RCH 5301 VII

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

2. Discriminate among the characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research methods. 2.1 Deduce differences between a quantitative methodological research strategy and

qualitative research strategy. 2.4 Identify a primary research article in an academic journal where the researcher or

researchers used a qualitative research strategy.

3. Evaluate research designs. 3.1 Differentiate between descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory research designs based on

their unique characteristics. 3.2 Analyze an academic study’s research design, analytical approach, data analysis

procedures, data collection method, and sampling design.

Required Unit Resources Chapter 3: The Use of Theory (ULO 4.3) Read the following sections from this chapter: Qualitative Theory Use Chapter 9: Qualitative Methods (ULOs 2.1 and 3.1) Article: Understanding Research: Research Methods, Observation (ULO 4.3) This article discusses using observation for qualitative data collection. (3 pages).

Unit Lesson Lesson: The Nature of Qualitative Research (ULOs 2.1 and 3.1)

Introduction Qualitative research is a methodological strategy where it is customary for the researcher to interpret the meaning of phenomena by interjecting their own values and, in many cases, participating with research participants. This is at odds with a quantitative strategy where subjectivity and interpretation are universally eschewed. Another identifying characteristic of qualitative research is that it is non-quantitative, instead relying on the interpretation of words, themes, and experiences. This is one of the reasons why the qualitative research strategy is popular with students; however, there is a misconception that non-reliance on numerical data and statistical analysis translates into an easier approach to research. Quite to the contrary, a qualitative research strategy generally requires much more time and effort to collect data and explain phenomena without the benefit of using the universal language of numbers (Salkind, 2010). The voluminous, unstructured, and often textual qualitative data captured in field notes and transcripts from unstructured interviews, participant observation, documents, or visual material is difficult to analyze, and, unlike quantitative data analysis, there are no definitive data analysis guidelines to follow (Bell et al., 2022). This unit is intended to provide some insights to the complexity and uniqueness of qualitative research. The following information will briefly review some of the most common aspects of qualitative research, including analytical approaches, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures.

UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE

The Nature of Qualitative Research

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 2

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Qualitative Analytical Approaches Case Study The case study is an analytical approach that uses data collected through unstructured interviews and content analyses to document the history of an organization, group, person, or event. For example, a case study might offer multiple perspectives of an organization during either a relatively short or long period of time. A case study, which is written up as a report, normally focuses on a particular event, challenge, or anomaly that has resulted in an undesirable outcome. The case study can be meticulously detailed and provide generous insights across an entire organization. The case study offers the opportunity for readers to learn from the mistakes of others and posit their own approach to similar issues (Cooper & Schindler, 2014; Zikmund et al., 2013). Ethnography Ethnography is an analytical approach where the researcher studies a culture. This is normally an immersive process where the researcher participates for an extended period of time with the cultural members they are studying. Cultures include groups of people who are differentiated by certain attributes they share, including religion, rituals, attitudes, beliefs, customs, habits, practices, values, language, and the like. Cultures can be of varying sizes, such as Eastern culture, suburban culture, and organizational culture. Covert participant observation is often used as the data collection method for ethnographic studies since participants frequently cannot or will not voluntarily provide information. Ethnographers studying cultures sometimes insert themselves as members to surreptitiously observe behavior. For example, an ethnographer studying salesperson ethics may temporarily serve in a professional selling role on a company’s sales team to collect unbiased information about the members’ ethical and unethical sales practices (Zikmund et al., 2013). Phenomenology Phenomenological research studies human experiences under the assumption that human behavior is subjective and heavily influenced by one’s environment. Environmental factors that influence human behavior include the physical and natural environment, relationships, brands, products, services, events, objects, situations, businesses, politics, laws, technology, culture, society, and people. Phenomenological researchers predominately collect data through unstructured interviews to understand and interpret participant experiences; however, the phenomenological interviewer avoids leading and direct questions and instead strives to promote a conversation to elicit information. One way to accomplish this is to have the participant tell stories about their experiences with environmental factors. In some cases, the phenomenological researcher may become immersed with the participant in their environment where they are likely to feel unencumbered in telling their experiential stories (Zikmund et al., 2013). Action Research Action research, as its name suggests, is a qualitative approach to practical problem solving that is conducted in real time as the problem is recognized. For example, in a medical setting, an administrator may use action research to understand and address new problems that arise for which no known solutions have been developed. The problem is understood, a solution is proposed, the solution is implemented, the solution is monitored, and results are deemed successful or unsuccessful. Based on the results, a decision is made to continue with the solution or develop another by repeating the process (Cooper & Schindler, 2014).

Qualitative Data Collection Methods Unstructured Interview The unstructured interview is the predominant data collection method used in qualitative research strategies. Interviews are typically a one-to-one approach. Although group interviews are also used, this method begins to blur lines with the focus group data collection method discussed below. Since unstructured interviews use open-ended questions intended to elicit deeper and richer responses from participants, interviewers should possess certain qualities, such as natural curiosity, affability, empathy, and sympathy. Interviewers must put their interviewees at ease to promote dialog and encourage them to divulge their thoughts without feeling

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 3

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

pressured. Listening carefully is another important quality so the interviewer can extract important insights from the information they are receiving from participants. It is preferable that unstructured interviews are conducted face-to-face so non-verbal cues like facial expressions and body language can be recorded to supplement the interviewee’s words. Although the unstructured interview is intended to facilitate a free-flowing dialog, the interviewer often follows a framework of questions. For example, the interviewer might begin with a broad question. For example, “What do you do for entertainment?” Then the interviewer would narrow the subject by asking, “Which type of social media is your preferred platform?” Then they would further focus the subject by asking, “What about this platform do you find most entertaining?” Finally, they would drill down on the subject by asking, “What is it about videos that you find so entertaining?” (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Another means of eliciting participant responses is through projective techniques. Interviewees may be asked to comment on an image and express the emotions and thoughts it evokes. Interviewees may be asked to complete sentences, such as, “People who shop at ALDI are….” Some interviewees are presented with situations depicted as cartoon characters and asked to complete thought bubbles. Interviewees may be asked to use personification, where they assign human attributes to inanimate objects, products, or brands. There are many different types of projective techniques that can be effectively used to extract information and simultaneously make the interviewing process fun and interesting for the participant (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Focus Group Among the public at large, the focus group is probably the most well-known type of qualitative data collection method. It is the primary data collection method used by advertising and market research firms. The typical focus group includes six to ten participants who meet for 1 to 2 hours in a closed setting facilitated by a moderator. The moderator will elicit ideas, thoughts, knowledge, and emotions on a range of topics. For example, the moderator may promote discussion on a new frozen waffle brand and focus the discussion on such attributes as flavor, taste, smell, packaging, instructions, and visual appeal. Perhaps the most iconic feature of the focus group is the two-way mirror that is used for non-participant observation. Those behind the mirror are often the sponsors of the research, such as the waffle company’s marketing executives. A unique benefit of the focus group is that the sponsors can feed new questions to the moderator in real time. This is a distinct advantage and the main difference between the focus group and the unstructured group interview mentioned above. Like the unstructured interview, a focus group can also employ projective techniques, like personification (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Participant Observation While non-participant observation can be used to collect insights and information about phenomena, participant observation is the most useful method to collect non-numerical information from participants. It is simply not feasible in many circumstances to gather qualitative data without participation, and it would be impossible to probe for a deeper and richer understanding of the topic of interest. This requires much more commitment and time from the researcher than a quantitative approach, but it provides a depth of understanding not possible through methods like structured interviews.

Qualitative Sampling Design In the discussion of quantitative research, sampling was described as a representation of a population of interest. Especially when using random samples, strong inferences can be made about the population of interest. While the term sampling is used in qualitative research, it is not synonymous with the description used in quantitative research. For example, qualitative researchers study small groups of people to understand why and how they behave or make choices. Non-probability and small samples preclude the ability to make inferences or generalize results to a population, as quantitative studies do. Qualitative sampling is characteristically non-probability, subjective, purposive sampling. Qualitative researchers use purposive sampling by arbitrarily selecting participants or cases that have relevance to the topic of interest, and then asking participants for referrals to other potential participants who share attitudes, beliefs, and experiences. This is also commonly known as snowball sampling (Cooper & Schindler, 2014).

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 4

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Qualitative Data Analysis Procedures Besides the obvious differences in quantitative and qualitative data analyses, such as the use of statistics versus the interpretation of data, there is another major distinguishing attribute. The quantitative research process involves collecting data, analyzing the data, and reporting the results. It is a linear and terminating process. Conversely, the qualitative research process is often iterative. For example, it may involve collecting data, analyzing the data, collecting more data based on the insights from the first analysis, analyzing the additional data, and then reporting the findings. While this example has only two iterations, qualitative data analysis can involve many iterations. Two of the most frequently used approaches to qualitative data analysis are thematic analysis and grounded theory (Bell et al., 2022).

Thematic Analysis Although thematic analysis is the most frequently used qualitative data analysis procedure, it is an undefinable process that can be loosely described as the action of looking for themes. Thematic analysis is used in many qualitative studies, such as to identify themes in data collected through historical document analysis. Some researchers consider themes synonymous with codes, while others argue that themes are structures of multiple codes that represent meanings or patterns. Thematic analysis involves combing through data to identify repetition of concepts, categories, similarities, differences, analogies, metaphors, linguistic cues, ideas, stories, words, and any other pattern of textual information. Repetition alone does not constitute a theme, however, since the repetition must also be related to the research topic or research question (Bell et al., 2022).

Grounded Theory Grounded theory, while used less often as a qualitative analytical procedure than thematic analysis, uses an inductive process to develop concepts, categories, or theories based on information received from participants or content analyses. Grounded theory is, by nature, iterative as the researcher uses collected information to develop additional questions for participants to drill down deeper into the topic of interest (Zikmund et al., 2013). Grounded theory follows a more definable process than thematic analysis. That process includes developing a general research question (step 1), selecting a sample (step 2), collecting relevant data (step 3), coding the data (step 4), identifying concepts (step 5), determining what additional data are needed (step 6), and returning to step 1 and working through the process again. As the process evolves and generates more concepts, they begin to coalesce around a theory (Bell et al., 2022).

Coding Coding should not be thought of as a data analysis procedure in the same vein as thematic analysis or grounded theory. Coding is a precursor and necessary means to an end for qualitative research. It is a method for reducing the vast volume of data that is representative of qualitative research. At its core, coding is the process of analyzing field notes and transcripts and noting within the margins the identification of repetitious data like concepts, categories, linguistic cues, ideas, stories, words, and other patterns of textual information. The margin notes become the codes, which are also analyzed for meaning. There are software tools to facilitate the ease of coding; however, some researchers still perform this function in a manual process since they believe software applications tend to fragment and decontextualize the data (Bell et al., 2022).

Closing Unit VII is a crash course in qualitative research. The primary focus of this course is the quantitative methodology given today’s data-driven world. This should not diminish the role that qualitative research plays in evidence-based decision-making. The superiority of research strategies, quantitative or qualitative, ultimately depends on one’s research tradition and the nature of the problem(s) to be solved. Although this unit only scratched the surface of qualitative research, there is no shortage of information about this research strategy on the internet, in the literature, and within volumes of research textbooks, such as your textbook.

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 5

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

References Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2022). Business research methods (6th ed.). Oxford University Press.

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780192640505 Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2014). Business research methods (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2022). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches (6th ed.). SAGE. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781071817964 Brewer, E. W., & Kubn, J. (2010). Causal-comparative design. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

research design (pp. 125–131). SAGE. http://methods.sagepub.com.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/reference/encyc-of-research- design/n42.xml

Ellis, P. (2023). Understanding research: Research methods, observation. Wounds UK, 19(4), 100-102.

https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dire ct=true&db=cul&AN=173645407&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., & Griffin, M. (2013). Business research methods (9th ed.). Cengage

Learning.

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 1

Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

2. Discriminate among the characteristics of qualitative and quantitative research methods. 2.1 Deduce differences between a quantitative methodological research strategy and

qualitative research strategy. 2.4 Identify a primary research article in an academic journal where the researcher or

researchers used a qualitative research strategy.

3. Evaluate research designs. 3.1 Differentiate between descriptive, explanatory, and exploratory research designs based on

their unique characteristics. 3.2 Analyze an academic study’s research design, analytical approach, data analysis

procedures, data collection method, and sampling design.

Required Unit Resources Chapter 3: The Use of Theory (ULO 4.3) Read the following sections from this chapter: Qualitative Theory Use Chapter 9: Qualitative Methods (ULOs 2.1 and 3.1) Article: Understanding Research: Research Methods, Observation (ULO 4.3) This article discusses using observation for qualitative data collection. (3 pages).

Unit Lesson Lesson: The Nature of Qualitative Research (ULOs 2.1 and 3.1)

Introduction Qualitative research is a methodological strategy where it is customary for the researcher to interpret the meaning of phenomena by interjecting their own values and, in many cases, participating with research participants. This is at odds with a quantitative strategy where subjectivity and interpretation are universally eschewed. Another identifying characteristic of qualitative research is that it is non-quantitative, instead relying on the interpretation of words, themes, and experiences. This is one of the reasons why the qualitative research strategy is popular with students; however, there is a misconception that non-reliance on numerical data and statistical analysis translates into an easier approach to research. Quite to the contrary, a qualitative research strategy generally requires much more time and effort to collect data and explain phenomena without the benefit of using the universal language of numbers (Salkind, 2010). The voluminous, unstructured, and often textual qualitative data captured in field notes and transcripts from unstructured interviews, participant observation, documents, or visual material is difficult to analyze, and, unlike quantitative data analysis, there are no definitive data analysis guidelines to follow (Bell et al., 2022). This unit is intended to provide some insights to the complexity and uniqueness of qualitative research. The following information will briefly review some of the most common aspects of qualitative research, including analytical approaches, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures.

UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE

The Nature of Qualitative Research

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 2

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Qualitative Analytical Approaches Case Study The case study is an analytical approach that uses data collected through unstructured interviews and content analyses to document the history of an organization, group, person, or event. For example, a case study might offer multiple perspectives of an organization during either a relatively short or long period of time. A case study, which is written up as a report, normally focuses on a particular event, challenge, or anomaly that has resulted in an undesirable outcome. The case study can be meticulously detailed and provide generous insights across an entire organization. The case study offers the opportunity for readers to learn from the mistakes of others and posit their own approach to similar issues (Cooper & Schindler, 2014; Zikmund et al., 2013). Ethnography Ethnography is an analytical approach where the researcher studies a culture. This is normally an immersive process where the researcher participates for an extended period of time with the cultural members they are studying. Cultures include groups of people who are differentiated by certain attributes they share, including religion, rituals, attitudes, beliefs, customs, habits, practices, values, language, and the like. Cultures can be of varying sizes, such as Eastern culture, suburban culture, and organizational culture. Covert participant observation is often used as the data collection method for ethnographic studies since participants frequently cannot or will not voluntarily provide information. Ethnographers studying cultures sometimes insert themselves as members to surreptitiously observe behavior. For example, an ethnographer studying salesperson ethics may temporarily serve in a professional selling role on a company’s sales team to collect unbiased information about the members’ ethical and unethical sales practices (Zikmund et al., 2013). Phenomenology Phenomenological research studies human experiences under the assumption that human behavior is subjective and heavily influenced by one’s environment. Environmental factors that influence human behavior include the physical and natural environment, relationships, brands, products, services, events, objects, situations, businesses, politics, laws, technology, culture, society, and people. Phenomenological researchers predominately collect data through unstructured interviews to understand and interpret participant experiences; however, the phenomenological interviewer avoids leading and direct questions and instead strives to promote a conversation to elicit information. One way to accomplish this is to have the participant tell stories about their experiences with environmental factors. In some cases, the phenomenological researcher may become immersed with the participant in their environment where they are likely to feel unencumbered in telling their experiential stories (Zikmund et al., 2013). Action Research Action research, as its name suggests, is a qualitative approach to practical problem solving that is conducted in real time as the problem is recognized. For example, in a medical setting, an administrator may use action research to understand and address new problems that arise for which no known solutions have been developed. The problem is understood, a solution is proposed, the solution is implemented, the solution is monitored, and results are deemed successful or unsuccessful. Based on the results, a decision is made to continue with the solution or develop another by repeating the process (Cooper & Schindler, 2014).

Qualitative Data Collection Methods Unstructured Interview The unstructured interview is the predominant data collection method used in qualitative research strategies. Interviews are typically a one-to-one approach. Although group interviews are also used, this method begins to blur lines with the focus group data collection method discussed below. Since unstructured interviews use open-ended questions intended to elicit deeper and richer responses from participants, interviewers should possess certain qualities, such as natural curiosity, affability, empathy, and sympathy. Interviewers must put their interviewees at ease to promote dialog and encourage them to divulge their thoughts without feeling

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 3

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

pressured. Listening carefully is another important quality so the interviewer can extract important insights from the information they are receiving from participants. It is preferable that unstructured interviews are conducted face-to-face so non-verbal cues like facial expressions and body language can be recorded to supplement the interviewee’s words. Although the unstructured interview is intended to facilitate a free-flowing dialog, the interviewer often follows a framework of questions. For example, the interviewer might begin with a broad question. For example, “What do you do for entertainment?” Then the interviewer would narrow the subject by asking, “Which type of social media is your preferred platform?” Then they would further focus the subject by asking, “What about this platform do you find most entertaining?” Finally, they would drill down on the subject by asking, “What is it about videos that you find so entertaining?” (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Another means of eliciting participant responses is through projective techniques. Interviewees may be asked to comment on an image and express the emotions and thoughts it evokes. Interviewees may be asked to complete sentences, such as, “People who shop at ALDI are….” Some interviewees are presented with situations depicted as cartoon characters and asked to complete thought bubbles. Interviewees may be asked to use personification, where they assign human attributes to inanimate objects, products, or brands. There are many different types of projective techniques that can be effectively used to extract information and simultaneously make the interviewing process fun and interesting for the participant (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Focus Group Among the public at large, the focus group is probably the most well-known type of qualitative data collection method. It is the primary data collection method used by advertising and market research firms. The typical focus group includes six to ten participants who meet for 1 to 2 hours in a closed setting facilitated by a moderator. The moderator will elicit ideas, thoughts, knowledge, and emotions on a range of topics. For example, the moderator may promote discussion on a new frozen waffle brand and focus the discussion on such attributes as flavor, taste, smell, packaging, instructions, and visual appeal. Perhaps the most iconic feature of the focus group is the two-way mirror that is used for non-participant observation. Those behind the mirror are often the sponsors of the research, such as the waffle company’s marketing executives. A unique benefit of the focus group is that the sponsors can feed new questions to the moderator in real time. This is a distinct advantage and the main difference between the focus group and the unstructured group interview mentioned above. Like the unstructured interview, a focus group can also employ projective techniques, like personification (Cooper & Schindler, 2014). Participant Observation While non-participant observation can be used to collect insights and information about phenomena, participant observation is the most useful method to collect non-numerical information from participants. It is simply not feasible in many circumstances to gather qualitative data without participation, and it would be impossible to probe for a deeper and richer understanding of the topic of interest. This requires much more commitment and time from the researcher than a quantitative approach, but it provides a depth of understanding not possible through methods like structured interviews.

Qualitative Sampling Design In the discussion of quantitative research, sampling was described as a representation of a population of interest. Especially when using random samples, strong inferences can be made about the population of interest. While the term sampling is used in qualitative research, it is not synonymous with the description used in quantitative research. For example, qualitative researchers study small groups of people to understand why and how they behave or make choices. Non-probability and small samples preclude the ability to make inferences or generalize results to a population, as quantitative studies do. Qualitative sampling is characteristically non-probability, subjective, purposive sampling. Qualitative researchers use purposive sampling by arbitrarily selecting participants or cases that have relevance to the topic of interest, and then asking participants for referrals to other potential participants who share attitudes, beliefs, and experiences. This is also commonly known as snowball sampling (Cooper & Schindler, 2014).

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 4

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

Qualitative Data Analysis Procedures Besides the obvious differences in quantitative and qualitative data analyses, such as the use of statistics versus the interpretation of data, there is another major distinguishing attribute. The quantitative research process involves collecting data, analyzing the data, and reporting the results. It is a linear and terminating process. Conversely, the qualitative research process is often iterative. For example, it may involve collecting data, analyzing the data, collecting more data based on the insights from the first analysis, analyzing the additional data, and then reporting the findings. While this example has only two iterations, qualitative data analysis can involve many iterations. Two of the most frequently used approaches to qualitative data analysis are thematic analysis and grounded theory (Bell et al., 2022).

Thematic Analysis Although thematic analysis is the most frequently used qualitative data analysis procedure, it is an undefinable process that can be loosely described as the action of looking for themes. Thematic analysis is used in many qualitative studies, such as to identify themes in data collected through historical document analysis. Some researchers consider themes synonymous with codes, while others argue that themes are structures of multiple codes that represent meanings or patterns. Thematic analysis involves combing through data to identify repetition of concepts, categories, similarities, differences, analogies, metaphors, linguistic cues, ideas, stories, words, and any other pattern of textual information. Repetition alone does not constitute a theme, however, since the repetition must also be related to the research topic or research question (Bell et al., 2022).

Grounded Theory Grounded theory, while used less often as a qualitative analytical procedure than thematic analysis, uses an inductive process to develop concepts, categories, or theories based on information received from participants or content analyses. Grounded theory is, by nature, iterative as the researcher uses collected information to develop additional questions for participants to drill down deeper into the topic of interest (Zikmund et al., 2013). Grounded theory follows a more definable process than thematic analysis. That process includes developing a general research question (step 1), selecting a sample (step 2), collecting relevant data (step 3), coding the data (step 4), identifying concepts (step 5), determining what additional data are needed (step 6), and returning to step 1 and working through the process again. As the process evolves and generates more concepts, they begin to coalesce around a theory (Bell et al., 2022).

Coding Coding should not be thought of as a data analysis procedure in the same vein as thematic analysis or grounded theory. Coding is a precursor and necessary means to an end for qualitative research. It is a method for reducing the vast volume of data that is representative of qualitative research. At its core, coding is the process of analyzing field notes and transcripts and noting within the margins the identification of repetitious data like concepts, categories, linguistic cues, ideas, stories, words, and other patterns of textual information. The margin notes become the codes, which are also analyzed for meaning. There are software tools to facilitate the ease of coding; however, some researchers still perform this function in a manual process since they believe software applications tend to fragment and decontextualize the data (Bell et al., 2022).

Closing Unit VII is a crash course in qualitative research. The primary focus of this course is the quantitative methodology given today’s data-driven world. This should not diminish the role that qualitative research plays in evidence-based decision-making. The superiority of research strategies, quantitative or qualitative, ultimately depends on one’s research tradition and the nature of the problem(s) to be solved. Although this unit only scratched the surface of qualitative research, there is no shortage of information about this research strategy on the internet, in the literature, and within volumes of research textbooks, such as your textbook.

RCH 5301, Research Design and Methods 5

UNIT x STUDY GUIDE

Title

References Bell, E., Bryman, A., & Harley, B. (2022). Business research methods (6th ed.). Oxford University Press.

https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780192640505 Cooper, D. R., & Schindler, P. S. (2014). Business research methods (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2022). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods

approaches (6th ed.). SAGE. https://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781071817964 Brewer, E. W., & Kubn, J. (2010). Causal-comparative design. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.), Encyclopedia of

research design (pp. 125–131). SAGE. http://methods.sagepub.com.libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/reference/encyc-of-research- design/n42.xml

Ellis, P. (2023). Understanding research: Research methods, observation. Wounds UK, 19(4), 100-102.

https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dire ct=true&db=cul&AN=173645407&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B. J., Carr, J. C., & Griffin, M. (2013). Business research methods (9th ed.). Cengage

Learning.