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Chapter 11

Planning Reports and Proposals

Learning Objectives

Adapt the three-step writing process to reports and proposals

Describe an effective process for conducting business research, explain how to evaluate the credibility of an information source, and identify the five ways to use research results

Explain the role of secondary research, and describe the two major categories of online research tools

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

Adapt the three-step writing process to reports and proposals
Describe an effective process for conducting business research, explain how to evaluate the credibility of an information source, and identify the five ways to use research results
Explain the role of secondary research, and describe the two major categories of online research tools

Learning Objectives

Explain the role of primary research, and identify the two most common forms of primary research for business communication purposes

Explain how to plan informational reports and website content

Identify the three most common ways to organize analytical reports

Explain how to plan proposals

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you will be able to do the following:

4. Explain the role of primary research, and identify the two most common forms of primary research for business communication purposes

5. Explain how to plan informational reports and website content

6. Identify the three most common ways to organize analytical reports

7. Explain how to plan proposals

Applying the Three-Step Writing Process to Reports and Proposals

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Whether you’re sharing your latest great idea with your boss or launching an entirely new company, reports will play a vital role in your business career

Types of Reports

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Informational

Reports

Proposals

Analytical

Reports

Content and Layout

Length and Complexity

Frequency

Audience

Reports fall into three basic categories. Informational reports offer data, facts, feedback, and other types of information, without analysis or recommendations. Analytical reports offer both information and analysis, and they can also include recommendations. Proposals offer structured persuasion for internal or external audiences.

The nature of these reports can vary widely, from routine one-page trip reports to detailed business plans and proposals that can run hundreds of pages. Moreover, in some cases you will follow strict guidelines, while in others the organization and format are up to you.

Applying the Three-Step Process to Reports and Proposals

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The three-step writing process is especially valuable for lengthy documents. By guiding your work at each step, the process ensures a methodical, efficient approach to planning, writing, and completing reports and proposals.

Planning business messages. To plan any message, first analyze the situation by defining your purpose and developing a profile of your audience. With that in mind, you can gather information that will meet your audience’s needs. Next, select the right medium (oral, written, or electronic) to deliver your message. With those three factors in place, you are ready to organize the information by defining your main idea, limiting your scope, selecting an approach, and outlining your content. This chapter addresses the planning step.

Writing business messages. Once you have planned your message, adapt to your audience with sensitivity, relationship skills, and style. Then, you are ready to compose your message by choosing strong words, creating effective sentences, and developing coherent paragraphs. Chapter 12 covers the writing step.

Completing business messages. After writing your first draft, revise your message to make sure it is clear, concise, and correct. Next, produce your message, giving it an attractive, professional appearance. Proofread the final product for typos, spelling errors, and other mechanical problems. Finally, distribute your message using the best combination of personal and technological tools. Chapter 13 describes the tasks involved in completing reports and proposals.

Analyzing the Situation

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Define Your Purpose

Prepare the

Work Plan

The complexity of many reports and the amount of work involved put a premium on analyzing the situation carefully before you begin to write. To plan effectively, address the problem or opportunity with a clear statement of purpose that defines why you are preparing the report and what you plan to deliver in the report.

The most useful way to phrase your purpose statement is to begin with an infinitive phrase, such as to inform, to confirm, to analyze, to persuade, or to recommend. This technique helps you pin down your general goal in preparing the report. The purpose statement for an analytical report often needs to be more comprehensive than one for an informational report. Proposals must also be guided by a clear statement of purpose to help you focus on crafting a persuasive message.

In addition, you should prepare a work plan for most reports and proposals. For simple reports, the work plan can be an informal list of tasks and a simple schedule. However, if you are preparing a lengthy report, especially when collaborating with others, a detailed work plan containing the following elements will be required: statement of the problem, purpose and scope of the work, sources and methods of data collection, preliminary outline, and task assignments and schedules.

Gathering Information

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Purpose

Audience

Obtaining the information needed for many reports and proposals requires careful planning, and you may even need to do a separate research project just to acquire the data and information you need. To stay on schedule and on budget, be sure to review both your statement of purpose and your audience’s needs so that you collect all the information you need—and only the information you need. In some cases, you won’t be able to collect every piece of information you’d like, so prioritize your needs up front and focus on the most important questions.

Selecting the Right Medium

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In addition to the general media selection criteria discussed in Chapter 4, consider several points for reports and proposals.

For many reports and proposals, audiences have specific media requirements (or preferences), and you might not have a choice. You must also consider how your audience wants to provide feedback on your report or proposal. Do they prefer to write comments on a printed document or to use commenting and markup features in software? Will multiple people need to update the document over time? Your choice of media comes down to a balance of what is best for you and your audience.

Whatever you decide, bear in mind that your choice of media also sends a message. Let the subject of the message be your guide. For example, a routine operating report dressed up in expensive multimedia will look like a waste of valuable company resources.

Organizing Your Information

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Conclusions and

Recommendations

Overall Findings

Objective Support

Overall Findings

Discussion and Support

Conclusions and

Recommendations

Direct Approach

Indirect Approach

When an audience is considered either receptive or open-minded, use the direct approach. Lead off with a summary of your key findings, conclusions, recommendations, or proposal, as the case may be. This “up-front” arrangement is by far the most popular and convenient for business reports. It saves time and makes the rest of the report easier to follow. For those who have questions or want more information, later parts of the report provide complete findings and supporting details. The direct approach also produces a more forceful report. You sound sure of yourself when you state your conclusions confidently at the outset.

The indirect approach gives you a chance to prove your points and gradually overcome your audience’s reservations. By deferring the conclusions and recommendations to the end of your report, you imply that you have weighed the evidence objectively without prejudging the facts. You also imply that you are subordinating your judgment to that of the audience, whose members are capable of drawing their own conclusions when they have all the facts.

Because both direct and indirect approaches have merit, businesspeople often combine them.

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Applying the Three-Step Writing Process to Reports and Proposals:

Types of Reports
Applying the Three-Step Writing Process to Reports and Proposals
Analyzing the Situation
Gathering Information
Selecting the Right Medium
Organizing Your Information

This concludes our discussion of in Applying the Three-Step Writing Process to Reports and Proposals. The next section will cover Supporting Your Messages with Reliable Information.

Supporting Your Messages with Reliable Information

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Audiences expect you to support your message with solid research. As you’ve probably discovered while doing school projects, effective research involves a lot more than simply typing a few terms into a search engine.

Supporting Your Messages

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Plan your research
Locate data and information
Process data and information
Apply your findings
Manage information efficiently

Save time and get better results supporting your message by using a clear process:

Plan your research. Planning is the most important step of any research project; a solid plan yields better results in less time.

Locate the data and information you need. The research plan tells you what to look for, so your next step is to figure out where this data and information can be found and how to access it.

Process the data and information you located. The data and information you locate probably will not be in a form you can use immediately and will require some processing. This processing might involve anything from statistical analysis to resolving the differences between two or more expert opinions.

Apply your findings. You can apply your research findings in three ways: summarizing information for someone else’s benefit, drawing conclusions based on what you have learned, or developing recommendations.

Manage information efficiently. Many companies today are trying to maximize the return on the time and money they invest in business research by collecting and sharing research results in a variety of computer-based, knowledge management systems.

Planning Your Research

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Researching without a plan wastes time and usually produces unsatisfactory results. The good news is you can minimize problems with a few well-considered planning steps. Familiarize yourself with the subject so that you can frame insightful questions. As you explore the general subject area, try to identify basic terminology, significant trends, important conflicts, influential people, and potential sources of information. Next, develop a problem statement that will define the purpose of your research; that is, the decision you need to make or the conclusion you need to reach at the end of the process.

Locating Data and Information

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Secondary Research

Primary Research

The range of sources available to business researchers today is remarkable and almost overwhelming at times. If you have a question about an industry, a company, a market, a new technology, or a financial topic, chances are somebody else has already researched the topic. Someone in your own company, in fact, might have already looked into the problem. Research materials previously created for another purpose are considered secondary research. Secondary sources include magazines, newspapers, public websites, books, and other reports. Start with secondary research because it can save considerable time and money for many projects. In contrast, primary research is new research done specifically for your current project. Primary sources include surveys, interviews, observations, and experiments.

Evaluating Your Sources

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No matter where you are searching, it is your responsibility to separate quality information from unreliable junk. Ask yourself the following questions about information and materials gathered during your research:

Does the source have a reputation for honesty and reliability? Naturally, you will feel more comfortable using information from an established source that has a reputation for accuracy.

Is the source potentially biased? The individual or organization providing the information might have a particular bias or point of view regarding the information and its context.

What is the purpose of the material? Be sure to distinguish among advertising, advocating, and informing.

Is the author credible? Find out whether the person or the publisher is well known in the field, or merely someone with an opinion.

Evaluating Your Sources

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Where did the source get its information? Many sources of secondary information get their material from other secondary sources, removing you even further from the original data.

Can you verify the material independently? Verification can uncover biases or mistakes. If you cannot verify critical information, let your audience know.

Is the material current? Make sure that you are using the most current information available.

Is the material complete? Have you accessed the entire document or only a selection from it? If it is a selection, which parts were excluded?

Since you probably will not have enough time to conduct a thorough background check on all your sources, focus your efforts on the material that is most important or questionable.

Using Your Research Results: Textual Information

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Analyzing Data
Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Summarizing Information
Drawing Conclusions
Making Recommendations

After you’ve collected all the necessary information, the next step is to transform it into the specific content you need. For simple projects, you may be able to drop your material directly into your report, presentation, or other application. However, when you have gathered a significant amount of information or raw data from surveys, you need to process the material before you can use it. This step can involve analyzing numeric data; quoting, paraphrasing, or summarizing textual material; drawing conclusions; and making recommendations.

Organize all of your data in tables or charts before converting in to a graph to assist with further analysis.

When analyzing data consider the mean, median, and mode of numerical data. Look for trends or patterns in data points.

Use textual information from sources in three way:

Quote
Paraphrase
Summarize

Draw conclusions or a logical interpretation of the facts. Reaching good conclusions based on the evidence at hand is one of the most important skills you can develop in your business career. In fact, the ability to see patterns and possibilities that others can’t see is one of the hallmarks of innovative business leaders.

Make recommendations based on your conclusions. Whereas a conclusion interprets information, a recommendation suggests action—what to do in response to the information.

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Supporting Your Messages with Reliable Information:

Supporting Your Messages
Planning Your Research
Locating Data and Information
Evaluating Your Sources
Using Your Research Results: Textual Information

This concludes our discussion of Supporting Your Messages with Reliable Information. The next section will cover Conducting Secondary Research.

Conducting Secondary Research

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You’ll want to start most projects by conducting secondary research first. Libraries offer information and resources you can’t find anywhere else—including experienced research librarians.

Conducting Secondary Research

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Reports and Memos

Other Documents

Print Resources

Online Resources

Inside Company

Outside Company

Even if you intend to eventually conduct primary research, most projects start with a review of secondary research. Inside your company, you might be able to find a variety of reports, memos, and other documents that could help. Outside the company, business researchers can choose from a wide range of print and online resources, both in libraries and online.

Finding Information at a Library

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Public and university libraries offer an enormous array of research tools. Many of these may be unavailable through a standard web search or may be available only with a subscription. Reference librarians can direct you to the sources of business information:

Newspapers and periodicals. Libraries offer access to a wide variety of popular magazines, general business magazines, trade journals, and academic journals.
Business books. Although less timely than newspapers and periodicals, business books provide in-depth coverage of a variety of business topics.
Directories. Thousands of directories are published in print and electronic formats in the United States, and many include membership information for all kinds of professions, industries, and special-interest groups.
Almanacs and statistical resources. Almanacs are handy guides to factual and statistical information about countries, politics, the labor force, and so on. One of the most extensive is the Statistical Abstract of the United States.
Government publications. Information on laws, court decisions, tax questions, regulatory issues, and other governmental concerns can often be found in collections of government documents.
Electronic databases. Databases offer vast collections of computer-searchable information, often in specific areas such as business, law, science, technology, and education. Some libraries offer remote online access to some or all databases; for others, you will need to visit in person.

Finding Information Online: Search Tools

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The Internet can be a tremendous source of business information, provided that you know where to look and how to use the tools available. Roughly speaking, the tools fall into two categories: those you can use to actively search for existing information and those you can use to monitor selected sources for new information. The most familiar search tools are general-purpose search engines, such as Google and Bing, which scan millions of websites to identify individual webpages that contain a specific word or phrase and then attempt to rank the results from most useful to least useful.

Web directories address the first major shortcoming of search engines by using human editors to categorize and evaluate websites.

Metacrawlers or metasearch engines help overcome the differences among search engines by formatting your search request for multiple search engines, making it easy to find a broader range of results. With a few clicks, you can compare results from multiple search engines to make sure you are getting a broad view of the material.

Online databases help address the challenge of the hidden Internet by offering access to newspapers, magazines, journals, electronic copies of books, and other resources often not available with standard search engines.

Finding Information Online: Monitoring Tools

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Track Industry Trends, Consumer Sentiment, and Other Information:

Newsfeeds: Blogs, Websites
Microblogs: Twitter
Alerts: Search Engines, Online Databases
Specialized Monitors: Tweetbeep, TweetDeck

The tools available for monitoring online sources for new information can help you track industry trends, consumer sentiment, and other information.

One of the most powerful aspects of online research is the ability to automatically monitor selected sources for new information. The possibilities include subscribing to newsfeeds from blogs and websites, following people on Twitter and other microblogs, setting up alerts on search engines and online databases, and using specialized monitors such as TweetBeep (http://tweetbeep.com) and TweetDeck (www.tweetdeck.com) to track tweets that mention specific companies or other terms.

Exercise some care when setting up monitoring tools, however, because it’s easy to get overwhelmed by the flood of information. Remember that you can always go back and search your information sources if you need to gather additional information.

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Conducting Secondary Research:

Conducting Secondary Research
Finding Information at a Library
Finding Information Online: Search Tools
Finding Information Online: Monitoring Tools

This concludes our discussion of Conducting Secondary Research. The next section will cover Conducting Primary Research.

Conducting Primary Research

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If secondary research can’t provide the information and insights you need, you may need to gather the information yourself with primary research.

Selecting Primary Research Methods

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The two most common primary research methods are surveys and interviews. Other primary techniques are observations (including tracking the behavior of website visitors) and experiments in special situations such as test marketing, but they’re less commonly used for day-to-day business research.

Conducting Surveys

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Avoid Sampling Bias

Reliable

Sample

Valid

Sample

Representative Sampling

Surveys can provide invaluable insights on a wide variety of business topics, but they are useful only when they are reliable and valid. A survey is reliable if it produces identical results when repeated. A survey is valid if it measures what it is intended to measure. To generate results that are both reliable and valid, you need to choose research participants carefully and develop an effective set of questions.

When selecting the people who will participate in your survey, the most critical task is getting a representative sample of the population in question. A good handbook on survey research will help you select the right people for your survey, including selecting enough people to have a statistically valid survey.

Conducting Interviews

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Interviewing an expert can be a great method for collecting primary information. Be aware that the answers you receive in an interview are influenced by the types of questions you ask, the way you ask them, and each subject’s cultural and language background.

To invite an expert to offer opinions, insights, and information, ask open-ended questions such as, “Why do you believe that South America represents a better opportunity than Europe for this product line?” Ask closed questions to elicit a specific answer, such as yes or no. Note that including too many closed questions in an interview makes the experience feel more like a simple survey and does not take full advantage of the interview setting.

Think carefully about the sequence of your questions and the potential answers so you can arrange them in an order that helps uncover layers of information. In addition, think proactively. Consider providing each subject with a list of questions at least a day or two before the interview, especially if you would like to quote your subjects in writing or if your questions might require people to conduct research or think extensively about the answers. If you want to record an interview, ask ahead of time; never record without permission. Plan on taking a few moments to write down your thoughts, go over your notes, and organize your material as soon as the interview has ended.

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Conducting Primary Research:

Selecting Primary Research Methods
Conducting Surveys
Conducting Interviews

This concludes our discussion of Conducting Primary Research. The next section will cover Planning Informational Reports.

Planning Informational Reports

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Informational reports provide the material that employees, managers, and others need in order to make decisions, take action, and respond to dynamic conditions inside and outside the organization.

Types of Informational Reports

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Informational reports provide the feedback that employees, managers, and others need in order to make decisions, take action, and respond to changes. Informational reports can be grouped into four general categories:

Monitor and control operations. Managers rely on a wide range of reports to see how well their companies are functioning. Plans establish expectations and guidelines to direct future action. Operating reports provide feedback on a wide variety of an organization’s functions, including sales, inventories, expenses, shipments, and so on. Personal activity reports provide information regarding an individual’s experiences during sales calls, industry conferences, and other activities.
Implement policies and procedures. Policy reports range from brief descriptions of business procedures to manuals that run dozens or hundreds of pages. Position papers outline an organization’s official position on issues that affect the company’s success.
Demonstrate compliance. Businesses are required to submit a variety of compliance reports, from tax returns to reports describing the proper handling of hazardous materials.
Document progress. Supervisors, investors, and customers frequently expect to be informed of the progress of projects and other activities. Progress reports range from simple updates in memo form to comprehensive status reports.

Organizing
Informational Reports

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Most informational reports use a topical organization, arranging material in one of the following ways:

Comparison. Use this pattern to show similarities and differences or advantages and disadvantages between two or more entities.
Importance. Build from the least to most important; or, start with the most important and progress to the least important.
Sequence. A process or procedure can be arranged sequentially, discussing steps or stages in the order in which they occur.
Chronology. When investigating a chain of events, organize the study according to what happened in January, in February, and so on.
Spatial orientation. To describe a physical object or a physical space, move from left to right, top to bottom, outside to inside, or whatever order makes the most sense.
Geography. If location is important, organize the study according to geography, perhaps by regions of the world or areas of a city.
Category. If asked to review several distinct aspects of a subject, look at one category at a time, such as sales, profit, cost, or investment.

Organizing Website Content

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Most of what you have already learned about informational reports applies to website writing, but the online environment requires some special considerations:

Web readers are demanding. Most visitors will not bother to dig for information. They scan navigation buttons, headings, images, and hyperlinks, looking for possibilities. If nothing looks promising, they are gone.
Reading online can be difficult. For most people, reading on a computer monitor is more difficult than reading from the printed page. In fact, studies show that reading speeds are about 25 percent slower on a monitor than on paper.
The web is a non-linear, multidimensional medium. Readers of online material move around in any order they please; there often is no beginning, middle, or end. As a web writer, you need to anticipate the various paths your readers will want to follow and make sure you provide the right hyperlinks in the right places.

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Planning Informational Reports:

Types of Informational Reports
Organizing Informational Reports
Organizing Website Content

This concludes our discussion of Planning Informational Reports. The next section will cover Planning Analytical Reports.

Planning Analytical Reports

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The purpose of analytical reports is to analyze, to understand, to explain, to think through a problem or an opportunity and figure out how it affects the company and how the company should respond. In many cases, you’ll also be expected to make a recommendation based on your analysis.

Planning
Analytical Reports

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Market Analysis

Due Diligence

Troubleshooting

Failure Analysis

Feasibility

Justification

Assess

Opportunities

Solve

Problems

Support

Decisions

Analytical reports fall into three basic categories:

Reports to assess opportunities. Every business opportunity carries some degree of risk and requires a variety of decisions and actions in order to capitalize on the opportunity. You can use analytical reports to assess both risk and required decisions and actions. For instance, market analysis reports are used to judge the likelihood of success for new products or sales. Due diligence reports examine the financial aspects of a proposed decision, such as acquiring another company.
Reports to solve problems. Managers often assign troubleshooting reports when they need to understand why something is not working properly and how to fix it. A variation, the failure analysis report, studies events that happened in the past, with the hope of learning how to avoid similar failures in the future.
Reports to support decisions. Feasibility reports explore the potential ramifications of a decision that managers are considering, and justification reports explain a decision that has already been made.

Methods of Organization

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Focus on Conclusions

Focus on Recommendations

Focus on Logical Arguments

Direct

Audience Attitude

Receptive

Skeptical

Preferred Strategy

Indirect

To create powerful analytical reports, consider your audience’s likely reaction before choosing the most effective organizational strategy:

Receptive audiences. When you expect your audience to agree with you, use a structure that focuses attention on conclusions and recommendations (a direct approach).

Skeptical audiences. When you expect your audience to disagree with you or to be hostile, use a structure that focuses attention on the rationale behind your conclusions and recommendations (an indirect approach).

The three most common structural approaches for analytical reports are (1) focusing on conclusions (direct), (2) focusing on recommendations (direct), and (3) focusing on logical arguments (indirect).

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Planning Analytical Reports:

Planning Analytical Reports
Methods of Organization

This concludes our discussion of Planning Analytical Reports. The next section will cover Planning Proposals.

Planning Proposals

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The specific formats for proposals are innumerable, but they can be grouped into two general categories. Internal proposals request decisions from managers within the organization, such as proposals to buy new equipment or launch new research projects. External proposals request decisions from parties outside the organization.

Planning Proposals

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Internal Proposals

Research Projects

Management Support

New Equipment

External Proposals

Sales Proposals

Investment Proposals

Grant Proposals

Although the specific formats for proposals are innumerable, they can be grouped into two general categories:

Internal proposals. Used to request decisions from managers within the organization, such as proposals to buy new equipment or to launch new research projects.

External proposals. Used to request decisions from parties outside the organization, external proposals include investment proposals, which request funding from external investors such as venture capitalists; grant proposals, which request funds from government agencies and other sponsoring organizations; and sales proposals, which suggest individualized solutions for potential customers and request purchase decisions.

Types of Proposals

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The most significant factor in planning any proposal is whether the intended recipient has asked you to submit a proposal. Solicited proposals can be requested by both internal and external parties. They feature a formal invitation to bid on the contract, called a request for proposals (RFP), which includes instructions that specify the exact type of work to be performed or products to be delivered, along with budgets, deadlines, and other requirements. In general, your audience may be more receptive with solicited proposals since the problem and the solution have already been specified in the RFP.

Unsolicited proposals are created by organizations attempting to obtain business or funding without a specific invitation from a potential client. Such proposals may also be initiated by employees or managers who want to convince company insiders to adopt a program, policy, or idea. With an unsolicited proposal, the writer makes the first move. Even so, an unsolicited proposal should not come as a surprise; rather, it should be the summation of an ongoing conversation with the recipient. However, the audience may not be aware of the problem, so an unsolicited proposal must first convince readers that a problem or opportunity exists. Therefore, the indirect approach may be a better choice for unsolicited proposals.

Summary of Objectives

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This section covered the following elements involved in Planning Proposals:

Planning Proposals
Types of Proposals

This concludes our discussion of Planning Proposals. The presentation will close with a review of this chapter’s learning objectives.

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Chapter 11

Planning Reports and Proposals

This concludes the PowerPoint presentation on Chapter 11, “Planning Reports and Proposals.” During this presentation, we have accomplished the following learning objectives:

Adapted the three-step writing process to reports and proposals
Described an effective process for conducting business research, explained how to evaluate the credibility of an information source, and identified the five ways to use research results
Explained the role of secondary research, and described the two major categories of online research tools
Explained the role of primary research, and identified the two most common forms of primary research for business communication purposes
Explained how to plan informational reports and website content
Identified the three most common ways to organize analytical reports
Explained how to plan proposals

For more information about these topics, refer to Chapter 11 in Excellence in Business Communication.

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