have made it impossible for low and
middle-income employees to secure and achieve adequate retirement benefits which have
continued to elude employees who reach retirement age while employed in this category
(Arnone, 2017).
Social Security System in Africa.
Most countries in Africa provide social security in five branches of old age,
disability, and survivors, sickness and maternity, work injury, unemployment and family
52
allowances (ILO, 2011). The ILO further notes that the old age, disability and survivors’
social security is provided in the form of a whole life or for a certain number of years’
pension; It is provided as a single system and a contributor needs to satisfy the required
number of years which are set as a mandatory satisfying period; A lump sum or monthly
pension or both are payable as a replacement of the cessation of a salary due to old age or
disability.
Disability or alternatively, invalidity, results from injury suffered away from work
but which incapacitates the employee to the extent that he cannot continue performing
his/her normal duties. Survivors’ pension is payable to the dependents of a deceased
pensioner. Social security systems coverage varies from a segment of the workforce to
the entire country depending on the type, period the system has been in existence, and
level of economic development of the country (ISSA, 2017). Funding is provided by
contributions by government, employer and the employee during the period of the
working life of the beneficiary. The beneficiary and dependents receive old age, disability
and survivor benefits (ISSA, 2017).
Under the sickness and maternity program, beneficiaries and their dependents
receive cash sickness benefits for short illnesses that prevent the beneficiaries from
discharging their normal duties and healthcare in which case costs for their
hospitalization, medical bills and pharmaceutical benefits are paid on their behalf (ILO,
2011). Coverage is dependent on the economic development of the country concerned
and is provided in the form of a national health insurance service or social insurance
program and funds are generated from contributions made by both employers and
53
employees into a sickness insurance fund (ILO, 2011). The ILO points out that one has to
be incapacitated from work and not receiving a salary or sick-leave benefits to qualify to
receive funding from the sickness insurance fund program; Cash sickness benefit is
payable to employees who are incapacitated by sickness for a period of one month to six
months and amounts ranging from 50 per cent to 75 per cent of the current average salary
is payable. The ILO (2011) publication says that maternity benefits normally provided by
countries include prenatal, obstetric and postnatal care for employed women; Dependents
usually benefit when medical care is provided under a medical insurance program; and in
such a case, medical benefits enjoyed by the workers are similarly extended to their
spouses and minor children.
The publication reveals that work injury relates to compensation for injuries and
occupational illnesses and benefits provided are both of a short and long-term nature and
include both cash payments and medical care. Public social insurance programs are the
commonest type although some private insurance programs also exist. Only formally
employed workers are commonly covered by work injury programs and they are financed
through contributions made by employers only. Workers are compensated through cash
and medical benefits. Survivors of workers, such as their widows or orphans under a
specific age, are also covered under the work injury programs. Widows or widowers
draw these benefits until death or re-marriage and children until they pass the age limit
for qualifying. Unemployment social security compensation benefits apply to citizens
who lose income as a result of involuntary termination of employment. Beneficiaries in
this program are given lump-sum grants or severance packages depending on the industry
54
from where they are discharged. Funds for this purpose are obtained from an
unemployment insurance fund to which employers and employees contribute equal
amounts and, in some cases, with government also putting in some subsidy. An employee
who is involuntarily rendered unemployed and who satisfies the minimum period of
contributions to the fund receives payment under this program and is entitled to a regular
unemployment benefit.
Family allowances programs are intended to supplement the incomes of parents of
young children to lessen the heavier burden of caring for the children. Cash payments are
regularly made to parents of young children to supplement costs of school, health care,
birth or maternal grants to ensure that at least they live above the poverty line. Coverage
is undertaken in form of universal (citizens with a specified number of children),
employment-related (wage and salary workers with children when they retire or
temporarily lose their jobs or their widows) and social assistance (for households with
resources that are below the poverty line) types. Universal and social assistance programs
are financed from public revenue or some kind of earmarked taxes or transfers from other
programs while the employer is required to cover the employment related program.
Government may meet the shortfall where the employer contribution fails to fully finance
the employment related family allowances. Family size and its income are important
determinants for eligibility to receive family allowances.
Social Security System in Zimbabwe.
The vulnerability which Zimbabweans experienced between the year 2000 and
2009 helped in keeping the debate on how the state should intervene and alleviate the
55
suffering of citizens alive. The factors found to be relevant in analyzing the Zimbabwe
pension reform include the influence of neoliberal ideas, relationship between
international demonstration effects and domestic policy choices and the role of
international organizations in cross regional diffusion of ideal models of social security.
The social security system in Zimbabwe is administered under the National Social
Security Authority (NSSA), a body corporate established by the National Social Security
Authority Act (Chapter 17:04) of 1989. Its mandate is to manage social security schemes
established by the Minister of Public Service, Labor and Social Welfare, in Zimbabwe for
the purpose of providing benefits to or in respect of all employees or such classes of
citizens of Zimbabwe as may be specified by notice from time to time. The NSSA is
administered by a management board comprising nine members equally representing
employers, employees and government. The Employers’ Confederation of Zimbabwe,
and local trade unions second three members each and the other three are appointed by
government to sit on the NSSA board. The General Manager of NSSA is an ex officio
member of the NSSA board of Directors.
According to the National Social Security Authority Act (Chapter 17:04) of 1989,
the Minister established two social security schemes consisting of the Accident
Prevention and Workers’ Compensation Scheme which was established by the National
Social Security Authority (Accident Prevention and Workers’ Compensation Scheme)
Notice, 1990 and the Pension and Other Benefits Scheme or the National Pension
Scheme, established by the National Social Security Authority (Pension and Other
Benefits Scheme) Notice 1993. The NSSA collects contributions on an equal basis from
56
employers and employees and pays benefits/compensation to the workforce covered
under these schemes and their dependents. The Pension and Other Benefits Scheme or
National Pension Scheme, which provides coverage for old age, invalidity and survivors
pensions and grants was found to be relevant to this study.
NSSA uses a partial or scaled premium funding system in financing the National
Pension Scheme. A scaled premium system is a system in which the contribution rate is
established so that, over a determined period of equilibrium, contributions and investment
income will be sufficient to meet benefits administrative expenses normally with a
constraint that the reserve does not decrease. The adoption of the scaled premium has
enabled NSSA to place reserve funds accumulated over the past years into short, medium
and long-term investments.
The Pension and Other Benefits or national Pension Scheme is a compulsory
pension scheme created to protect employees and their families regardless of whether
members belong to any other private schemes or not. The effective date of operation of
the scheme was October 1994 when the government launched the National Pension
Scheme and the Workers’ Compensation Insurance Fund. Because the two schemes cover
individuals in formal employment only, they are referred to as occupational schemes and
they provide some form of security on retirement, during invalidity or death of a
breadwinner with membership in the scheme. Financial contributions to the scheme at the
time of the study were on an equal basis between employers and employees and each
party was paying currently pays 4.5% of a maximum basic salary of up to Z$5000. Every
working Zimbabwean aged 16 years and above and below the age of 65 years is required
57
to contribute to this scheme. Members who contribute for a minimum period of 10 years
and reach the age of 60 years meet the minimum set qualifications for benefits and are
entitled to the benefits of the National Pension Scheme.
The Scheme currently covers all employees in formal employment including the
civil service but excludes domestic workers in private households. The establishing
statutory instrument provides for the registration of employers and employees, collection
of contributions and payment of benefits. Over the years NSSA has witnessed an upward
trend in the growth of contributions and it has been established that this growth is a result
of the number of contributors and the ceiling placed on the insurable earnings. However,
compliance challenges have tended to increase administrative costs. The Pension and
Other Benefits Scheme provides for payment of retirement pension and grant, invalidity
pension and grant, survivors’ pension and grant and funeral grant. It has been difficult for
NSSA to protect the purchasing power of pensions under its scheme because of high
inflation rate in the country. Because NSSA has to receive government authority to
review contribution rates and benefits in conjunction with inflation, benefits trends have
been distorted. The Accident Prevention and Workers’ Compensation Scheme pays
compensation for all work-related injuries or death to employees in private sector and
parastatals but excludes civil servants and domestic workers. It should be mentioned that
Zimbabwe does not operate a National Health Insurance Scheme, maternity Protection
Scheme, Sickness Benefit Scheme and an Unemployment Benefit Scheme.
58
Summary and Conclusion
Related literature on social security has been explored. It has emerged that social
security is a human right and the obligation and responsibility for its provision rests with
the government. It also emerged that any debate on the social security system should be
opened up first and foremost with a view to the normative and rights-based perspective,
building on the notion that all citizens globally have a right to social security, anchored
on commitments such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the
Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Rights of
the Child (CRC).
The literature analyzed did not indicate the extent of the involvement of citizens
in the determination or formulation of social security schemes to ensure that the schemes
accommodated the aspirations and conditions of living of the individuals concerned.
Since the duty of providing social security is intended to secure the welfare of the citizens
by the government, it was found important that the perceptions of the citizens be explored
to ascertain what they perceived to be the most appropriate social security system and
how such a system could be sustained through a policy framework formulated with inputs
from citizens. A qualitative research study, as explained in the next chapter, was
conducted to elicit information on the perceptions of recipients of social security and
former government employees.
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Chapter 3: Research Method
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to explore perceptions of recipients of social
security and former government employees regarding the existing social security system
in Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform. The chapter begins by linking the
purpose, research design, and rationale and research questions of the study. The role of
the researcher, relationship with study participants, management of research biases, and
ethical issues are explained or defined. The methodology adopted for use in this study
was outlined in depth covering such issues as identification, suitability criteria, and
selection of the population and justification for the sample size. Data collection
instruments as well as data analysis plan, data coding procedures, and treatment of
discrepant cases were explained. Issues of trustworthiness involving credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability of findings and ethical issues were
highlighted. Chapter 3 concludes with a summary of the main points of the chapter and a
transition to Chapter 4.
Research Design and Rationale
The choice of research method was guided by the overarching question: What are
perceptions regarding the current social security system in Zimbabwe and potential need
for policy reform according to current recipients and government employees? Today,
social security is regarded as a necessary concept for upholding human dignity and
promoting social justice, which has been placed at the center of social policy debates that
emphasize its impact on living standards of citizens. It is linked to protections the state
60
provides for its citizens through a series of public measures against economic and social
distress.
The qualitative exploratory case study design was chosen to answer the research
question because it makes it possible to extract feelings, thoughts, and intentions of
recipients of social security and former government employees and explore how these
perceptions could be applied to improve the social security system in Zimbabwe. A
qualitative research design with a case study orientation was appropriate because it
includes verbal perspectives of participants regarding social life rather than numbers as
data for analysis. By its nature, the qualitative research tradition is informative and
facilitates the collection of large amounts of various data sets (Key, 1997; Leedy, 1997;
Mason & Bramble, 1989) to capture views and analyze interpretations and perceptions of
participants regarding lived experiences. This approach enabled me to access new
information as social security recipients and former government employees were
interviewed at their homes and other places of their choice via telephone.
By focusing directly on experiences and perceptions of recipients of social
security, a case study lens was used to solicit statements from citizens involving the
impact of current social security on society and policy improvements in the country. Oral
statements given by participants provided data that enabled me to relate findings to the
phenomenon.
The qualitative case study design enabled me to use interviews to collect direct
quotations from recipients of social security and former government employees regarding
their experiences, opinions, feelings, and knowledge as well as how they lived those
61
experiences and policy solutions to improve the sustainability of the social security
system in Zimbabwe. Verbal statements collected directly from study participants
constituted data about the phenomenon of social security in Zimbabwe and was
interpreted to generate required empirical evidence.
Role of the Researcher
I was the sole researcher in this study conducting interviews and manually and
electronically recording verbal accounts provided by participants in this study. For the
purpose of engaging human subjects and ensuring maintenance of their privacy, I was
guided by the Belmont Report. To ensure compliance with these regulations, I obtained
permission to protect the rights of the participants from the Institutional Review Board
(IRB #12-30-20-026348) of Walden University.
I did not include my workplace as a possible site for the study. I ensured that all
participants with any personal relation were excluded from taking part in this study. I
interacted with and conducted interviews ranging from 30 to 45 minutes with individual
participants via telephone from their places of residence or other places they chose using
interview questions (see Appendix B), recording interview proceedings both manually
and through electronic recording means.
I assured participants that there was no risk of injury expected through
participation in the study, participation was free, and involvement in this study would
give them opportunities to contribute to the debate on social security improvement in
Zimbabwe. Participants were further assured that their identities would not be published,
and all data obtained from them in this study were treated as strictly and not shared or
62
published without their prior review and permission. Participants were informed that
participation was strictly based on their consent, and refusal to participate would have no
implications in terms of entitlements or relationships.
I developed a program of research activities based on the research design to guide
the process of collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data. A qualitative
research approach with a case study focus was applied to gather evidence through
explanatory accounts of lived experiences of social security recipients and former
government employees to ensure that descriptions of experiences of research subjects
were not biased in terms of my experiences, beliefs, and preferences.
The study was conducted according to the research plan and procedures for
undertaking a detailed data collection and analysis program. I used evidence to identify
solutions to perceptions regarding social security as well as insights into feasible policy
solutions to improve the sustainability of the social security system in Zimbabwe and
determine the applicability of such solutions to other situations in society.
Participant Selection Logic
A nonrandom purposive sampling approach was used to obtain the sample of
participants for this study. The approach, which is common in qualitative research, was
used to select a simple sample of 20 recipients of social security and former government
employees who had experiences both as recipients of social security and full-time
government employees. The sample of participants was chosen to ensure the most
relevant and plentiful data to address views of social security recipients and government
workers was collected. Social security in Zimbabwe was largely availed to former
63
government workers. I was interested in the experiences of government employees who
represent the biggest workforce in the country and received a standard package of social
security. All 20 participants were interviewed and data were gathered from them used in
this study. Further, a maximum variation sampling design was initially adopted to draw a
sample of social security recipients and former government employees representing age
categories of 60-65 years, 66-70 years, and 71 years and above, and a minimum of 5
participants was selected from each age category.
These criteria were used primarily to examine any common patterns relating to
socioeconomic needs and social security service support emerging from their diverse
backgrounds. This study was not intended to make specific predictions and therefore no
attempt was made to draw a statistically representative sample of the study population
applying a random sampling approach. The maximum variation or heterogeneity
sampling which is a strategy for purposeful sampling, was initially adopted to draw
samples representing the identified categories of participants with the aim of capturing
and describing common salient themes and emerging patterns (Patton, 2007) within the
sample participants.
The perceptions of the few identified individuals were used to construct the
sample of themes that applied across the social security recipients and former government
employees in Zimbabwe. The common patterns that emerged provided the core
experiences and central and shared dimensions of the views of the participants. The main
strength of the maximum variation sampling design was the distinct opportunity it offered
the researcher to identify and explain emerging patterns and core themes in a small
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sample characterized by considerable heterogeneity (Kuzel, 1992; Miles & Huberman,
1994; Patton, 2007). This sample, which was expected to produce detailed descriptions of
patterns in each category and emergence of important shared patterns, was adjudged to be
fairly representative of the population and was selected systematically utilizing the
chance of the operation of nonprobability.
For the need to maintain maximum variability, pragmatic considerations and
practical aspects were assigned the same importance in selecting the sample size since the
whole exercise was undertaken by the researcher alone. The researcher used social
networking posts to request individual recipients of social security and former
government employees to offer their voluntary consent to be interviewed and share their
addresses and contact details with the researcher. The researcher developed the
interviewing program indicating times for individual interviews. Data was then collected
from members of the sample through telephone interviews.
The primary purpose of interviewing these participants was initially to obtain in-
depth information about each particular sub-category considering that three different sub-
categories were involved in this study. The clustering of participants into homogeneous
sub-categories made it easier to administer open-ended interviews with individual
respondents in each sub-category to capture data relating to how they individually
perceived social security in Zimbabwe and obtain their proposals for potential policy
reform to ensure the sustainability of social security system in Zimbabwe. Sampling for
sub-categories typically involved bringing together social security recipients of various
age groups as people of similar backgrounds and experiences to participate in individual
65
interviews about the social security that was extended to them (Patton, 2007). This
approach enabled the researcher to gain an empathic understanding of societal
phenomena and recognition of both the historical dimension of human behavior and the
subjective aspects of the human experience (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008) as
participants shared their perceptions with the researcher.
Data Collection Instruments
McNabb (2008) said participation in the group setting or activity, personal and
group interviewing, observation, and document and cultural artifact analysis are the
major methods of qualitative data collection. This means that instrumentation in
qualitative research is made up of the researcher, documentation, and files. The
researcher was the main instrument in this study and interviewed individual participants
and both manually and electronically recorded the interview proceedings.
Primary data was collected using interviews. Individual participants were
allocated unique identification codes for use on the interview protocol form and the audio
file to ensure confidentiality of their identities and verification of the manually recorded
notes after the interviews. The interviewing process involved telephone interpersonal
interactions with the researcher asking respondents questions designed to elicit answers
pertinent to the interview questions (See Appendix A). The interview questions were
developed to specifically capture the experiences of social security recipients and former
government employees. Since government employees were the majority of social security
recipients, they provided the best opportunity for identifying suitable interview
66
participants who could respond to interview questions which were intended to solicit the
exact perspectives and experiences on the study phenomenon.
Prior to administering the interview questions to the participants, expert validation
was sought to obtain expert feedback and guidance on the initial interview questions.
Initial interview questions were shared with qualitative research subject-matter experts in
accordance with the Walden University faculty expert directory through e-mail. The
expert validation report was used to ensure the alignment of the chosen research method
with both the problem statement and the research questions.
During the interviews, perspectives and experiences of social security recipients
and former government employees were captured verbatim as provided without personal
bias or influence of the researcher. Respondents were allowed freedom to bring up issues
of their choice while the researcher probed for more detailed information. Leading
questions and personal views or thoughts of the researcher were avoided while some of
the information privy to the researcher but unsubstantiated was verified.
The number and wording of interview questions was made identical for all
the respondents and the researcher stuck to the wording of the questions and a
predetermined interviewing sequence with all interviewees so that any variations among
responses could be attributed to the actual differences among the respondents and not to
variations in the interview (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008). The focused or non-
schedule-structured interviews, which could lead to different responses that would make
it impossible to synchronize the results of the interview, and the nondirective interview,
which does not allow the use of a schedule to ask a pre-specified set of questions,
67
(Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008) were avoided. An interviewing approach that
allowed respondents to freely relate their experiences with some guidance from the
researcher were used because in a qualitative study, guided interviews yield the best
results.
The major advantage of interviewing as a method of data collection is that it
allows for flexibility in the process of questioning and the interviewer determines the
place where the interviews can be held, the order in which questions will be answered
and who answers the questions (Patton, 2007). The opportunity to control the interview
process while acting as a data collection instrument enabled the researcher to reach many
interview respondents and to record verbal accounts for meaningful interpretations. This
approach facilitated the gathering of comprehensive information including supplementary
information such as backgrounds and the views of the respondents on all issues relevant
to the study.
The researcher had to contend with the demerits of interviewing. Among the
demerits of interviews is that they can be expensive to implement, especially when
respondents are widely dispersed geographically (Frankfort- Nachmias & Nachmias,
2008). Besides, the researcher had to guard against personal bias and an intimidating
character when interviewing respondents and had to ensure that the interviewing
techniques applied did not lead to different respondents providing different responses.
In order to maximize the advantages of the interviewing method and to minimize
on its disadvantages, in-depth interviews were used as a method of eliciting information
from respondents (Arnold, 1982) in this study. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were
68
utilized to collect data by telephone from recipients of social security and former
government employees aged 60 years and above to obtain information on their
perceptions on social security. Semi structured in-depth interviews were chosen for two
specific reasons. First, they are more appropriate for a detailed study of perceptions,
attitudes and motivations than the highly structured interview (Boyce & Neale, 2006).
Second, they are also relevant to situations where management of time becomes a crucial
issue in soliciting the co-operation of the respondents. As elderly people were
interviewed, management of time was crucial considering their failing health that might
not allow them the opportunity for repeat or prolonged interviews (Bernard, 1994).
A total of 20 in-depth interviews lasting between 30 and 45 minutes each were
conducted with recipients of social security and former government employees who were
dependent on social security only as means of livelihood. Twenty recipients of social
security and former government employees were selected and categorized as those aged
60-65; 66-70 and 71 years and above and placed in groups of a minimum of 5
participants with similar socio-economic status from each age category.
As the various attitudes and personal responses of respondents towards the whole
process of interviewing determined the findings in this study, the findings cannot be
completely free of methodological bias inherent in the interviewing technique of data
collection. The researcher took notes and audio taped the interviews during the fieldwork,
and transcribed the in-depth interviews from individual recipients of social security and
former government employees after the fieldwork. Collected data was contextualized for
69
presentation and analysis by sorting out and categorizing all responses and comments
gathered through verbatim quotations and statements.
Data Analysis and Interpretation Plan
Data were analyzed using Yin’s five-phased cycle of compiling, disassembling,
reassembling (and arraying), interpreting, and concluding. Only the data collected from
participants using in-depth semi-structured individual interviews and document analysis
were analyzed. All field notes gathered from fieldwork and document analysis were
compiled and sorted in an orderly manner and stored in a database. The compiled data in
the database were broken down into fragments of smaller elements and assigned codes or
new labels. A trial-and-error process to test the assigned codes was undertaken by
repeating the procedure of breaking down the compiled data into smaller fragments many
times. Substantive themes or clusters of codes were used to reorganize the data
previously broken down into smaller fragments into groupings or sequences that were
different from the original notes. “The arrangement and re-combinations may be
facilitated by depicting the data graphically or by arraying them in lists and other tabular
forms,” (Yin, 2011, p. 178) and this procedure was repeated several times in different
ways. The compiled themes of reassembled material were used to give a new narrative of
the initial draft manuscript. The database was recompiled in a different way and the data
disassembled and reassembled differently to achieve the final data interpretation. The
data analysis process was concluded when the conclusions drawn from the complete
study became similar and related to the interpretations in the interpretations stage and all
the other phases of the data analysis cycle.
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This process provided the researcher with a systematic methodology for analyzing
the data obtained from interviewing and document analysis. NVivo was applied to
organize all unstructured data to classify, sort, arrange and examine relationships in the
data through data coding.
Issues of Trustworthiness
Data obtained in each case of the social security recipients and former
government employees were initially treated as a special and unique study conducted
under conditions of truthfulness and respect to the respondents from whom individual
details were independently captured and recorded. The researcher contacted the recipients
of social security and former government employees in the Kadoma Urban suburbs of
Rimuka, Waverley, Westview and Mshumavale by telephone and personally collected
details and specifics of social security experiences to identify important patterns, themes,
and interrelationships by exploring and later confirming such data through analytical
principles as opposed to rules. Social and historical contexts were used to place the data
in context and analysis for extrapolating patterns of the data for transferability,
generalization and adaptation elsewhere (Patton, 2007).
As no statistical data was collected to establish validity and reliability of the
findings in this study, trustworthiness was established by applying methodological
strategies (Noble & Helen, 2015) such as prolonged engagement (Korstjens & Moser,
2018). The researcher used interviews to adequately engage the respondents in
interactions where everybody was encouraged to participate and illustrate and
demonstrate their experiences in social security using actual verbal accounts. This
71
provided the researcher with rich and comprehensive data on the accounts of individual
respondents for analysis in a manner that prevented the inclusion of researcher’s personal
bias. All data were recorded directly from the respondents as they answered both original
and follow up interview questions followed by consistent and transparent interpretation
of the various accounts. This process provided the scope of the phenomenon of social
security system and operationalized credibility, transferability, dependability, and
confirmability of the validity of this research.
Credibility
Korstjens and Moser (2018) observed that credibility of research findings is the
confidence placed in their truth and it establishes the relationship of the research findings
to the plausible information collected from participants’ original data and the correctness
of the interpretation of the original views provided by participants. The researcher
engaged in prolonged engagement and interaction with participants to ensure that
saturation or enough information to answer the research questions was collected from
them. During this process document analysis was undertaken to identify elements that
best addressed the study problem. Member checks were done in person with participants
who were allowed to review the draft findings to verify adherence to the data originally
obtained from them.
Transferability
Transferability refers to “the degree to which the results of qualitative research
can be transferred to other contexts or settings with other respondents” (Korstjens &
Moser, 2018, p. 3). The researcher provided rich and thick descriptions of the behaviors
72
and experiences of participants in the context of this study focus in order to provide
outsiders with enough information to be able to apply the descriptions elsewhere.
Dependability
Dependability relates to how an outsider can clearly repeat the study undertaken.
This requires that the research findings must be stable over time, a goal that can be
achieved by allowing participants to evaluate the research findings, their interpretations
and recommendations to ensure that they are based on the data collected from the
participants (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The researcher clearly described and maintained
relevant records of all the steps and procedures applied in the research process from the
beginning to the end.
Confirmability
Findings of the research must be able to be confirmed by other researchers by
establishing that the data and interpretations of the findings are not fiction or
imaginations of the researcher (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). The researcher avoided his
view points or preferred interpretations which were excluded from the interpretation of
the data. A relevant reflexivity notes journal containing personal “conceptual lens,
explicit and implicit assumptions, preconceptions and values, and how these affected the
research decisions in all phases of qualitative studies” (Korstjens & Moser, 2018, p. 3)
was kept as a strategy for confirmability.
Ethical Considerations
Appropriate ethical considerations must be applied in the qualitative research to
protect the human subjects (Arifin, 2018). Because of the in-depth nature of qualitative
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studies, informed consent must be placed at the center of the research process with
participants made aware of the kind of information they should provide, the use of such
information by me and the likely consequences of their participation (Denzin & Lincoln,
2011). Ethical principles were observed in compliance with ethical standards on research
work involving human subjects to protect the dignity and privacy of every participant
from whom data was collected during the interviewing process. engaged participants
individually to ensure that all participants had capacity to consent.
I clearly explained the objective of the study and expected benefits giving
participants the opportunity to seek clarification on every aspect of the engagement. The
participants were accorded very high esteem and latitude to express themselves in order
to obtain their voluntary acceptance to participate. I assured the participants that their
anonymity and confidentiality of the information they provided would be respected.
Participants were informed that the results of the interviews would not be shared with
anyone without their permission and that such results would first be shown to them
before publication. They were also assured that their names or any other form of their
identities that might link them to the study would not be disclosed in the publication of
the results and individual interviewees’ privacy would be respected.
I assured participants that there was no risk of injury expected through
participation in the study, that participation was free and that involvement in this study
would give them a good opportunity to contribute to the debate on social security
improvement in Zimbabwe. Participants were requested to volunteer their participation
and informed that refusal to participate had no implication on any other entitlements of
74
the participant or their relationship with me. Each participant was requested to complete a
consent form voluntarily accepting to participate in the research.
I obtained clearance from the Walden University Institutional Review Board to
undertake the study. I also completed the Collaborative Institutional Training Initiative
(CITI Program) Course in order to enhance his capacity to treat and protect the study
participants. I incorporated various issues learnt from this course in the consent form to
inform the participants about the researcher’s expectations and the extent and conditions
of their involvement. To ensure the security of information from participants, I stored all
data collected from them in a personal computer and flash drive that are secured with
passwords and exercises sole personal access to all physical equipment containing the
relevant recorded data.
Summary
Chapter 3 included the research design and rationale, role of the researcher,
methodology and issues of trustworthiness and ethical considerations. The research
design and rationale defined the central phenomenon of the study as well as identifying
the research tradition. Under my role an explanation was given on the role in
interviewing and document analysis. Ways to avoid and address my biases and other
ethical issues were highlighted. Discussion on methodology issues included identification
of the population, identification and justification of the sample size, criterion for its
selection, how members in the sample would be contacted and recruited. Data collection
instruments as well as data analysis plans were also identified. Issues of trustworthiness
such as credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability and ethical
75
procedures were explained in this chapter. Chapter 4 includes data collection and analysis
procedures and plan for reporting findings.
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Chapter 4: Results
Introduction
This qualitative case study, approved by the Walden UIRB (#12-30-20-026348),
was conducted to explore the perceptions of social security recipients and government
employees regarding the social security system in Zimbabwe and potential need for
policy reform. A qualitative case study design was applied as an appropriate approach for
exploring divergent views and lived experiences of various social security recipients and
former government employees. The approach was also found to be appropriate for
collecting data, analyzing information, and presenting results in a holistic manner. This
study was undertaken to answer the question: What are perceptions regarding the current
social security system in Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform according to
current recipients and government employees?
The chapter begins with a brief review of the purpose and research question. It
further includes details regarding the implementation of the research setting,
demographics, data collection, data analysis, evidence of trustworthiness, and results of
the study. This includes procedures used when collecting data from 20 participants which
were analyzed using coding and themes to identify findings from audio recordings and
transcriptions.
Research Setting
Participants were recruited while at their homes using telephone and email. I
recommended participants chose a private and comfortable place in their homes from
where interviews could be conducted by telephone and assured them that I would equally
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ensure privacy was maintained on my end. The recruitment process of participants did
not reveal any conditions that could have influence on their perceptions or experiences
with social security, and no participants mentioned the existence of such conditions.
The consent form which included interview questions was administered and
disseminated via email to 20 individual participants to allow them to indicate their
acceptance to participate. An email message was sent out explaining the essence of the
study as a precursor to the interview questions. Twenty participants required for this
study agreed to participate after contacting 30 potential participants. Three participants
did not respond while seven gave varying reasons for declining to participate. Five of
them indicated that they were busy without elaborating. The other, a former member of
parliament who represented the opposition, refused to participate, citing political
affiliation. Another indicated that he was attending to his sick elderly mother and could
not accept an interview. I then sent emails to other potential participants who had not
been previously contacted while simultaneously sending interview protocols to
participants who had accepted. I eventually obtained 20 participants and arranged
individual interviews lasting 30 to 45 minutes with each participant.
No participant requested copies of their final transcripts, while 13 participants
requested copies of the final dissertation. I analyzed quotes involving actual experiences
and views of recipients of social security who were formerly employed by the
government who experienced the impact of social security in Zimbabwe. Perceptions and
experiences demonstrated a deep understanding of the social security system in the
country.
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Demographics
A sample of 20 former government employees who had at least 7 years of
experience with knowledge of the social security system in Zimbabwe were intentionally
selected using the purposive sampling approach. Former occupation, geographical
location, age, and socioeconomic status were demographics required for this study. To be
eligible, all participants were required to be former government workers, residents in
Kadoma, Urban, over 60 years old, and receiving social security. Gender was observed
via demographic data (see Table 1). A sample of 20 participants was used to obtain data
saturation and appropriately address the overarching research question.
Table 1
Participant Demographics
____________________________________________________________________
Participant Code Gender Previous Job Age Location Status
____________________________________________________________________
MU-01 Female School Head 68 Mshumavale Pensioner
MU-02 Male Schools Inspector 68 Westview Pensioner
ZI-03 Male School Teacher 70 Westview Pensioner
MA-04 Female School Head 68 Mshumavale Pensioner
MA-05 Female School Head 70 Mornington Pensioner
MA-06 Male Police Officer 68 Waverley Pensioner
CH-07 Female School Teacher 69 Waverley Pensioner
RU-08 Male Nurse 67 Mornington Pensioner
HE-09 Male Nurse 70 Rimuka Pensioner
GA-10 Female Clerical Officer 69 Rimuka Pensioner
HO-11 Male School Head 79 Westview Pensioner
WA-12 Female Births Registrar 74 Mornington Pensioner
MO-13 Female Office Orderly 69 Rimuka Pensioner
PA-14 Female School Teacher 72 Waverley Pensioner
SH-15 Male Personnel Officer 71 Mshumavale Pensioner
HA-16 Female Mid-wife 69 Rimuka Pensioner
TA-17 Male Lands Officer 72 Mshumavale Pensioner
BA-18 Female School Teacher 70 Westview Pensioner
NG-19 Female Nurse 75 Waverley Pensioner
VE-20 Male Education Officer 73 Mornington Pensioner
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Data Collection
Interviews accompanied by a researcher journal were used to collect data in this
qualitative study. I noted all personal biases including opinions, observations, and
thoughts on the study in the researcher journal to ensure bias was avoided throughout the
entire process of data collection. By maintaining a researcher journal, I was able to
address linguistic meanings of text obtained from each participant. I conducted interviews
by telephone and each participant was interviewed once for a period that lasted between
30 and 45 minutes. The interview protocol form was used to ensure there was consistency
in the manner in which I interviewed all participants. Responses made by participants
were audio taped, and transcripts of individual interviews were shared with participants
the day following each interview throughout the period of data collection to allow them
to review and provide feedback to ensure strength, validity, and reliability of the study.
Audio tapes and transcripts of interviews were later used for analysis.
Other than the failure to make notes on observations during the interviews, which
could not happen as per plan because the interviews were instead conducted by
telephone, there was no variation from the data collection plan indicated in Chapter 3 and
the data collection process did not present any unusual circumstances.
Data Analysis
Individual participants responded to all 20 interview questions and information
obtained from participants was analyzed to derive meaning from what participants stated
in interviews. Data were obtained from individual interviews and document reviews.
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There was no analysis of notes on observations because interviews were conducted via
telephone. In order to remain focused and analyze data that addressed the scope of the
research question only, I reviewed the original problem statement of the study and
revisited the literature review section of the study.
As indicated in Chapter 3, I used Yin’s five step of data analysis, which entails
compiling, disassembling, reassembling (and arraying), interpreting, and concluding
(Yin, 2011). These five phases are a nonlinear cycle used to compile databases,
disassemble reassemble, and interpret data (Yin, 2011). Data from interviews, journals,
and analysis of company and government reports were analyzed.
Data were compiled by creating a database in an organized way in readiness for
analysis (Yin, 2011). NVivo was used to store the information obtained, data
management and for coding concepts and ideas obtained from sources of data to identify
themes in the data. The disassembling step involved coding and sorting the data in
several ways to generate new insights (Yin, 2011). The compiled data were broken down
into fragments and labels which were categorized according to components of the
research question for coding.
The data were analyzed to search for patterns using NVivo to generate tables.
Data were reassembled or clustered and categorized into themes by categorizing,
tabulating, and recombining it to identify patterns that answered the research question
(Yin, 2011). In interpreting the recurring concepts and ideas used to generate themes, a
methodical triangulation of sources of evidence to provide meaning to the data and
answer the research question (Yin, 2011), was undertaken. Themes that were clustered
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and categorized into a group of sequences were used to create narratives using emergent
themes of participant’s views on social security for the conclusions.
Evidence of Trustworthiness
No statistical data were collected to establish validity and reliability of the
findings in this study and trustworthiness was established by applying methodological
strategies (Noble & Smith, 2015). To ensure that the data obtained and the meaning
generated through this study were valid and reliable, the trustworthiness of the research
design applied was established using the evaluative criteria comprising credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
Credibility
Credibility of research findings is the confidence placed in their truth and it
establishes the relationship of the research findings to the plausible information collected
from participants’ original data and the correctness of the interpretation of the original
views provided by participants (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). To ensure credibility of this
study, I obtained the Walden University Institutional Review Board approval of the study
before commencing the data collection process.
I used both saturation and member checking to ensure credibility of this study. In
accordance with Guest, Bruce and Johnson (2006), a minimum of 6 but not exceeding 12
interviews were conducted and the saturation criteria was accordingly met. Member
checking was conducted by sending e-mails of draft summaries of the data analysis to
individual participants. Although physical interviews were not undertaken owing to
prevailing challenges presented by Covid 19, individual participants were interviewed by
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telephone for periods ranging between 30 and 45 minutes and they were asked the same
questions in exactly the same way. The 20 individually recorded verbatim interviews
were transcribed and each participant was sent a draft summary of the data analysis to
review and report on any missing data or to add any new information they deemed
important. No participant submitted any report.
Transferability
Transferability is “the degree to which the results of qualitative research can be
transferred to other contexts or settings with other respondents” (Korstjens & Moser,
2018, p. 3). Maximum variation sampling was applied when recruiting participants
particularly with regards to geographical location, gender, age and status. Out of the 20
participants, 11 were women, aged between 67 and 79 years, 9 were men and all were
pensioners. They were all from Kadoma town. I ensured that the processes undertaken to
identify participants, a detailed account of the natural setting from where data were
collected and comprehensive process of data analysis were provided. Future researchers
can therefore have the opportunity to extrapolate the findings to evaluate their
applicability to similar settings and larger populations (Marshall et al, 2013).
Dependability
Dependability relates to how another researcher can repeat this study dependably.
The research findings must be stable over time, a goal that can be achieved by allowing
participants to evaluate the research findings, their interpretations and recommendations
to ensure that they are based on the data collected from the participants (Korstjens &
Moser, 2018). Through journaling, I managed to note the processes for all the steps I
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followed in recruiting participants, conducting interviews and analyzing the interview
data. The member checking process ensured dependability of this qualitative study. The
research design includes a clear research strategy whose operationalization provides
dependability for the study. All the processes mentioned in this study were adhered to in
order to arrive at the findings of this study and if the study were to be repeated by another
researcher using the same participants, in similar context and using the same methods, the
same result would be obtained.
Confirmability
Findings of the research must be able to be confirmed by other researchers by
establishing that the data and interpretations of the findings are not fiction or
imaginations of the researcher (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). All my personal views,
thoughts and beliefs were recorded in a researcher journal prior, during and after every
process involving recruitment of participants and interviewing to ensure that all themes
and the final results of the study were actually obtained from the verbatim accounts of
participants. A relevant reflexivity notes journal containing personal conceptual lens,
explicit and implicit assumptions, preconceptions and values, and how these affect the
research decisions in all phases of this qualitative study (Korstjens & Moser, 2018) was
kept as a strategy for confirmability. Through such a process, I ensured that my view
points or preferred interpretations were excluded from the interpretation of the data.
Results
This case study was undertaken to explore the perceptions of the recipients of
social security and government employees on the social security system in Zimbabwe and
84
the potential need for policy reform. The analysis of the results for this study was guided
by the research question: What are perceptions regarding the current social security
system in Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform by current recipients and
government employees? In order to adequately address the research question, it was
broken into six components and each component was aligned to relevant interview
questions and codes were generated as shown in Table 2. Themes that emerged from the
coded data, Table C, when analyzed, indicated that participants generally had negative
perceptions of the social security system in Zimbabwe and were of the view that the
social security policy needed to be reformed.
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Table 2
Alignment of Research Question with Interview Questions for Coding
_______________________________________________________________________
Components of the Interview questions Codes
research question
____________________________________________________________________________________
Available social security what social security components Awareness of the
benefits do you receive in Zimbabwe? existing social
security benefits
How would you describe your and their
post-employment life without importance as
social security? post-employment means
of livelihood.
Experiences with livelihood What is it that has changed in your Highlighting life
through social security daily life as a result of the receipt experiences as
of social security? social security
recipients
Impact of social security What changes have you experienced Identifying the impact
in your standard of living which of social security on
you ascribe to social security? standard of living.
How do you describe the change?
What brought about the change?
What made this change
possible?
How would you describe who you
are now compared to who you
were before receiving social
security?
Coping strategies to How do you perceive potential Justifying the
address perceived reforms in the social security reformation of social
social security system in Zimbabwe? Security and proposing
inadequacies appropriate actions.
Availability of records What do you perceive to be a Maintenance and
on social security feasible set of actions that must dissemination of
be undertaken to improve social information on social
security record keeping in Zimbabwe? security.
Need for policy reform How do you describe the existing Development of all
social security system in terms of stakeholder inclusive
ensuring the involvement of policies.
beneficiaries during its formulation
and accessing social security by all
citizens in Zimbabwe?
What is your perception on the
current policy on social security?
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Themes
Participants were asked 10 study questions. I used NVivo to format the data into
specific codes, categories and themes that emerged from the data analysis. Six themes
that emerged and the codes clustered to form each theme are as shown in Table 3:
Table 3
Emerging Themes from the Research Question
________________________________________________________________________
Codes Themes Participants Theme%
Awareness of the existing social Knowledge of a change of 20 100
security benefits and their income from salary to social
importance as post-employment security.
means of livelihood.
Highlighting life experiences Sustainability of 20 100
as social security recipients of social security as a livelihood
Identifying the impact of social Notable changes in the standard 20 100
security on the standard of living. Of living.
Justifying the reformation of Coverage and adequacy 18 90
social security systems and of social security.
proposing appropriate actions.
Maintenance and dissemination Management of
of information on social security. Social security records. 17 85
Development of all stakeholder Institutional framework and
inclusive policies policy that governs social 18 90
security.
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Emerging Themes
Theme 1: Knowledge of a Change in Income Source from Salary to Social Security
The first emergent theme resulted from an analysis of the data collected through
the semi-structured interview questions and document review. Twenty participants,
representing 100% of the study population, indicated that they were receiving social
security through the National Pension Scheme and that it included old age, invalidity and
survivors’ pensions and grants only. Participants MU-01, MU-02, ZI-03, MA-04, MA-05,
MA-06, CH-07, RU-08, HE-09, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16,
TA-17, BA-18, NG-19 and VE-20 mentioned that their social security was in the form of
a national pension scheme. Participants MU-03, MA-06, RU-08, HO-11, WA-12, HA-16
and NG-19 further noted that health, sickness and unemployment benefits were not
included in their social security package. An analysis of the National Social Security
Authority Act, Chapter 17:04 of 1989, confirmed the responses by recipients of social
security and further revealed that in addition to the National Pension Scheme,
Zimbabwean workers were also entitled to benefits under the Accident Prevention and
Workers’ Compensation Scheme.
Theme 2: Sustainability of Social Security as a Livelihood
The second emergent theme resulted from an analysis of data collected through
semi-structured interview questions and document review. Twenty participants
representing 100% of the study population indicated that social security they were
receiving was unsustainable. Participants MU-01, MU-02, ZI-03, MA-04, MA-05, MA-
06, CH-07, RU-08, HE-09, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-
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17, BA-18, NG-19 and VE-20 mentioned that the income from social security was very
low and they could no longer afford their daily basic needs such as accommodation, food,
medical care and travel costs for their families. Participants MU-01, ZI-03, CH-07, RU-
08, HE-09, HO-11, MO-13, PA-14, TA-17, BA-18, NG-19 and VE-20 mentioned that
they were receiving less income than what they were being paid as a salary before
retirement and resorting to social security as a source of income. They further indicated
that they had become poverty-stricken and were dependent on relatives for sustenance.
Theme 3: Notable Changes in the Standard of Living
The third emergent theme resulted from an analysis of data collected through
semi-structured interview questions. Twenty participants, representing 100% of the study
population, mentioned that receipt of social security had not positively changed their
standard of living. Participants MU-01, MU-02, ZI-03, MA-04, MA-05, MA-06, CH-07,
RU-08, HE-09, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18,
NG-19 and VE-20 mentioned that receipt of social security had not made any changes in
their standard of living and that they were no changes in their lives they could ascribe to
social security. Participants MU-02, ZI-03, MA-04, MA-05, HE-09, GA-10, HO-11,
WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18, and NG-19 indicated that social
security had brought negative change in their lives and that they had experienced a drop
in lifestyle; their standard of living had gone down; their status had drastically
deteriorated compared to what it was before they became social security recipients and
that they had lost respect, recognition and were undermined in public places.
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Theme 4: Coverage and Adequacy of Social Security
The fourth emergent theme arose from an analysis of the data collected through
semi-structured interview questions. Eighteen participants representing 90% of the study
population, indicated that social security schemes should be in the form of insurance
policies and must cover all vulnerable citizens not former employees only. Participants
MU-01, ZI-03, MA-04, MA-05, MA-06, CH-07, RU-08, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12, MO-
13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18, NG-19 and VE-20 mentioned that
government must introduce non-contributory social security schemes in the form of
insurance policies, provide funding and extend coverage to all vulnerable citizens who
are not currently covered by the existing schemes. MU-01, ZI-03, MA-05, MA-06, CH-
07, RU-08, HO-11, WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18, and VE-20
further mentioned that social security benefits must be adjusted in line with what is
happening in the national economy as opposed to being reviewed well after the cost of
living in the country has gone up. Participants MA-06, CH-07, RU-08, HO-11, WA-12,
MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18, and VE-20 averred that social security
budgetary allocation must be used for the intended purposes only.
Theme 5: Management of Social Security Records
The fifth emergent theme resulted from an analysis of the data collected through
semi-structured interview questions and document analysis. Seventeen participants,
representing 85% of the study population, mentioned that their social security records
were not in order when they approached the National Social Security Authority Office to
register as new recipients of social security. Participants MU-01, MA-05, MA-06, CH-07,
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RU-08, HE-09, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18,
NG-19 and VE-20 indicated that despite having been contributors towards social security
throughout their working lives, the National Social Security Authority did not have
individual records of their social security contributions. Participants MA-05, MA-06,
CH-07, GA-10, WA-12, MO-13, SH-15, HA-16, and TA-17 suggested that they lost trust
and confidence in the fund administrators when they were made to travel several times to
and from the National Social Security Authority office and their former employer to fix
their social security records despite having contributed on a monthly basis during the
entire period of their employment. Participants RU-08, HE-09, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12,
MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18, NG-19 and VE-20 indicated that their
files could not be located and therefore needed to be compiled leading to undue delays
before they started to receive social security benefits after retirement. Participants HE-09,
WA-12, MO-13, SH-15, HA-16, and BA-18, mentioned that Government did not provide
funds for social security, allowed social security benefits to be eroded through corruption
and politicking and only gave leftovers to retirees.
Theme 6: Institutional Framework and Policy that Govern Social Security
The sixth emergent theme arose from an analysis of the data collected through
semi-structured interview questions and document analysis. Eighteen participants
representing 90% of the study population, mentioned that recipients of social security
must be included and their views captured and articulated, in all social security policy
formulation platforms. Participants MU-01, ZI-03, MA-05, MA-06, CH-07, RU-08, HE-
09, GA-10, HO-11, WA-12, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, HA-16, TA-17, BA-18, NG-19 and
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VE-20 mentioned that retirees must be represented in social security policy formulation
processes and in parliament. They further observed that the existing social security
policies were formulated by people who were not yet recipients of social security and, as
a result, did not capture and address the needs of social security recipients. Participants
MA-05, CH-07, GA-10, WA-12, PA-14, HA-16 and BA-18 mentioned that there should
be strict observance of International Labor Organization (ILO) Standards and
Conventions related to social security and that government must strictly monitor the level
of social security benefits and ensure that they remained above the poverty datum line.
Participants MU-01, MA-05, MA-06, RU-08, HE-09, HO-11, PA-14, SH-15, TA-17,
BA-18, NG-19 and VE-20 responded that social security policy must secure the value of
social security benefits and revealed that a comprehensive policy structure was important
to ensure a post-employment life that is manageable and decent. Participants MU-01, ZI-
03, CH-07, RU-08, GA-10, HO-11, MO-13, PA-14, SH-15, TA-17, BA-18, NG-19 and
VE-20 mentioned that social security policy must recognize social security as a human
right and should cover everybody who is older than the retirement age to alleviate
suffering due to old age, health problems and provide support for life. Participants CH-
07, GA-10, HO-11, PA-14, SH-15, TA-17 and BA-18 indicated that under the existing
policy framework their post-employment life was unmanageable, undesirable, very poor,
very sad and miserable and they called on government to do something about their
situation to prevent destitution.
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Summary
This chapter covered the research setting, demographics, data collection, and data
analysis. I presented demographics of 20 participants in the City of Kadoma who were
former government workers and have been recipients of social security in Zimbabwe for
periods ranging from 7 to 19 years. I used the research question to identify the
understanding of the perceptions regarding the current social security system in
Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform by current recipients. I discussed
trustworthiness and how it applies to the study. I generated codes and related themes in
alignment with interview questions as a process of arriving at the study results which are
indicated by paraphrased quotes from participants and my report on the issues obtained
from related documents. In Chapter 5, I reflect on, discuss, and interpret the findings and
highlight the limitations of the study and provide conclusions and recommendations
based on the findings.
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Chapter 5: Discussions, Conclusions and Recommendations
Introduction
The purpose of this case study was to explore views, experiences, and perceptions
of recipients of social security regarding the current social security system and the nature
of the control exercised by beneficiaries of funds as well as liability of those who hold the
funds in trusts for beneficiaries in Zimbabwe. A qualitative research methodology was
appropriate for this study as it enabled me to explore issues that I did not know about or
intended to explore. After obtaining the approval of the Walden University IRB, I
recruited and interviewed 20 participants in accordance with procedures outlined in
Chapter 3. All participants were asked the same interview questions, and their responses
were used for the development of emerging themes that addressed the research question.
In Chapter 5, I situate and evaluate my research results in the larger body of
research literature by addressing interpretations of the findings, limitations,
recommendations and implications of the study, and a conclusion.
Interpretation of the Findings
This study addressed the research question: What are perceptions regarding the
current social security system in Zimbabwe and potential need for policy reform
according to current recipients and government employees? I interviewed 20 participants
and manually coded data from transcribed interviews of study participants and document
analysis. I used NVivo to format data into specific codes which were clustered to form
themes to address the research question. Six themes that emerged from the codes were:
knowledge of a change in income from salary to social security, sustainability of social
94
security as a livelihood, notable changes in the standard of living, coverage and adequacy
of social security, management of social security records, and institutional framework
and policy that govern social security.
The literature review indicated social security measures should extend to cover
whole societies because the entire population, as a right, expects government or
employers to provide for them and their families for life. The literature highlighted the
need to involve beneficiaries in social security policy development, emphasizing the need
for government to include trade unions in creating adequate and workable social security
programs and policies that should be responsive to economic changes and implemented
with utmost care.
Knowledge of a Change in Income from Salary to Social Security
Theme 1 emerged through semi-structured interview questions and document
analysis. I found that participants were able to adequately identify the components of a
full package of social security, how the system works and how to advocate for
compliance by fund administrators.
The ILO reiterated the need for social security to meet minimum standards in
medical care as well as benefits for sickness, unemployment, old age, employment injury,
family, maternity, invalidity, and survivor’s benefits. Notwithstanding any other means of
livelihood, individual citizens should be insured against interruptions caused by loss of
income due to old age, disability, death or sickness, maternity, work injury,
unemployment, or through services, primarily hospitalization, medical care, and
rehabilitation. Recipients must identify hazards that usually result in loss of income such
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as old age, work injury, sickness, death, disability, unemployment, maternity, or
healthcare and reveal methods of coverages through income maintenance and in-kind
measures.
Sustainability of Social Security as a Livelihood
Theme 2 emerged from semi-structured interview questions and document
analysis. Responses by interviewees indicate that their understanding of sustainability of
social security as a livelihood related to how minimum social security measures can be
put in place to guarantee access to adequate levels of social security benefits to protect
living standards of recipients.
Naik (2016) said the scope and application of a system of social security should
regularly be analyzed to guard citizens against suffering in silence from any forms of
social hazards. The Centre on Budget and Policy Priorities (2018) said social security was
life assurance, injury insurance, and a retirement scheme, and anticipated benefits from it
had to be revised regularly and hedged against inflation to ensure they would be able to
sustain intended beneficiaries at the appropriate time. Social security schemes must take
the form of annuity plans that fully cover recipients and their qualifying dependents until
death, and should be secured against the vagaries of inflation (Aaron, 2018). This implies
that researchers and policymakers should concentrate on identifying and using additional
funding streams to augment social security benefits.
Bertranou (2016) said it was necessary to also review level of care and adequacy
of such benefits to that resources guaranteed sufficiency and economic security in old
age. This is important because, as some participants mentioned, the gap between income
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and wealth among citizens has been steadily growing, and this has had a negative impact
on retirement benefits. Consequently, middle income employees cannot achieve adequate
retirement provisions (Arne, 2017).
Governments must therefore be interested in regulating the social security system
to prevent citizens from scaling down their consumption habits, disposing of their means
of subsistence, terminating schooling of their children, and suffering or eventually dying
from treatable diseases (Dorfman & Palacios, 2012). Accordingly, a social security
system that does not provide curative and preventive measures to maintain income of
recipients lacks acceptability by beneficiaries.
Notable Changes in the Standard of Living
Theme 3 emerged from semi-structured interview questions. I found that the
transition from salaried employees to social security recipients negatively impacted the
socio-economic status of social security recipients who were government employees.
Munnell and Eschtruth (2018) said social security sources which provide income for
social security recipients later ceased exposing individual former employees and their
dependents to incidents of extreme poverty and vulnerability, inflation, and potential
widowhood. Declines in the standard of living could be linked to unpreparedness on the
part of government in terms of demographic changes involving ageing.
According to the ISSA (2018), 10% of the population in Sub-Saharan Africa and
70% in the continent are from middle income countries. Perennial economic crises and
recurring natural disasters have made virtually all citizens vulnerable to and in need of
social security (Koehler, 2011). The provision of social security to shield citizens against
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hazards of life should therefore be organized, and social security programs based on
voluntary contributions have proven to be inadequate (Naik, 2016).
Payroll taxes increases, retirement age and the introduction of private pension
schemes must be monitored because they contribute to deficits and shortfalls in social
security funding (Ahmed et al., 2016). There is need to develop appropriate governance
mechanisms to preserve prefunded social security while reconciling interests of the social
security industry and provision of social security income to the workers irrespective of
the need to provide parameters for economic growth (Hassel et al., 2017). It is
noteworthy that workers and their families use the futuristic nature of the use of pension
and usually plan their life after work on the basis of social security benefits and in most
cases without anticipating drastic changes in their standard of living.
Coverage and Adequacy of Social Security
Theme 4 emerged from analysis of data collected through semi-structured
interview questions. I found that coverage and adequacy of social security entailed the
number of social groups and individuals from the national population covered by the
social security scheme, philosophy and quality of the program design and how it
encompasses mechanisms and structures to sustain citizens.
The rights-based perspective, which builds on the notion that all citizens globally
have a right to social security as stipulated in international instruments such as the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), the Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) should guide all
commitments to provide social security (Biggs, 2013). The government would be
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required to take a keen interest in providing the means of livelihood for its vulnerable
citizens. It should enter the social security market primarily to expand it by creating
sufficient fiscal space and correcting its shortcomings (Dancer et al., 2016). Through
conceptualization of social security and the creation of policies that uphold human
dignity and social justice, government can promote decent living standards for its
citizens.
Government policy should protect citizens’ contributions and ensure that the
social security scheme is run as an annuity fully protected from market changes and
economic risks such as inflation (CQ Researcher, 2016). Such protection must be
guaranteed in practice and in law taking concrete steps towards redistribution of wealth
and creating mechanisms and structures that reduce poverty and deprivation in society
(Kanyenze et al., 2016). Government should deploy resources and expertise to its chosen
system to realize meaningful levels of societal development.
ISSA (2017) identified income maintenance programs and direct services such as
cash benefits as measures that could be created to replace lost income and benefits in
kind with coverage taking the form of universal systems. This brings into the picture
elements of the social protection scheme, which is another form of social support
government is providing to the community. However, as the World Bank (2012) noted,
social security response to new demographic challenges such as aging and family
structure changes has been deficient in terms of the level and scope of coverage. The
social security system may need to be molded in the form of minimum standards as
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stipulated by ILO Convention 102 of 1952, classified and provided as social assistance
and social insurance schemes of social security.
Management of Social Security Records
Theme 5 emerged from analysis of data collected through semi-structured
interview questions and document analysis. I found that social security management
required independence and transparency in management processes, quality coordination
of the institutions involved and the ability of fund managers to make decisions that deter
abuse of and secure and enhance social security funds.
ILO (2012) found that beneficiaries or their representatives had expressed
dissatisfaction on how social security was administered and advocated for the
streamlining of the roles of government, social partners and involvement of the private
sector. Munnel and Eschtruth (2018), while investigating how social security benefits
values could be preserved, found that there was need for the creation and implementation
of a policy decision that ensured that social security benefits were indexed against
inflation and increases in the cost of living. This means that the policy to safeguard and
preserve social security benefits should ensure that additional funds continue to be
generated by proposing various investment and financing options including but not
limited to, the creation of a social security insurance fund (Bertranou, 2016).
As the fiscal space in Zimbabwe continues to dwindle, social security must be
upheld as the real panacea to economic plight of all citizens and therefore should be run
as an inclusive program funded with contributions from all citizens irrespective of the
source of their income (Holmes & Scott, 2016). To afford all citizens the best prevailing
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living standards, government should use its political muscle to dictate market activities in
order to achieve the minimum social security for those of small means (Underson, 2012).
It can do that by introducing a social insurance scheme wholly paid for by employers or
collectively by both employers and employees in order to secure the future of retirees and
their dependents (Dush et al., 2017; Holmes & Scott, 2016).
Institutional Framework and Policy that Govern Social Security
Theme 6 emerged from analysis of data collected through semi-structured
interview questions and document analysis. I found that institutional framework and
policy that govern social security involved the development of an inclusive supervisory
framework established by statute and benchmarked on universal best practices with the
capacity to control social security fund institutions and clearly stating that its purpose is
to insure members and their dependents against loss of income as a right. This finding
supports Alves da Silva (2017) who asserts that government needs statute to guarantee
citizens’ social security as a right and it should legislate against its own powers to
interfere with such entitlements of the citizenry.
In support of this view, Aravacik (2018) indicated that government should
develop and use legislation to guarantee social security as a right to all citizens and by
extension develop social policy that “addresses social needs, social problems, equal rights
and social justice, efficiency, equity and choice, reciprocity and obligation, difference
and exclusion” (p. 6). The issue of entitlement to social security should be bestowed on
an individual by his or her citizenship of Zimbabwe. Social security systems should be
established by statute which must specifically state its purpose as the need to insure
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members and their dependents against interruptions or loss of income (ISSA, 2017).
Pursuant to this, social security funds administrators should develop clear
investment regulations and policies with mechanisms to evaluate the performance of the
investment (Holder, 2018). The development of policies for the management of social
security should not be a government alone process (Pradeep & Kalicharan, 2016).
Government brings together stakeholders to debate and collectively shape retirement
security taking into account prevailing demographic, economic, and workforce trends
(Schreur & Veghte, 2017). The result can be an effective and holistic social security
policy from which comprehensive and broader social assistance schemes and institutional
mechanisms for implementation of social security policies can be developed (Nishino &
Koehler, 2011).
Limitations of the Study
This case study was limited to former government employees who resided in the
City of Kadoma area in Zimbabwe. They were experienced and knowledgeable recipients
of social security for periods ranging from 7 to 19 years at the date of their participation
in this study. The data used in this study relates to the attitudes and beliefs of former
government employees only and reflects their perceptions and not the experiences and
views of the entire population of social security recipients.
The study used purposive sampling approach to select participants formerly from
various government ministries and departments and I solely collected all the data for this
study. The study may inherently contain elements of subjectivity arising from the use of
the purposive sampling approach and the researcher as the sole research instrument.
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Social security recipients in Zimbabwe are not limited to retired government
employees only who constitute a part of the larger population of the entire retired
workforce from quasi-government to private sector organizations in the country. As a
result, the research results may not generally represent perceptions of the broader
population of social security recipients (Patton, 2007).
I maintained high standards of academic integrity and adhered to set procedures
for data collection and the interviewing protocol. This entailed member checking to
establish reliability and validity of the study and to verify the exact words and terms used
by participants within a limited period. The restricted time frame for proper reflection
might have led to lack of responses from participants (Morse, 2015).
Recommendations
Recommendation for Research
This case study was undertaken to explore the perceptions of experienced and
knowledgeable former government employees on the current social security system in
Zimbabwe and how such perceptions could be used to enhance social security policy. The
results of this study revealed that a change from a salary to social security negatively
impacted the lives of former employees; Social security was much lower than a salary
and could not adequately cover the intended recipients and their dependents, a feature
which was compounded by the absence of structures and mechanisms for sustaining
citizens; Decisions by fund managers needed to be independent, transparent and targeted
at enhancing the lives of social security recipients; and that social security policy must be
aligned to international best practices, formulated with participation from social security
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recipients and solely provided for the right to insurance against loss of income for
members and their dependents.
Future research could expand this study to embrace perceptions of social security
recipients from other sectors of the economy to determine whether there is convergence
of perceptions and experiences of social security recipients in those sectors with
government employees. Future studies can also be undertaken to determine shortcomings
of the current social security policy by benchmarking it against international instruments
and standards on social security.
Recommendation for Practice
To ensure adequate implementation of the findings of this study, national law has
to emphasize the need to ratify, domesticate and implement all international covenants,
conventions, standards and protocols relating to social security. This ensures that
government embraces policy choices and policy decision-making processes that can re-
engineer and focus social security policy on fostering an efficient system that sets
adequate levels of benefits and deliver adequate coverage.
In themes 4, 5 and 6 of Chapter 4, participants indicated that government has to
provide non-contributory schemes, ensure coverage of all vulnerable citizens, index
social security benefits against inflation, provide funding and benchmark social security
policies on international best practices. Fortunately for Zimbabwe, there is an
International Labor Organization (ILO) Office responsible for Zimbabwe and Namibia,
headquartered in Zimbabwe, which the government can engage for assistance in
developing a world class social security policy framework.
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Government has to introspect on its mindset and develop mechanisms that
demonstrate positive social change as a responsibility for the welfare of its citizens. The
current paradigm where social security recipients retire into abject poverty and survive on
benefits that are below the poverty datum line need to be changed. Participants raised this
issue in themes 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Chapter 4. They mentioned that a change from salaries to
social security as means of livelihood had negatively impacted their lives as they were
receiving benefits that were much lower than their last salaries to the extent that they had
become dependents of some relatives.
Government could create positive social change by demonstrating social
solidarity by bringing all societal groups (men, women, the employed and unemployed,
the rich and the poor, employers’ organizations, civil society, etc.) together using strong
and well-functioning social dialogue to achieve social cohesion. In this role government
has to provide a framework for good governance which involves a rights base to social
security and a clear law on the benefits available to the recipients and ratio of
administrative costs to scheme funds.
Recommendation for Theory
Further study could be done on the psychosocial theory of retirement, particularly
its socio-emotional selectivity approach which assumes that a peaceful retirement period
is determined by the level of social interaction. The basis for psychosocial theories is that
the society in which the retiree lives fundamentally influences the establishment of
retirement as an institution including defining the status, role and role expectation of
retirees (Oluwatula & Faloore, 2011). I found that the means of livelihood for retirees had
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drastically gone down, and they had become dependent on relatives (Theme 2) and had
lost respect in public places (Theme 3). The mention of these issues indicates that they
contributed to the low standard of living experienced by participants. Further research
could be undertaken to discern if status, roles and role expectations of retirees really had
some impact on the changed status of retirees. An understanding of the factors that affect
the status, roles and role expectations of retirees in society would make it necessary to
revisit the theory.
Implications
Implication for Practice
The creation and application of a set of policies may ensure realistic provision of
social security and contribute to the achievement of human development goals in the
country. Reformation of social security systems should entail the engagement of
international and national experts in order to benefit from international best practices and
promote social dialogue across all stakeholders to obtain their support in implementing
social security activities (Asian Development Bank, 2010). A reflection on the study
shows that implementation of a new paradigm in social security can lead to universality
and sustainability of mechanisms for delivering social security, and financial
sustainability encompassing improved national financing, better collection of
contributions and actuarial evaluations (ILO, 2011).
The major issue which has emerged is that government needs to provide clear
policy guidelines and institute corporate governance framework reforms in the insurance
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and pensions industry which are effective and enforceable to strengthen the regulatory
and legislative framework (Commission of Inquiry, 2017).
Implications for Social Change
Citizens have to be shielded from economic shocks and crises by providing them
with access to social security as a right. According to the ILO (1989);
Social security pertains to the protection which society provides for its members,
through a series of public measures against the economic and social distress that
otherwise would be caused by the stoppage or substantial reduction in earnings resulting
from sickness, maternity, employment injury, unemployment, invalidity, old age and
death; the provisions of medical care and the provisions of subsidies for families with
children.
The study has provided knowledge on the composition of the social security
income, sustainability of social security as a livelihood, notable changes in the standard
of living occasioned by social security, coverage and adequacy of social security,
management of social security, and the institutional framework and policy that govern
social security, all of which can prepare citizens to adapt to a life outside formal
employment. The new knowledge can be applied to foster social solidarity within
communities which can result in the achievement of social cohesion to ensure that
nobody is alienated from society in which they live but rather fully partake in the
financial requirements such as sickness, invalidity, unemployment, old age, poverty and
financial redistribution within society.
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The adoption of social solidarity and the eventual attainment of social coherence
among societal groups of men and women, and the rich and the poor, can lead to social
balance and increase the scope and coverage of the social security program. Further,
creation and application of an enabling law, can ensure availability of a universal and
sustainable minimum income security package for each citizen within the community.
Implication for Theory
According to Aravacik (2018), the welfare state is:
a contemporary state understanding that undertakes the duty to ensure a fair
income distribution, protect the groups and classes in need of protection, direct
the social security practices and employment policies, practice the politics to meet
the basic requirements of society such as education, health, and housing and take
measures for regulating the working life. (p. 6)
The findings of this study are in tandem with the theoretical framework and
would help government and social security administrators in resolving the animosity
between social security providers and recipients. The findings have provided to the body
of knowledge and professional practice the component of consultation and social
dialogue and the need to embrace the views and perceptions of the intended beneficiaries
in reaching consensus and recognition of an acceptable social security package that can
improve the living standards of people in Zimbabwe.
This information would be useful to future scholars of social security who would
care to explore the designing and delivery of effective social security programs. Social
security administrators would benefit from these findings by reviewing and reforming
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existing social security programs and undertaking their impact assessment to ensure
sustainability of the programs. Government would benefit from the findings of this study
by utilizing social security instruments to formulate relevant legislation that ensures the
involvement of social security recipients in policy-making, program designing,
implementation, monitoring and impact evaluation to achieve equitable and inclusive
societal development.
Conclusion
This case study was undertaken to explore perceptions of recipients of social
security and government employees on the current social security system and the
potential need for policy reform in Zimbabwe. The topic of the study was: Paradigm in
Social Security Measures: Impetus for Policy Reform in Zimbabwe. Key findings of this
study were knowledge of a change in income from salary to social security, sustainability
of social security as a livelihood, notable changes in the standard of living, coverage and
adequacy of social security, management of social security records, and institutional
framework and policy that govern social security.
The results of this study would enhance policy development by allowing the
beneficiaries to participate in policy-making and hence improve relations between social
security administrators and recipients which could result in the sustainability of social
security as a means of livelihood. A sustainable social security system has the potential to
positively impact the lives of social security recipients by protecting their social well-
being and living standards within the communities in Zimbabwe. A summary of the
research results was shared with the study participants.
