Criminology | Criminal homework help

ASSIGN1.docx

Topic: Drug Use

Demographic Variable: Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Independent Variable (IV): Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Dependent Variable (DV): Drug Use

Research Question: To what extent, if any, is socioeconomic status related to drug use?

Annotated Bibliography:

Karriker-Jaffe, K. J. (2013). Neighborhood socioeconomic status and substance use by US adults.  Drug and Alcohol Dependence,  133(1), 212–221.  https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.04.033 This article examines the association between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use outcomes, using survey data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys. This first article, compared to the other two, examines the association between SES and drug use and aims to understand how socioeconomic factors influence substance use behaviors. The study design involved computer-assisted telephone interviews with randomly selected adults aged 18 and older. The dataset included oversamples of African Americans, Hispanics, and residents from low-population states. The researchers matched survey data with indicators of neighborhood SES from the 2000 Census at the census tract level. Then neighborhood SES was measured using composite socioeconomic disadvantage and affluence indicators based on U.S. Census data on income, educational capital, and employment opportunities. Some substance use outcomes examined in the study included daily tobacco use, drinking within guidelines, monthly marijuana use, and monthly illicit drug use. Furthermore, some control variables included age, race/ethnicity, marital status, education, employment status, urbanicity, survey year, and additional variables related to a sense of coherence, distress, family history of alcohol problems, heavy drinking in teens, and region of residence. The results showed significant associations between neighborhood SES and substance use outcomes. For example, disadvantaged neighborhoods were associated with higher odds of daily tobacco use and drinking within guidelines for both men and women. Affluent neighborhoods were associated with lower odds of tobacco use and drinking within guidelines for men and lower odds of tobacco and marijuana use for women. Overall, the findings suggest that neighborhood SES is associated with substance use outcomes, highlighting the importance of considering neighborhood-level factors in understanding and addressing substance use behaviors.

Daniel, J. Z., Hickman, M., Macleod, J., Wiles, N., Lingford-Hughes, A., Farrell, M., Araya, R., Skapinakis, P., Haynes, J., & Lewis, G. (2009). Is socioeconomic status in early life associated with drug use? A systematic review of the evidence.  Drug and Alcohol Review,  28(2), 142–153. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2008.00042.x This article provides a systematic review that examines the association between socioeconomic status (SES) in early life and illicit drug use in later life. The review included longitudinal population-based cohort studies that investigated the relationship between SES of the family of origin and illicit drug use. The search strategy involved searching multiple electronic databases and specialist databases to identify relevant studies. The review included studies that examined the association between drug use and indicators of early SES, such as standard of living, occupation, parental employment, and education. The review results indicate that 11 longitudinal studies met the inclusion criteria and examined the link between SES in early life and illicit drug use. The studies were divided into two sections: birth cohorts and school-aged cohorts. For example, one study found that individuals from low SES backgrounds were likelier to use cannabis than those from higher SES backgrounds. Another study found an association between maternal education and illicit drug use, with sons of better-educated mothers being less likely to use drugs. The study uses methods of the sampling frame, age of participants, response rates, follow-up length, and analysis type. The article's main findings suggest that further research is needed to understand better the association between early life SES and illicit drug use. Like the other two articles, this article control for various demographic and social factors that may confound the relationship between SES and drug use. However, it conducts a systematic review of longitudinal population-based cohort studies, while the first and third articles utilize survey data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys and data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, a nationally representative longitudinal survey in the United States, respectively.

Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use Among Young Adults: A Comparison Across Constructs and Drugs.  Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs,  73(5), 772-782. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.772 This article examines the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use during young adulthood. The authors analyze three indicators of family background SES (income, wealth, and parental education) and their association with smoking, alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking, and marijuana use among young adults. The study finds that smoking in young adulthood is associated with lower childhood family SES, but demographic and social role covariates can explain this association. On the other hand, alcohol use and marijuana use in young adulthood are associated with higher childhood family SES, even after controlling for covariates. The article highlights the need to understand the relationship between childhood SES and substance use during young adulthood, a critical period when substance use peaks. The article discusses previous studies that have yielded mixed findings on the relationship between SES and substance use among youth. It notes that previous studies have not consistently shown a clear relationship between family income and substance use. The study's sample consists of young adults who participated in the Transition into Adulthood survey in 2005 and 2007. Logistic regression models are employed to estimate the associations between SES indicators and substance use behaviors, controlling for demographic and social role covariates. The study aims to answer two main research questions: (a) How are three different indicators of SES (income, wealth, and parental education) associated with substance use behaviors in young adulthood? (b) After controlling for demographic and social role covariates, which SES indicators are most strongly associated with substance use? This article provides insights into the complex relationship between childhood SES and substance use during young adulthood. By considering multiple indicators of SES and controlling for relevant factors, the study offers a nuanced understanding of the associations between socioeconomic factors and substance use behaviors among young adults. This third article, unlike the other two, analyzes three indicators of family background SES: income, wealth, and parental education, but the first article focuses on neighborhood SES, using composite indicators based on U.S. Census data, and the second article examines SES indicators related to standard of living, occupation, parental employment, and education.

ASSIGN3INSTRUCTIONS.docx

In this assignment, you will pull together what you did in assignments 1 & 2, in addition to a little more analysis. You will then write a paper.

For this assignment you are to:

 Find an additional 3 academic peer reviewed academic articles about each of your variables (you will have 6 total; 3 for each).

 Using the information gleaned from all of your articles you will write a paper containing each of the following:

 Introduction to the topic. Address the “so what”? Why should the reader care about the possible relationship between these variables? Also include your research question in this opening.

 What do we know about the topic? Using your articles, provide a 3-5 paragraph body of your paper telling the reader what “we” know about the topic (from the articles) and what still needs to be looked at- and HOW your research question will help to address this gap.

 Explain the potential relationship from a theoretical lens. Pick ONE theory that you learned about during this class and use it to apply and explain how this theory can be used to understand the crime or criminal behavior. Be sure that you set the foundation of the theory FIRST, and then apply it

 Conclusion/Policy/Future Research. Write a strong conclusion wrapping up the information obtained from the literature, the theoretical application of the theory to the topic and then suggest one policy that you think would help to address the issue. Suggest one area that should be researched further in regards to your topic and WHY and support the why with academic sources (this may be from your articles). In other words, you are telling the reader what gap still exists and is worthy of further research.

ASSIGN2.docx

The topic chosen for analysis using the biosocial perspective theory is drug abuse. Drug abuse is the compulsive and absurd use of illicit and legal drugs that negatively impacts a person’s social connections, general well-being, and mental and physical wellness (Mandal, 2021). Substance abuse can include drugs such as alcohol, tobacco, opioids, stimulants, hallucinogens, and other psychoactive substances ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009).

A biosocial perspective is a multidisciplinary approach that seeks to understand human behavior by integrating biological, genetic, neurological, social, and psychological factors. It posits that individual behavior is influenced not only by genetic predispositions but by environmental factors and social interactions ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). The theory acknowledges that both nature (biological factors) and nurture (social and environmental factors) play crucial roles in shaping human behavior, including criminal behavior. The biosocial perspective theory includes many vital assumptions. First, genetic factors contribute to individual differences in behavior, personality traits, and susceptibility to certain disorders (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022). Second, environmental influences, such as upbringing, socialization, and exposure to stressors, influence genetic factors to shape behavior (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022). Third, brain structures and neurotransmitters can influence emotions, cognition, and decision-making, thus impacting behavior. Moreover fourth, biological factors can predispose individuals to certain behavioral traits, but their expression may be influenced by environmental triggers ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009).

The biosocial perspective can be applied to drug abuse to understand its etiology and manifestation. From the biological point of view, it suggests that individuals may have varying genetic predispositions to addiction and susceptibility to the effects of drugs ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). Some people may possess genes that make them more vulnerable to the addictive properties of substances, while others may be more resilient due to their genetic makeup. For example, specific genes associated with dopamine receptors and neurotransmitter pathways can influence an individual's response to drugs and increase their likelihood of seeking pleasurable experiences ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). Chronic drug use has been linked to shifts in the brain's structure and function, which can impair judgment, impulse control, and reward processing (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022).

Environmental factors, such as family dynamics, peer influence, socioeconomic status, and exposure to stressful life events, can also play a crucial role in initiating and maintaining drug abuse (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022). For instance, individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds may be more susceptible to substance abuse as a coping mechanism for stress and trauma. Social networks promoting drug use can also reinforce and perpetuate addictive behaviors.

The biosocial perspective also highlights the impact of neurochemical imbalances on drug abuse. Certain neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, play a role in the experience of pleasure and reward, and drugs may artificially stimulate these pathways, leading to a reinforcing cycle of substance use (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022).

While the biosocial perspective provides valuable insights into the complexity of drug abuse, it is essential to recognize that it may not fully explain all aspects of this behavior experience ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). Drug abuse is a multifaceted problem affected by biological, psychological, and societal variables, making it difficult to isolate a single theory as the sole explanatory model. The biosocial perspective acknowledges that biological and environmental factors interact but may not account for all the complexities of drug abuse. Other theories, such as social learning or psychological theories focused on addiction, may provide additional insights into developing and maintaining drug abuse behaviors.

In conclusion, the biosocial perspective considers the interaction of biological, genetic, neurological, and social factors to provide a thorough framework for understanding drug abuse. While it provides valuable insights into the complexity of this behavior, drug abuse remains a complex issue with no single theory fully explaining its causation. Combining multiple theoretical perspectives can enrich our understanding of drug abuse and inform more effective prevention and intervention strategies.

References

Bedoya, A., & Portnoy, J. (2022). Biosocial criminology: History, theory, research evidence, and policy. Victims & Offenders, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2022.2133035

Biological theories of crime. (2023, March 4). Criminal Justice. https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology-theories/biological-theories-of-crime/

Crews, A. D. (2009). Biological Theory. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://sk-sagepub-com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/reference/criminology/n22.xml

Mandal, A. (2021, January 21). What is drug abuse? News-Medical.net. https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Drug-Abuse.aspx

ASSIGN1.docx

Topic: Drug Use

Demographic Variable: Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Independent Variable (IV): Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Dependent Variable (DV): Drug Use

Research Question: To what extent, if any, is socioeconomic status related to drug use?

Annotated Bibliography:

Karriker-Jaffe, K. J. (2013). Neighborhood socioeconomic status and substance use by US adults.  Drug and Alcohol Dependence,  133(1), 212–221.  https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.04.033 This article examines the association between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use outcomes, using survey data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys. This first article, compared to the other two, examines the association between SES and drug use and aims to understand how socioeconomic factors influence substance use behaviors. The study design involved computer-assisted telephone interviews with randomly selected adults aged 18 and older. The dataset included oversamples of African Americans, Hispanics, and residents from low-population states. The researchers matched survey data with indicators of neighborhood SES from the 2000 Census at the census tract level. Then neighborhood SES was measured using composite socioeconomic disadvantage and affluence indicators based on U.S. Census data on income, educational capital, and employment opportunities. Some substance use outcomes examined in the study included daily tobacco use, drinking within guidelines, monthly marijuana use, and monthly illicit drug use. Furthermore, some control variables included age, race/ethnicity, marital status, education, employment status, urbanicity, survey year, and additional variables related to a sense of coherence, distress, family history of alcohol problems, heavy drinking in teens, and region of residence. The results showed significant associations between neighborhood SES and substance use outcomes. For example, disadvantaged neighborhoods were associated with higher odds of daily tobacco use and drinking within guidelines for both men and women. Affluent neighborhoods were associated with lower odds of tobacco use and drinking within guidelines for men and lower odds of tobacco and marijuana use for women. Overall, the findings suggest that neighborhood SES is associated with substance use outcomes, highlighting the importance of considering neighborhood-level factors in understanding and addressing substance use behaviors.

Daniel, J. Z., Hickman, M., Macleod, J., Wiles, N., Lingford-Hughes, A., Farrell, M., Araya, R., Skapinakis, P., Haynes, J., & Lewis, G. (2009). Is socioeconomic status in early life associated with drug use? A systematic review of the evidence.  Drug and Alcohol Review,  28(2), 142–153. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2008.00042.x This article provides a systematic review that examines the association between socioeconomic status (SES) in early life and illicit drug use in later life. The review included longitudinal population-based cohort studies that investigated the relationship between SES of the family of origin and illicit drug use. The search strategy involved searching multiple electronic databases and specialist databases to identify relevant studies. The review included studies that examined the association between drug use and indicators of early SES, such as standard of living, occupation, parental employment, and education. The review results indicate that 11 longitudinal studies met the inclusion criteria and examined the link between SES in early life and illicit drug use. The studies were divided into two sections: birth cohorts and school-aged cohorts. For example, one study found that individuals from low SES backgrounds were likelier to use cannabis than those from higher SES backgrounds. Another study found an association between maternal education and illicit drug use, with sons of better-educated mothers being less likely to use drugs. The study uses methods of the sampling frame, age of participants, response rates, follow-up length, and analysis type. The article's main findings suggest that further research is needed to understand better the association between early life SES and illicit drug use. Like the other two articles, this article control for various demographic and social factors that may confound the relationship between SES and drug use. However, it conducts a systematic review of longitudinal population-based cohort studies, while the first and third articles utilize survey data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys and data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, a nationally representative longitudinal survey in the United States, respectively.

Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use Among Young Adults: A Comparison Across Constructs and Drugs.  Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs,  73(5), 772-782. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.772 This article examines the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use during young adulthood. The authors analyze three indicators of family background SES (income, wealth, and parental education) and their association with smoking, alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking, and marijuana use among young adults. The study finds that smoking in young adulthood is associated with lower childhood family SES, but demographic and social role covariates can explain this association. On the other hand, alcohol use and marijuana use in young adulthood are associated with higher childhood family SES, even after controlling for covariates. The article highlights the need to understand the relationship between childhood SES and substance use during young adulthood, a critical period when substance use peaks. The article discusses previous studies that have yielded mixed findings on the relationship between SES and substance use among youth. It notes that previous studies have not consistently shown a clear relationship between family income and substance use. The study's sample consists of young adults who participated in the Transition into Adulthood survey in 2005 and 2007. Logistic regression models are employed to estimate the associations between SES indicators and substance use behaviors, controlling for demographic and social role covariates. The study aims to answer two main research questions: (a) How are three different indicators of SES (income, wealth, and parental education) associated with substance use behaviors in young adulthood? (b) After controlling for demographic and social role covariates, which SES indicators are most strongly associated with substance use? This article provides insights into the complex relationship between childhood SES and substance use during young adulthood. By considering multiple indicators of SES and controlling for relevant factors, the study offers a nuanced understanding of the associations between socioeconomic factors and substance use behaviors among young adults. This third article, unlike the other two, analyzes three indicators of family background SES: income, wealth, and parental education, but the first article focuses on neighborhood SES, using composite indicators based on U.S. Census data, and the second article examines SES indicators related to standard of living, occupation, parental employment, and education.

ASSIGN3INSTRUCTIONS.docx

In this assignment, you will pull together what you did in assignments 1 & 2, in addition to a little more analysis. You will then write a paper.

For this assignment you are to:

 Find an additional 3 academic peer reviewed academic articles about each of your variables (you will have 6 total; 3 for each).

 Using the information gleaned from all of your articles you will write a paper containing each of the following:

 Introduction to the topic. Address the “so what”? Why should the reader care about the possible relationship between these variables? Also include your research question in this opening.

 What do we know about the topic? Using your articles, provide a 3-5 paragraph body of your paper telling the reader what “we” know about the topic (from the articles) and what still needs to be looked at- and HOW your research question will help to address this gap.

 Explain the potential relationship from a theoretical lens. Pick ONE theory that you learned about during this class and use it to apply and explain how this theory can be used to understand the crime or criminal behavior. Be sure that you set the foundation of the theory FIRST, and then apply it

 Conclusion/Policy/Future Research. Write a strong conclusion wrapping up the information obtained from the literature, the theoretical application of the theory to the topic and then suggest one policy that you think would help to address the issue. Suggest one area that should be researched further in regards to your topic and WHY and support the why with academic sources (this may be from your articles). In other words, you are telling the reader what gap still exists and is worthy of further research.

ASSIGN2.docx

The topic chosen for analysis using the biosocial perspective theory is drug abuse. Drug abuse is the compulsive and absurd use of illicit and legal drugs that negatively impacts a person’s social connections, general well-being, and mental and physical wellness (Mandal, 2021). Substance abuse can include drugs such as alcohol, tobacco, opioids, stimulants, hallucinogens, and other psychoactive substances ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009).

A biosocial perspective is a multidisciplinary approach that seeks to understand human behavior by integrating biological, genetic, neurological, social, and psychological factors. It posits that individual behavior is influenced not only by genetic predispositions but by environmental factors and social interactions ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). The theory acknowledges that both nature (biological factors) and nurture (social and environmental factors) play crucial roles in shaping human behavior, including criminal behavior. The biosocial perspective theory includes many vital assumptions. First, genetic factors contribute to individual differences in behavior, personality traits, and susceptibility to certain disorders (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022). Second, environmental influences, such as upbringing, socialization, and exposure to stressors, influence genetic factors to shape behavior (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022). Third, brain structures and neurotransmitters can influence emotions, cognition, and decision-making, thus impacting behavior. Moreover fourth, biological factors can predispose individuals to certain behavioral traits, but their expression may be influenced by environmental triggers ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009).

The biosocial perspective can be applied to drug abuse to understand its etiology and manifestation. From the biological point of view, it suggests that individuals may have varying genetic predispositions to addiction and susceptibility to the effects of drugs ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). Some people may possess genes that make them more vulnerable to the addictive properties of substances, while others may be more resilient due to their genetic makeup. For example, specific genes associated with dopamine receptors and neurotransmitter pathways can influence an individual's response to drugs and increase their likelihood of seeking pleasurable experiences ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). Chronic drug use has been linked to shifts in the brain's structure and function, which can impair judgment, impulse control, and reward processing (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022).

Environmental factors, such as family dynamics, peer influence, socioeconomic status, and exposure to stressful life events, can also play a crucial role in initiating and maintaining drug abuse (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022). For instance, individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds may be more susceptible to substance abuse as a coping mechanism for stress and trauma. Social networks promoting drug use can also reinforce and perpetuate addictive behaviors.

The biosocial perspective also highlights the impact of neurochemical imbalances on drug abuse. Certain neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, play a role in the experience of pleasure and reward, and drugs may artificially stimulate these pathways, leading to a reinforcing cycle of substance use (Bedoya & Portnoy, 2022).

While the biosocial perspective provides valuable insights into the complexity of drug abuse, it is essential to recognize that it may not fully explain all aspects of this behavior experience ("Biological theories of crime," 2023; Crews, 2009). Drug abuse is a multifaceted problem affected by biological, psychological, and societal variables, making it difficult to isolate a single theory as the sole explanatory model. The biosocial perspective acknowledges that biological and environmental factors interact but may not account for all the complexities of drug abuse. Other theories, such as social learning or psychological theories focused on addiction, may provide additional insights into developing and maintaining drug abuse behaviors.

In conclusion, the biosocial perspective considers the interaction of biological, genetic, neurological, and social factors to provide a thorough framework for understanding drug abuse. While it provides valuable insights into the complexity of this behavior, drug abuse remains a complex issue with no single theory fully explaining its causation. Combining multiple theoretical perspectives can enrich our understanding of drug abuse and inform more effective prevention and intervention strategies.

References

Bedoya, A., & Portnoy, J. (2022). Biosocial criminology: History, theory, research evidence, and policy. Victims & Offenders, 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2022.2133035

Biological theories of crime. (2023, March 4). Criminal Justice. https://criminal-justice.iresearchnet.com/criminology-theories/biological-theories-of-crime/

Crews, A. D. (2009). Biological Theory. SAGE Publications, Inc. https://sk-sagepub-com.ezproxy.umgc.edu/reference/criminology/n22.xml

Mandal, A. (2021, January 21). What is drug abuse? News-Medical.net. https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Drug-Abuse.aspx

ASSIGN1.docx

Topic: Drug Use

Demographic Variable: Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Independent Variable (IV): Socioeconomic Status (SES)

Dependent Variable (DV): Drug Use

Research Question: To what extent, if any, is socioeconomic status related to drug use?

Annotated Bibliography:

Karriker-Jaffe, K. J. (2013). Neighborhood socioeconomic status and substance use by US adults.  Drug and Alcohol Dependence,  133(1), 212–221.  https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.04.033 This article examines the association between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use outcomes, using survey data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys. This first article, compared to the other two, examines the association between SES and drug use and aims to understand how socioeconomic factors influence substance use behaviors. The study design involved computer-assisted telephone interviews with randomly selected adults aged 18 and older. The dataset included oversamples of African Americans, Hispanics, and residents from low-population states. The researchers matched survey data with indicators of neighborhood SES from the 2000 Census at the census tract level. Then neighborhood SES was measured using composite socioeconomic disadvantage and affluence indicators based on U.S. Census data on income, educational capital, and employment opportunities. Some substance use outcomes examined in the study included daily tobacco use, drinking within guidelines, monthly marijuana use, and monthly illicit drug use. Furthermore, some control variables included age, race/ethnicity, marital status, education, employment status, urbanicity, survey year, and additional variables related to a sense of coherence, distress, family history of alcohol problems, heavy drinking in teens, and region of residence. The results showed significant associations between neighborhood SES and substance use outcomes. For example, disadvantaged neighborhoods were associated with higher odds of daily tobacco use and drinking within guidelines for both men and women. Affluent neighborhoods were associated with lower odds of tobacco use and drinking within guidelines for men and lower odds of tobacco and marijuana use for women. Overall, the findings suggest that neighborhood SES is associated with substance use outcomes, highlighting the importance of considering neighborhood-level factors in understanding and addressing substance use behaviors.

Daniel, J. Z., Hickman, M., Macleod, J., Wiles, N., Lingford-Hughes, A., Farrell, M., Araya, R., Skapinakis, P., Haynes, J., & Lewis, G. (2009). Is socioeconomic status in early life associated with drug use? A systematic review of the evidence.  Drug and Alcohol Review,  28(2), 142–153. https://doi-org.ezproxy.umgc.edu/10.1111/j.1465-3362.2008.00042.x This article provides a systematic review that examines the association between socioeconomic status (SES) in early life and illicit drug use in later life. The review included longitudinal population-based cohort studies that investigated the relationship between SES of the family of origin and illicit drug use. The search strategy involved searching multiple electronic databases and specialist databases to identify relevant studies. The review included studies that examined the association between drug use and indicators of early SES, such as standard of living, occupation, parental employment, and education. The review results indicate that 11 longitudinal studies met the inclusion criteria and examined the link between SES in early life and illicit drug use. The studies were divided into two sections: birth cohorts and school-aged cohorts. For example, one study found that individuals from low SES backgrounds were likelier to use cannabis than those from higher SES backgrounds. Another study found an association between maternal education and illicit drug use, with sons of better-educated mothers being less likely to use drugs. The study uses methods of the sampling frame, age of participants, response rates, follow-up length, and analysis type. The article's main findings suggest that further research is needed to understand better the association between early life SES and illicit drug use. Like the other two articles, this article control for various demographic and social factors that may confound the relationship between SES and drug use. However, it conducts a systematic review of longitudinal population-based cohort studies, while the first and third articles utilize survey data from the 2000 and 2005 National Alcohol Surveys and data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, a nationally representative longitudinal survey in the United States, respectively.

Patrick, M. E., Wightman, P., Schoeni, R. F., & Schulenberg, J. E. (2012). Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use Among Young Adults: A Comparison Across Constructs and Drugs.  Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs,  73(5), 772-782. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2012.73.772 This article examines the relationship between childhood socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use during young adulthood. The authors analyze three indicators of family background SES (income, wealth, and parental education) and their association with smoking, alcohol use, heavy episodic drinking, and marijuana use among young adults. The study finds that smoking in young adulthood is associated with lower childhood family SES, but demographic and social role covariates can explain this association. On the other hand, alcohol use and marijuana use in young adulthood are associated with higher childhood family SES, even after controlling for covariates. The article highlights the need to understand the relationship between childhood SES and substance use during young adulthood, a critical period when substance use peaks. The article discusses previous studies that have yielded mixed findings on the relationship between SES and substance use among youth. It notes that previous studies have not consistently shown a clear relationship between family income and substance use. The study's sample consists of young adults who participated in the Transition into Adulthood survey in 2005 and 2007. Logistic regression models are employed to estimate the associations between SES indicators and substance use behaviors, controlling for demographic and social role covariates. The study aims to answer two main research questions: (a) How are three different indicators of SES (income, wealth, and parental education) associated with substance use behaviors in young adulthood? (b) After controlling for demographic and social role covariates, which SES indicators are most strongly associated with substance use? This article provides insights into the complex relationship between childhood SES and substance use during young adulthood. By considering multiple indicators of SES and controlling for relevant factors, the study offers a nuanced understanding of the associations between socioeconomic factors and substance use behaviors among young adults. This third article, unlike the other two, analyzes three indicators of family background SES: income, wealth, and parental education, but the first article focuses on neighborhood SES, using composite indicators based on U.S. Census data, and the second article examines SES indicators related to standard of living, occupation, parental employment, and education.