TO IDENTIFY THE VARIOUS TYPES OF SCHOOL FEEDING PROGRAMMES
Feeding programs and its importance
School feeding program is an organized program that alleviates hunger while supporting
education, health and community development (WFP, 2007). It can be provided as meals or
snacks to be eaten during school hours or distributed as dry take home food ration to pupils at the
end of each day, month or school term, if they attended school regularly. It is a versatile safety
net that is used as platform to support children and their families in a variety of contexts. School
feeding programs (SFP) are a visible social safety net used by political leaders around the world
(Adelman et al; 2009).
The primary objective of a school feeding programme is to provide meals or snacks to alleviate
short-term hunger, thus enabling children to learn. School feeding programs have proven
effective in encouraging enrolment, increasing attention span and improving school attendance
(UNICEF 2005). According to Aregawi (2012), the primary assumption of SFPs is that
education and learning depend on good nutrition. However, in designing and implementing a
school feeding program, a number of options are available, depending on the primary and
secondary objectives of the program. SFPs can range from simple snack provision (usually
fortified biscuits) to breakfast or lunch programs, to take-home rations. Often, these programs
operate in conjunction with other health and nutrition initiatives to increase their success and
impact.
Type of school feeding programme and academic performance
There are several types of school feeding programs namely; centralized feeding program
managed and prepared by the school, decentralized school feeding programmes which are
managed either by the government or by a private sector Organisation. The government of
Kenya introduced a more sustainable and nationally-owned Home-Grown School Meals
Programme (HGSMP), prioritizing the local food supply to schools. Under the HGSMP, the
Government disburses funds directly to schools and provide valuable guidelines on key aspects
such as the nutritional composition of food baskets, adequate procurement processes and
monitoring and evaluation of the programme. Other than the above-mentioned school feeding
programme, there is food prepared at home and carried to school. Children may also go home for
lunch or caregivers may take food to their children at school, (Beryl, 2012).
A study carried out in Sri Lanka by Beryl (2012) on School Feeding Programmes supports the
view that a School Feeding Programme with proper nutrition is essential for growth,
development health and pupils’ well-being. The study indicated that School Feeding Programme
facilitate the development of a child in all its dimensions and have considerable long-lasting
effects on the child’s life. Beryl’s study did not focus on academic performance; rather, it dwelt
on growth, development, health and pupil’s well-being.
A School Feeding programme that has a well-balanced nutrition must be recognized as a vital
component of a quality early childhood education Programme aimed at good performance. The
pre-scholar’s health is one of the factors that determine in part, the child’s schooling and
performance. Bwibo (2011) says that malnutrition has become the highest risk factor for the
educational future of children. It has serious developmental implications in young children
because their ages are critical in growth and development. Therefore, education on nutrition
should form an integral part of early childhood education Programme.
In India, Kar, Rao and Chandramouli (2012) studied the effect of stinting on the nature of
cognitive impairments and on the rate of cognitive development. The study investigated whether
malnutrition results in a concentrated impairment and a general slowing in the rate of
development of all cognitive processes or if these effects could be present for some specific
cognitive processes. Effects of malnutrition on cognitive processes were also looked at in
relation to impairment without affecting the rate of development and its effect on the rate of
development of the cognitive process itself. The subjects were identified as being malnourished
or adequately nourished in the age-groups of six to eight years old and nine to eleven years old.
While Kar, Rao and Chandramouli (2012) study concentrated on effects of stunted growth on the
nature of cognitive impairments and on the rate of cognitive development, the proposed study
link feeding programmes and academic performance of grade two pupils.
Furthermore, in Kar et al’s (2012) study, children in the malnourished group were identified
using their heights (stunting) and weight (wasting) of children in the same age categories with
reference to the National Centre of Health Statistics (NCHS). Height against age and weight
score of less than two grades deviations from the mean were considered as an indicator for
moderate to severe malnutrition. Adequately nourished children were identified as children who
were in or above the 50th percentile of height and weight as stated by the NCHS grades. The
adequately nourished students were paired with malnourished ones with respect to age and grade
level. Each group had 20 participants. Kar et al (2012), study did not bring out clearly how
feeding programme results to pupil’s retention at school, enrolment rate and its relationship to
academic performance which was focused on in this study.
In another study carried out in Nepal by Moock and Leslie (2014), it was found out that the
probability of performing better at school was 5% for stunted children versus 27% for children of
normal nutritional status.
In relation to better performance at school with or without school feeding programme, or
observing changes in pupils’ number and daily attendance after introduction of School Feeding
Programme, an evaluation of school feeding programme was done in Benin, Gambia by Jarousse
and Mugot in 2011 to assess the relative importance of different factors in the learning of Grade
two pupils. The results of the study showed that, School Feeding Programme had positive results
because children looked healthier and performed better than those who were not provided with a
School Feeding Programme. Jarousse and Mugot study however did not mention the types of
food offered and number of meals offered while the proposed study embraces types of food
offered as its key variable.
Academic performance was measured by comparing test scores in French and Mathematics at
the beginning and the end of the school year in Benin, (Jarousse et al 2011). The study found out
that children in schools with a feeding Programme performed better than those in schools
without. When looking for possible explanation for such a positive relationship between learning
achievement and the existence of a School Feeding Programme, the research showed that due to
improved nutrition of children because of School Feeding Programme, attendance was good and
performance was better in those schools as compared to schools without a School Feeding
Programme. Attending school regularly improves grade two childrens’ cognitive development,
which improves learning and performance. Jarousse et. al (2011) study however, was carried out
in Benin, while this study was carried out in Nakuru County, Kenya.
In another study carried out in India by the National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro-
Sciences by Kar et al., (2012) students were tested individually in a well-controlled environment.
The test they were given was the National Institute of Mental Health & Neuro-Sciences
(NIMHANS) neuropsychological battery test for children. It was developed for children aged
five to fifteen years. The battery consisted of neuropsychological tests to assess motor speed,
attention, formal function, Visuo-spatial associations, perception, learning and memory. Each
section was grouped under a specific cognitive domain on the basis of theoretical rationale and
factor analysis. The study by Kar et al., (2012) concentrated on mental developments and
learning patterns of pupils but did not mention anything to do with feeding program and
academic performance.
According to a WFP 2008 survey in Kenya, the net enrolment rate for boys and girls raised from
77% in 2002 to 97% in 2007 in Kenya. In part, this was due to free primary education and in part
due to the provision of school meals and this brought the gender ratio close to parity in schools
with feeding Programmes. This suggests that school meals attract the most underprivileged
female students in class and also draw hungry children to school each day. The survey by WFP
focused mainly on enrolment but left out a crucial component of the relationship between
feeding programmes and academic performance.
In a study by Pollitt (2011), he argues that hunger at school is common and it interferes with the
learning process. Many children go to school without eating breakfast and sometimes miss lunch.
This leads to adverse effects of hunger which include poor cognition, lack of problem-solving
skills and concentration. Hungry children are less alert and lethargic. School Feeding
Programmes cannot be expected to make direct measurable contribution to combating
malnutrition among school children. Attention has thus been focused on school feeding role in
maximizing children’s learning capacity through the short-term relief of hunger, where children
are helped to concentrate and assimilate. Pollitt’s study however did not provide types of feeding
programmes and number of meals in relation to academic performance.
According to Bellisle, (2014), the African region has the highest estimated prevalence of
stunting (20.2 – 48.1%) and has the lowest rate of improvement. This report further says that in
East Africa sub-region, rates of stunting are increasing. An analysis of the nutritional situation
was done on various studies carried out among children and their nutritional status worldwide.
The analysis concluded that growth retardation observed among school age children was striking
and suggested that nutritional status of school children in these countries is at risk. Bellisle study
focused on physical growth of pupils rather than feeding program associated with academic
performance.
In Kenya, results from nutrition surveys indicate that the nutritional state of children below five
years of age has deteriorated. This is a great concern and therefore a reason for the researcher to
embark on this study. There is significant decline in nutritional status notably in Western and
Nyanza regions (WHO, 2000). This obviously affects the children in Grade two with serious
implications on their health as well as learning. In Western Province, 37% of the children were
stunted which was above the National rate of 33.6%. Vihiga District had the highest percentage
of wasted children (12.5%), compared to other districts in the province (Central Bureau of
Statistics, 2003). Stunting and underweight levels were higher in other districts. Central Bureau
of Statistics study however did not bring out clearly the contribution of feeding programmes to
academic performance.
Odoyo (2015) carried out a study in Homa-Bay County (Kenya) to investigate the occurrence of
intestinal helminthiasis and malnutrition among school children, indicated that the prevalence of
stunting was higher in boys than girls, although the study population was basically malnourished.
Similarly, a study carried out by Marjorie, (2013) in Embu County, Kenya, on school-going
children of ages seven to nine years, demonstrated that, 25% of the sample population had an
undersized growth. The studies by Odoyo (2015) and Marjorie, (2013) focused on physical
growth rather than academic performance of grade two pupils.
Research design
The study adopted a correlation research design which determines whether or not two variables
are correlated. The researcher chose this research design because it allows researchers to collect
much more data than experiments. Once correlation is known it can be used to make predictions.F
When we know a score on one measure, we can make a more accurate prediction of another
measure that is highly related to it.F The stronger the relationship between/among variables the
more accurate the prediction. Furthermore, since co-relational research usually takes place
outside the lab, the results tend to be more applicable to everyday life. Another benefit of co-
relational research is that it opens up a great deal of further research to other scholars. According
to Courville, (2013), when researchers begin investigating an observable fact or association for
the first time, co-relational research gives them an ample beginning point. It enables them to
decide the quality and bearing of the association with the goal that other researches may limit
results and, if conceivable, decide the cause by experimentation,
School feeding programmes and Performance
The researcher sought to establish whether school feeding programs had significant effect on
pupil’s performance. The results were recorded in figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3 School feeding programmes and Performance
Yes , 78%
No, 22%
On whether there wasany other noticeable difference between performances of activities of the
children with type of School feeding Programme the respondents agreed with 87%. The
researcher further sought to establish whether the influence of type of food affects academic
performance of preschool children.
Table 4.3 Type of School Feeding Programme
Statement
Highl
y
doesn’
t
Doesn’
t
concur
Und
ecid
ed
Conc
ur
Great
ly
conc
ur
Mean SD
The School feeding Program is
prepared by the school
0% 8% 29% 51% 12% 4.206 .541
The government provides the
prerequisite for the school feeding
program
4% 10% 22% 45% 20% 4.764 .774
Our school prioritizes the local food
supply to schools
10% 8% 16% 43% 24% 4.452 .652
Government disburses funds
directly to schools and provides
valuable guidelines on key aspects
such as the nutritional composition
10% 4% 26% 43% 16% 4.806 .441
There is food prepared at home and
carried to school.
4% 4% 20% 49% 24% 4.442 .674
Children may also go home for
lunch or caregivers may take food
to their children at school,
20% 47% 28% 6% 0% 4.322 .543
Type of School Feeding Program
affects academic performance
4% 6% 16% 51% 24% 4.322 .543
The study above shows that 63% of the respondents greatly concurred, 29% were undecided
while 8% doesn’t concur that the School feeding Program is prepared by the school. On the other
hand, 65% greatly concurred, 22% were undecided, 14% did not concur that the government
provides the prerequisite for the school feeding program. Further, the study revealed that 67%
greatly concurred, 16% were undecided, 18% did not concur that their school prioritizes the local
food supply to schools. Moreover, 59% greatly concurred, 26% were undecided while 14% did
not concur that Government disburses funds directly to schools and provides valuable guidelines
on key aspects such as the nutritional composition of food baskets, adequate procurement
processes and monitoring and evaluation. Furthermore, 83% greatly concurred, 20% were
undecided while 8% did not concur that there is food prepared at home and carried to school.
Nevertheless, 73% the respondents greatly concurred that there is food prepared at home and
carried to school, 20% were undecided while 10% did not concur. Moreover, 6% concurred, 28%
were undecided while 67% concurred that children may also go home for lunch or caregivers
may take food to their children at school. Finally, 75% concurred, 16% were undecided while
10% did not concur that type of School Feeding Program affects academic performance.
From the study above, it’s apparent that The School feeding Program is prepared by the school
as supported by 63% of the respondents. These findings were in line with Beryl, (2012) that there
are several types of school feeding programs namely; centralized feeding program managed and
prepared by the school, decentralized school feeding programmes which are managed either by
the government or by a private sector Organisation. The government of Kenya introduced a more
sustainable and nationally-owned Home-Grown School Meals Programme (HGSMP),
prioritizing the local food supply to schools. Under the HGSMP, the Government disburses
funds directly to schools and provide valuable guidelines on key aspects such as the nutritional
composition of food baskets, adequate procurement processes and monitoring and evaluation of
the programme. Other than the above mentioned school feeding programme, there is food
prepared at home and carried to school.
Conclusion
From the findings, the researcher concludes that the type of food affects academic performance
of preschool children. Well balanced meals affect the cognitive functioning of children and
enhance both mental and physical development. Quality of food has a role on affecting cognitive
functioning. There is a direct correlation between low quality type of food and therefore poor
school performance. Iron-rich foods have appeared to assume an essential function in intellectual
work too. Types of food that provide good nutrients are essential for physical, intellectual and
emotional development.
Further conclusions are made that the School feeding Program is prepared by the school. There
are several types of school feeding programs namely; centralized feeding program managed and
prepared by the school, decentralized school feeding programs which are managed either by the
government or by a private sector Organisation. There is a relationship between number of meals
and children academic performance. Children perform better on tests for respective school
grades when given adequate amount of food the day of the test. While schools can offer free or
reduced lunch programs which may positively affect academics.
Parents’ motivation to enrol their children in school and have them regularly encourage paying
school levies towards school feeding program which causes the pupils to continue enroling and
remain in thus enhance academic performance. The availability of school meal program through
the SFP motivates parents to send their children to school. Provision of food at school relieved
poor household of the cost of educating children acting as an incentive to the poor households,
therefore parents are motivated to send their children to school which increases school
attendance.
Recommendations
On the basis of the results obtained, it is recommended that the program managers and policy
makers should build a consensus on policies and objectives that focus on how SFP can
effectively contribute to academic performance of school age children. The government and all
partners in support of the SFP including NGOs and church organizations should develop a
targeting criteria and mechanisms that would concentrate program resources on high risk
children and communities. In addition, the school management committee and the head teachers
should strengthen the community and parental involvement in organizing and implementing the
SFP. This is because community assisted schools give parents the opportunity to become more
aware of what goes on in the school. Furthermore, through proper integration, the parents could
support the SFP by helping to pay cooks as well as providing fuel and water thus accept it as
their own responsibility.
The school management committee should analyze and identify alternative financing and cost
options, this could be achieved by starting income generating activities to raise funds to
supplement the funds issued by government. In addition, initiate advocacy campaigns in which
well-wishers from the community, political leaders, NGOs and church organizations contribute
funds to support the SFP.
The government should ensure that there is proper and regular feeding program in all public
primary schools in areas characterized by acute food insecurity. They should also provide funds
in good time for the feeding programs and ensure it is adequate for the schools according to the
pupil population. In addition, the government should cushion schools from the escalating food
prices by giving them some additional funds when prices shoot up unexpectedly to ensure that
adequate food supply is purchased.
The head teachers, school management committee, government policy makers and all other
stakeholders including NGOs and church organizations should analyze and elaborate appropriate
guidelines and re-orient the food monitoring systems to include indicators of the school
environment that affect the effectiveness of school meals such as lack of water and firewood.
