Influence of CBT activities on the social well being of rural population
Social or cultural impacts are usually experienced in the encounter between hosts and guests.
They tend to be greater in developing countries because of the large differences in cultural and
economic characteristics between local residents and (Western) tourists. While tourism has the
potential to achieve greater international understanding and harmony (WTO, in Telfer &
Sharpley, 2008), it is usually better known for its negative impacts. The tourism industry is a
contributor to globalization, creating all kinds of opportunities for local communities as well as
potential loss of cultural traits. The severity of the socio-cultural impacts which are experienced
tend to be influenced by the amount and type of visitors, the pace of tourism development and
the relative importance of the industry. The host-guest relationship is important for all these
encounters (Lea, 1988; Hall & Lew, 2009).
Potential positive social impacts include the improvement of infrastructure, the physical
environment, and facilities such as hospitals. Those facilities, which are introduced for tourists,
can also be used by the local population. The encounter between hosts and guests can also
become a mutual learning experience. Especially in small communities which are segregated
from the outside world, the community can be positively influenced by connections and
experiences from outside their own cultural environment. Social capital is thus stimulated, not
only by connections with guests, but also with each other. The tourism industry may empower
marginalized groups, such as women or indigenous people, through employment and cultural
connections (Scheyvens, 2002). Some possible negative impacts are an increase of crime
(frequently specifically aimed at tourists) and sex tourism (Hall & Lew, 2009). Loss of cultural
traits or the degradation of sacred places or rituals is potential negative impacts as well.
However, in some cases cultural traits are preserved because tourists find them interesting, or
because locals feel pride to show them (Hall & Lew, 2009).
The tourism industry is well known for having disastrous effects on the natural environment.
Much nature based tourism activities, such as diving and hiking, might harm to the natural
environment, especially when large numbers of tourists are visiting the sights (UNWTO, 1998).
Diving activities for instance may result into the degradation of the coral reef. Pollution by
irresponsible tourists, such as litter on the beach or in forests, also harms the natural environment
visibly. It often is the local population that knows the environments best, and might be able to
know best what is good for the environment. Like with cultural monuments and traits, the
environment might also be either harmed or protected as a result of tourism, depending on the
type of development and the regulations. Regulated parks can for instance control the amount of
visitors to an area and at the same time earn some money for preservation and maintenance.
Finally, the tourism industry causes noise, air and visibility pollution. The construction of resorts
and other tourist facilities may for instance cause a degradation of the environment in the eyes of
locals. Noise and air pollution is caused by the increased use of transportation. Each destination
is unique and experiences a different set of impacts. Depending on these impacts, communities
might respond differently to tourism development. Several authors have studied the responses of
communities and came up with different frameworks to understand these responses. Already in
1975, Doxey came with an irritation index, also called ‘irridex’, which specifically focuses on
the attitude of locals towards tourists. He argues that these attitudes change according the stage
of tourism development in the area. While tourists are first welcomed enthusiastically, attitudes
change into apathy, annoyance and finally even aggression. A highly developed tourism
destination is, according to Doxey, more likely to show irritation. This framework receives only
partial empirical confirmation.
Weaver and Opperman (2000) criticize the model for perceiving the community as a
homogeneous entity. Irandu (2004) also indicates that the reaction towards tourists is influenced
by the participation in the tourism development process, and the degree to which the community
enjoys the economic benefits of tourism. Communities which rely on tourists will be less likely
to show irritation. Other frameworks of community attitudes towards tourism (Dogan, 1989; Ap
& Crompton, 1993) also show a continuum from acceptance to resistance.
Community –based development empower people to be more aware of the value of their
community assets – their culture, heritage, cuisine and lifestyle. It mobilizes them to convert
these into income generating proposals while offering a more diverse and worthwhile experience
to visitors. Every citizen is a potential business partner to be trained in small business
management, environmental awareness product development and marketing. This type of
people-centered’ tourism promotes a sense of ‘ownership’ which augurs well for the industry’s
sustainability. (TPDCO, 2007) For instance, villagers might host tourists in their village,
managing the scheme communally and sharing the profits. There are many types of community
tourism proposal, including many in which the ‘community’ works with a commercial tour
operator, but all community tourism proposals should give local people a fair share of the
benefits/profits and a say in deciding how incoming tourism is managed. (Tourism Concern,
2007)
The residents earn income as land managers, entrepreneurs, service and produce providers, and
employees. At least part of the tourist income is set aside for proposals which provide benefits to
the community as a whole, (Responsible Travel 2007). Another theme linked to the development
of community-based tourism is the growth of employment opportunities, particularly for women,
young people and aboriginals. For many people in societies throughout the world, the
opportunity to earn money doesn’t come easily. Entrepreneurs of all sorts, including business
people, artists, educators, and others who present or exemplify their culture and crafts, develop
rapidly within the vicinity of any community-based tourism proposal, giving birth to all sorts of
jobs and job opportunities. (Hatton 2007)
Tourism that benefits tourists
These tours open up a world of adventure and opportunity. Visit the Amazon… trek through the
Andes or the Sinai… experience the magic of the central Australian desert… Good community-
based tours take you beyond mainstream tourism. You’ll meet people from different countries
and learn far more about them and their culture than on conventional tours. You’ll feel better
knowing that your visit is genuinely helping your hosts. And if you want to simply lie on a
beach…. well, there are tours here that feature some of the best beaches on the planet. (Tourism
Concern, 2007)
Community based tourism enables the tourist to discover local habitats and wildlife, and
celebrates and respects traditional cultures, rituals and wisdom. The community will be aware of
the commercial and social value placed on their natural and cultural heritage through tourism,
and this will foster community based conservation of these resources. (Responsible Travel 2007)
REFERENCES
Akunaay, Mustapha, Fred Nelson and Elizabeth Singleton (2003) “Community Basted Tourism
in Tanzania: Potantial and Perils in Practice”, 2nd IITP African
Conference on Pease Thourough Tourism, 2003
Ap, J. (1992). Residents perceptions on tourism impacts. Annals of Tourism Research 19, 665-
690.
Ap, J., & Crompton, J. (1993). Residents’ strategies for responding to tourism impacts. Journal
of Travel Research 31(3), 47-50.
Ashley, C., H. Goodwin, D. McNab, M. Scott and L. Chaves (2006):
Becken, S., D. Simmons and C. Frampton (2003): Segmenting Tourists by their Travel Pattern
for Insights into Achieving Energy Efficiency. Journal of Travel
Research, 42(1), 48-56.
Bien, A. et al. (2008): “Sustainable Tourism Baseline Criteria Report (2007): Global Sustainable
Tourism Criteria.
Bishop, J., S. Kapila, F. Hicks, P. Mitchell, and F. Vorhies (2008): Building Biodiversity
Business. Shell International Limited and the International Union for
Conservation of Nature: London, UK, and Gland, Switzerland.
Blackstock, K. (2005). A critical look at community based tourism. Community Development
Journal 40(1), 39-49.
Brohman, J. (1996). New directions for tourism in the Third World. Annals of Tourism Research
23(1), 48-70.
Bujra, J. (2006). Lost in translation? The use of interpreters in fieldwork. In V. Desai & R.B.
Potter, (eds), Doing development research (pp. 172-179). London: SAGE
publications Ltd.
Bull, A. (1995). The economics of travel and tourism. Longman. Business Register March 2006,
Statistics Canada, Total Tourism Sector and Labour Force Survey 2006,
Statistics Canada Travel Alberta Business Strategy 2010-2013.
By, R. and C. Dale. (2008): “The successful management of organisational change in tourism
SMEs: initial findings in UK visitor attractions.” The International Journal
of Tourism Research,
Chang, W. (2001): Variations in multipliers and related economic ratios for recreation and
tourism impact analysis.
Choi, H. S. C., & Sirikaya, E. (2005). Measuring residents’ attitudes toward sustainable tourism:
Development of sustainable tourism attitude scale. Journal of Travel
Research 43, 380-394. community participation; Khama Rhino Sanctuary
Trust, Botswana. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 19(1), 97-114.
Cooper, C., J. Fletcher, A. Fyall, D. Gilbert and S. Wanhill (2008): Tourism: Principles and
Practice. Essex: Pearson Education Limited.
Cortina, J.M. (1993). What is coefficient alpha? An examination of theory and application.
Journal of Applied Psychology 78(1), 98-104.
Dalem, A.A.G.R. (2002): “Ecotourism in Indonesia.” Asian Productivity Organization.
Dogan, H. (1989). Forms of adjustment: Sociocultural impacts of tourism. Annals of Tourism
Research 16(2), 216-236.
Doxy, G. (1975). A causation theory of visitor-resident irritants: Methodology and research
inferences. In Proceedings of the Travel Research Association (pp. 195-
198). San Diego.
Driml, S., J. Robinson, A. Tkaczynski and L. Dwyer (2010): Tourism Investment in Australia: A
Scoping Study. Queensland: Sustainable Tourism Cooperative Research
Centre
Ecotourism Society (TIES) (2005): “Consumer Demand and Operator Support for Socially and
Environmentally Responsible Tourism.” CESD/TIES Working Paper No.
104. April 2005.
Fortuny, M., Soler, R., Cánovas, C., and Sánchez, A. (2008): “Technical approach for a
sustainable tourism development.
France, L. (1998). Local participation in tourism in the West Indian Islands. In E. Laws, B.
Faulkner & G. Moscardo (eds), Embracing and managing change in
tourism: International case studies (pp. 222-234). London: Routledge.
Goodwin, H. (2006) Community-based tourism failing to deliver?. ID 21 Insight 62. London:
Department for International Development.
Goodwin, H. (2011). Taking responsibility for tourism: responsible tourism management.
Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers Limited.
Gössling, S. (2005): In Tourism Recreation and Climate Change.
Gössling, S. (2010): Background Report (Water) prepared for the tourism chapter of the UNEP
Green Economy Report.
Gössling, S. and Hall, C M (eds.) (2006): Tourism and Global Environmental Change:
Ecological, Social and Political Interrelationships. Routeledge, London.
Hagler Bailly, Inc. (1998): “Assessment of Voluntary International Environmental Certification
Programs. Report prepared for Jamaican Hotel and Tourist Association,
Arlingon, VA: Halger Bailly.
Hall, C.M. and Coles, T. (2008): “Introduction: Tourism and international business.” In T. Coles
and C.M. Hall (Ed.), International Business and Tourism:
Hall, M. C., & Lew, A. A. (2009). Understanding and managing tourism impacts: An integrated
approach. New York: Routledge.
Hamele, H. and S. Eckhartd (2006): Environmental Initiatives by European Tourism Businesses.
A contribution to the development of sustainable tourism in Europe.
Hatton, M. J. (1999). Community-based tourism in the Asia Pacific. Ontario/CTC/APEC: School
of Media Studies, Humber College.
