Social Science ASSIGNMENT 2 - THEORY

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Theories, models and perspectives - Cheat sheet for field instructors

Major Theories – Used in Social Work Practice

 Systems Theory

 Psychodynamic

 Social Learning

 Conflict

Developmental Theories

 Theories of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, Gilligan)

 Theories of cognition (Piaget)

 Transpersonal theories of human development (Transpersonal – means beyond or

through the persona or mask. Going beyond identity rooted in the individual body

or ego to include spiritual experience or higher levels of consciousness.)

 Stage theories – Erikson

Primary Perspectives

 Strengths

 Feminist

 Eco-Systems

Current Social Work Practice Models

 Problem Solving

 Task-Centered

 Solution – Focused

 Narrative

 Cognitive-Behavioral

 Crisis

In brief, social work practice models are like recipes. They are step-by-step guides for

client sessions. Perspectives represent what aspects of the session are emphasized or

highlighted in a session (i.e. questions asked or time spent). Theories are overall

explanations of the person-in-environment configuration. Theories help explain why the

problem is occurring and where the most efficient intervention should take place.

Definitions:

Theory –A general statement about the real world whose essential truth can be

supported by evidence obtained through the scientific method. – Must explain in a

provable way why something happens. Ex: Learning theory explains behavior on the

basis of what organisms have learned from the environment.

Model – Is a blueprint for action. It describes what happens in practice in a general

way. Ex: The behavioral model (based on learning theory) gives specific guidelines

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for how to effect change. If a parent complains that his child is having difficulty

staying in his own bed at night and the parent has been allowing the child to sleep in

his/her bed( thereby reinforcing the child’s difficulty) the practitioner would help the

parent to extinguish the behavior by removing the reinforcement.

Perspective – A way of perceiving the world flows from a value position. Note: The

perspective will influence choice of theory and model.

Note: Payne ( 1997) argues that social work theory succeeds best when it contains all

three elements of perspective, theory and model.

Example: Men who batter their partners

Theory: Social learning theory – men learn their violent behavior in their family of

origin, and from a culture that rewards anger and violence in men; cognitive theory –

what men say to themselves in situations of stress increases their anger and their

propensity to be violent.

Model: Cognitive-behavioral

Perspective: Feminist

Definitions are from Syers & Boisen (2003) Course handout

Payne, M. (1997). Modern Social Work Theory. Lyceum Books

1. Systems theories – Those concepts that emphasize reciprocal relationships between

the elements that constitute a whole. These concepts also emphasize the relationships

among individuals, groups, organizations, or communities and mutually influencing

factors in the environment. Systems theories focus on the interrelationships of elements

in nature, encompassing physics, chemistry, biology, and social relationships (general

systems theory, ecological perspective, life model, and ecosystems perspective).

2. Psychodynamic Theory –

 Psychodynamic psychotherapy is concerned with how internal processes such

as needs, drives, and emotions motivate human behavior.

 Emotions have a central place in human behavior.

 Unconscious, as well as conscious mental activity serves as the motivating

force in human behavior.

 Early childhood experiences are central in the patterning of an individual’s

emotions, and therefore, central to problems of living throughout life.

 Individuals may become overwhelmed by internal and/or external demands.

 Individuals frequently use ego defense mechanisms to avoid becoming

overwhelmed by internal and/or external demands.

Note: In current social work practice psychodynamic theory is what the social worker

uses when s/he looks at early attachment relationships and the developmental history of

the client which includes past trauma or abuse. In addition, social workers use this theory

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in supervision to understand the dynamics of the helping relationship (transference,

countertransference).

3. Social Learning -

 Social learning theory suggests that human behavior is learned as individuals

interact with their environment.

 Problem behavior is maintained by positive or negative reinforcement.

 Cognitive- behavioral therapy looks at what role thoughts play in maintaining the

problem. Emphasis is on changing dysfunctional thoughts which influence

behavior.

 Methods which stem from this theory are the gradual shaping of new behavior

through positive and negative reinforcement, modeling, stress management:

biofeedback, relaxation techniques, cognitive restructuring, imagery and

systematic desensitization.

4. Conflict Theory –

 This theory draws attention to conflict, dominance, and oppression in social

life.

 Groups and individuals try to advance their own interests over the interests of

others.

 Power is unequally divided, and some social groups dominate others.

 Social order is based on the manipulation and control of nondominant groups

by dominant groups.

 Lack of open conflict is a sign of exploitation.

 Social change is driven by conflict, with periods of change interrupting long

periods of stability.

Note: Social workers use this theory to understand clients who are experiencing

oppression in some form or another in our capitalist society.

Primary Perspectives

 Strengths – Stems from the work of Saleeby (1996) – The social worker assumes

that the client has multiple strengths. The social worker tries to assess the

strengths of the client and emphasizes these strengths in the helping relationship.

 Feminist – This perspective takes into account the role of gender and the

historical lack of power experienced by women in our society. Feminist social

workers emphasize the collaborative relationship between the social worker and

the client and place an emphasis on equality and empowerment of women in our

society.

Current Social Work Practice Models

 Problem Solving – The problem solving model focuses on understanding the

problem, brainstorming possible solutions, having the client pick a solution,

having the client try out a solution and then evaluating how the solution worked.

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 Task-Centered – This model focuses on breaking down the problem into small

tasks that the client can accomplish. The social worker may use rehearsal,

deadlines, and contracts, in order to help the client feel successful and motivated

towards solving the problem.

 Solution – Focused – This model starts with the solution and then helps the client

establish the steps that will lead to the solution. This model is the one that uses

the miracle question to help clients envision the future that they want to obtain.

 Narrative – This model uses letters and other methods to help the client re-author

their lives. For a more in-depth explanation I suggest a very short user-friendly

book titled, “What is Narrative Therapy?” by Alice Morgan (2000).

Developmental Theories

Developmental theories focus on how behavior changes and stays the same across the life

cycle. Stage theories are usually characterized by the following:

 Human development occurs in clearly defined stages

 Each stage of life is qualitatively different from all other stages.

 Stages of development are sequential, with each stage building on earlier

stages.

 Stages of development are universal.

 All environments provide the support necessary for development.

 Theories of moral reasoning (Kohlberg, Gilligan)

Kohlberg’s stages of moral development

Preconventional – Heteronymous morality – Accepting what the world says is

right – Instrumental purpose – Defining the good as whatever is agreeable to the self

and those in the immediate environment.

Conventional – Interpersonal experiences – Seeking conformity and consistency

in moral action with significant others. The societal point of view – Seeking

conformity and consistency with what one perceives to be the opinions of the larger

community.

Post-conventional – Ethics – Observing individual and group (societal) rights.

Conscience and logic – Seeking to apply universal principles of right and wrong.

Formal operations (11- adulthood) – The person becomes able to solve real and

hypothetical problems using abstract concepts.

 Theories of cognition (Piaget)

 Transpersonal theories of human development (Transpersonal – means beyond or

through the persona or mask. Going beyond identity rooted in the individual body

or ego to include spiritual experience or higher levels of consciousness.)

 Stage theories – Life stages –

Eriksson’s Stages of psychosocial development

Infancy– Trust vs. mistrust

Early childhood – Autonomy vs. Shame and doubt

Play age – Initiative vs. guilt

School age – Industry vs. Inferiority

Adolescence – Identity vs. Identity diffusion

Young adulthood – Intimacy vs. isolation

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Adulthood – Generativity vs. self-absorption

Mature age – Integrity vs. Disgust and despair