A Theory of Justice Chapter 8 - 9
Chapter 8, Section 69
A well-ordered society is one in which the citizens accept the concept of justice known publicly. Different societies have their concepts of justice, the most reasonable one needs to be adopted. A well-ordered society prioritizes the good of its members. Justice is powerful when it prevails against injustice. This stabilizes the equilibrium making the institutions just.
Chapter 8, Section 70
The morality of authority is the first sequence of moral development. Rawls says that people like us, being reasonable and rational, consider ourselves free and must willingly accept the principle of justice that regulates society and our conduct. The sense of justice is acquired by children as they grow up. Children are firstly self-motivated and develop a love for their parents keeping aside their self-worth. Children rebel against parental rules but they eventually align with them because of the bond they share. Such possessions are absent where there is no affection and love. The principles of justice can determine the scope of moral authority.
Chapter 8, Section 71
The Morality of Association is the second stage of moral development. It arises from membership in groups. People learn the social rules and roles, selected by approvals and disapprovals by the other members and group authorities. In a family, each member has different sets of rights and duties. As a child grows older, he is taught standard conduct. Being a good son or daughter is conveyed by parental expectations. With time, a person gets the gist of the association by which the whole system works.
Chapter 8, Section 72
The morality of principles is the third stage of moral development. In this stage, acting just is important and the just institutions become the moralities of authority and association. Moral sentiments are independent of contingencies.
Justice works well when it reforms unjust institutions into just ones and gives additional benefits to the already just institutions. Here, morality is accepted and moral attitudes are shaped by right principles rather than a particular individual or association.
Chapter 8, Section 73
This section throws light on the nature of the three psychological laws. The term 'sentiment' has two forms- moral and natural. Moral sentiments represent permanently ordered families while natural sentiments represent lasting attachments to certain individuals or institutions.
Attitudes are moral or natural dispositions. We feel 'moral feelings' and 'moral emotions' on particular occasions that invoke a moral concept and the principles associated with it. One moral feeling may trigger several other moral feelings. Feelings of anxiety and fear are not considered to be moral.
Chapter 8, Section 74
Natural and moral attitudes are overlapping sentiments. A natural attitude is absent when a person lacks moral feelings. Friendship has mutual trust and the unfulfillment of obligations associated with it gives rise to guilt. The acceptance of guilt is sufficient for a moral feeling. Both attitudes are a part of humanity and are by the principles of justice.
Chapter 8, Section 75
The three principles of moral psychology are:
1) Family institutions are just. Parents love their children and care for their good. In return, children love their parents.
2) Social arrangement is also just. Then the child develops relations with other people he meets in the due course of life and lives up to the ideals of their standards.
3) A person forms an attachment by referring to the first two laws. The society is publicly just and then this person acquires a just sense as he and the people he cares for benefit from these arrangements.
Chapter 8, Section 76
Rawls calls reasonable pluralism a constraint. Stability demands equilibrium and here it means cooperation. When the three psychological laws reciprocate, a just society emerges. The stability of such a society increases with time. The most stable concept is the one that can be understood clearly, align with our good, and affirms the self.
Chapter 8, section 77
Equality is satisfied when people are treated justifiably. Equality applies to 1) the institutions as a public system 2) the substantive structure and 3) moral people who deserve to be treated right.
Equal rights must be assigned to all people. A moral person cannot be deprived of justice. Children and people who are mentally ill are taught by other people the right sense of justice.
CHAPTER 9
Chapter 9, Section 78
A well-ordered society makes sure that people have autonomy and that they are objective in their judgments. The judgments have to be revised when moral sentiments are in doubt. Morality acts according to fair principles and this helps people behave autonomously.
People cannot develop moral convictions according to their own choice. Conscious developments may violate moral principles. Integrity is prioritized when an ancient faith is in doubt. Virtue must maintain its conformity with autonomy and objectivity.
Chapter 9, Section 79
If something is right and good depends on whether the community is benefitted or not. The social nature of man is in contrast with the concept of private society. Humans take interest in common activities. However, a private society limits these interactions and sets boundaries.
What interests to cultivate depends solely on the person as it also helps them appreciate others in the future. A social sphere is created in which people interact and share their assets.
Chapter 9, Section 80
A rational person is not envious when injustice isn't the element that has come between himself and the other. Envy is a disadvantageous abnormal feeling. It can be excusable envy if it is a result of harmed self-respect. Excusable envy is accepted only till it complies with the principles of justice. Envy and resentment must not be confused as the latter is a moral feeling.
Chapter 9, Section 81
The primary cause of envy is confidence and impotence. People who are confident face pain, and humiliation and consider themselves disadvantaged w.r.t their position in society. Such situations do not arise in a well-ordered society as equal liberty and self-respect are given to everyone. Equality eliminates envy.
Chapter 9, section 82
The original position maintains equality among people. They follow a hierarchy of interests which forms a group or a union of people to achieve what they desire. Self-respect confirms the distribution of rights and liberties. The protection of equal liberties is of prime importance.
Chapter 9, Section 83
People are happy when their rationally constructed plans bear fruits. Happiness depends upon the situation and luck. Happiness is the fulfillment of the whole design. Pursuing happiness means pursuing one's welfare. It is self-contained and self-sufficient.
Chapter 9, Section 84
Hedonism means the pursuit of pleasure. Here, hedonism is applied to show that a rational choice is always possible to opt for. Pleasantness is the only thing good in itself. A hedonist knows how a rational being paves his path to meet his desired objectives. Human life is guided by reason with a dominant end to it to balance pleasure over pain.
Chapter 9, Section 85
Our choices cannot be made just by referring to one aim. Appropriate aims must be classified to choose a just method of deciding an aim. Rational methods help in dealing with the same. Parties fashion their unity by establishing just conditions. Once an institution is set up justly, the citizens can pursue their ends provided they are bound to that institution.
Chapter 9, Section 86
Justice and goodness are linked with different principles. Sense of justice acts adhering to the principles of justice. As a result, a rational and well-ordered society is formed. Desires lead human actions and they change with time. A person wants to act freely in a just society even if it ends with them suffering. A good person forms a good society.
Chapter 9, Section 87
Philosophers justify ethical theories by finding self-evident principles to reach our considered judgments. Moral concepts must be distinguished from non-moral concepts. A unified whole is formed from the three parts of justice and fairness. The theoretical structure, institutions of justice, and the feasibility of both create a well-defined concept of justice. The concept of eternity is a certain way of thought that only rational beings can acquire. Purity of heart would be acting with grace and seeing clearly through situations.
