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Adults’ Knowledge of Child Development and Child Guidance
SPSY 7043 - Child Development
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The quality of parenting provided to children has a significant impact on their
development. While research studies generally suggest that most parents lack knowledge
about child development and child guidance, to date there have been few studies that
have comprehensively assessed how much parents actually know about raising children.
The purpose of this study is to investigate how much knowledge the average adult has
about child development and child guidance.
The Importance of Parenting
Over the last 80 years, research studies have outlined the profound impact of
parenting on child outcomes. Findings from these studies demonstrate that the quality of
early caregiving is arguably the most influential factor on early as well as life-long
development and behavior (Mullin, 2012). Parenting quality has a major impact on all
domains of development including cognitive, brain, social, emotional, physical, and
language development, and it establishes the basis for all future relationships (Landry,
Smith & Swank, 2003; Mullin, 2012; Perry, 2002; Sroufe, 2005). The parent-child
relationship is especially crucial during the early years of life because children are fully
dependent on parents to meet their overall needs (Bowlby, 1951). Key findings of the
effects that parenting has on children’s development come from three main sources of
literature: attachment research, Baumrind’s parenting styles research, and brain research.
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Attachment Research
Attachment is defined as a genetically-based behavior which drives humans to
stay connected and form deep relationships with others; in early life, the attachment
system develops within the context of the primary caregiver-infant relationship
(Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991). Attachment involves proximitypromoting, affectionate
interchanges, and behaviors that are appraised and pleasurable to both the child and
caregiver (Bowlby, 1969). Key parental caregiving behaviors which facilitate the
development of a “secure” attachment are expressions of warmth, responsiveness,
consistency of presence, and sensitive attunement of the parent towards the child
(Bowlby, 1951, 1969). These behaviors must be present during infancy and toddlerhood
(0-3 years) which is the critical period to form a secure attachment bond (Bowlby, 1951).
Children develop different forms of attachment depending on varying levels of
affectionate interchanges and behaviors with their primary caregivers (Bolwby, 1969).
The four different forms of attachment include secure, insecureambivalent, insecure-
avoidant, and insecure-disorganized.
Parents who develop a secure attachment with their child are emotionally
available to them, and they frequently express warmth, love, and responsiveness, and are
consistently present (Davies, 2011). They also display sensitive attunement, which
involves the attunement by the parent to the emotional states of the child. These parents
respond to their child’s overall needs by being able to understand their child’s unique cry
and other nonverbal cues (Bretherton, 1992).
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There are a multitude of developmental benefits for children when they build a
strong, secure attachment with their parents. At young ages, children feel safe exploring
their environment because they learn that their needs and interests will be responded to in
a sensitive way (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Carr, Dabbs & Carr, 1975;
Davies, 2011; Sorce & Emde, 1981). Securely attached children feel comfortable
expressing their feelings openly, which in turn helps them in other aspects of
development (Davies, 2011). They also tend to demonstrate superior social skills, less
conflictual peer play, and are able to maintain intimate close relationships. They are also
self-regulated, more advanced when it comes to cognitive and language development, and
they have overall better mental and psychological functioning (Landry, Smith & Swank,
2003; Sroufe, 2005; Weinfield, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2000). Children who experience early
sensitive caregiving during the first three years of life perform better academically--not
only during childhood and adolescence, but also in adulthood (Raby, Roisman, Fraley, &
Simpson, 2014). Overall, having a secure attachment with parents places children on a
positive developmental trajectory during and beyond childhood including fostering a
lifelong motivation to create strong affectional bonds with others.
Parents who form an “insecure-avoidant” attachment with their children are those
who frequently ignore and actively reject their children, especially in terms of bodily
contact (Bretherton, 2003). They speak negatively about their children and their
children’s behavior; they are not sensitively attuned to the child’s needs, are often
intolerant, and typically punish their child when the child expresses distress (Davies,
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2011). These children grow up deprived of loving care as they are raised in a negative
emotional environment.
Children with an insecure-avoidant attachment develop poor social and emotional
skills, as well as poor cognitive functioning (Borhani, 2013; Rosenstein & Horowitz,
1996; Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005). They tend to not show their emotions
(i.e., they are “self-contained”) and so become self-reliant as they do not look to adults
for help in meeting their needs (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins, 2005). These
children grow up expecting rejection by adults, and they tend to have lower self-esteem,
problems with peer relationships, and difficulties later on in marriage and when they
become parents themselves (Hoghughi & Speight, 1998; Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson &
Collins, 2005). These children are also at risk for engaging in risky sexual behavior,
substance abuse, and associating with deviant youth (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson & Collins,
2005). Having an avoidant attachment early on in life is also related to being diagnosed
with oppositional defiant disorder, ADHD, and conduct disorder (Sroufe, Egeland,
Carlson & Collins, 2005).
Parents who develop an “insecure-ambivalent” attachment with their children are
unpredictable and inconsistent in responding, and are insensitive to the needs of their
children (Davies, 2011). These parents do not provide consistent environments or
responsive caregiving for their children. They often have unresolved issues from their
own childhood and tend to place their own needs before their children’s needs (Cassidy &
Berlin, 1994).
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Children with an insecure-ambivalent attachment tend to be anxious and lack
confidence in interacting with others (Davies, 2011). They are less autonomous and
demonstrate separation anxiety in preschool as well as in the school age years (which is
far beyond what children with secure attachments exhibit). They are also likely to be
victims of bullies due to their poor social and emotional development (Irons & Gilbert,
2005), and are vulnerable to conduct and attentional disorders, anxiety, depression, and
substance abuse (Crittenden, 2006; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). These children have to
demonstrate “extreme” behaviors in order to get their parents’ attention (e.g., being loud
and disruptive), and they are at risk for getting frequent physical illnesses (Crittenden,
2006).
Parents who form insecure-disorganized attachments show contradictory
behaviors towards their children, e.g., displaying feelings of warmth to angrily rejecting
their child (vanIjzendoorn, Schuengel, & Bakermans–Kranenburg, 1999). They often
cause fear in their child, may be severely abusive and violent, and are usually anxious and
fearful throughout most of the day (Davies, 2011). Many of these behaviors arise from
unresolved traumas in the parents’ own childhoods (vanIjzendoorn, Schuengel, &
Bakermans–Kranenburg, 1999), and they often suffer from bipolar disorder and substance
abuse (DeMulder & RadkeYarrow, 1991). Families living in poverty and parents who
have a history of psychological disorders are more at risk of developing this type of
attachment style with their children (Green & Goldwyn, 2002).
The effects of insecure-disorganized attachment on children are profound. These
children develop poorly across all domains and exhibit significant amounts of
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externalizing behaviors (DeMulder & Radke-Yarrow, 1991). They grow up in a state of
constant worry, causing high levels of cortisol in the brain (Davies, 2011). Due to their
parent’s inconsistent behavior, they grow up fearful of their parent and remain incapable
of finding reliable ways to get their needs met (Davies,
2011). Insecure-disorganized attachments also predict high rates of role reversal (where
the child takes on an adult-like role and begins to care for the parent) which end up
causing even more stress for the child. This attachment style is also associated with high
rates of psychopathy (Crittenden, 2006; Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007) as these detrimental
effects extend far beyond childhood. One of the primary reasons why the effects
of attachment are so profound is because it is through this connection that children build
an “internal working model” (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1969).
This early relationship establishes the foundation for all other relationships the child will
have later on in life. It becomes the biological and emotional template for all future
relationships including peer relationships, marital relationships, and the relationships they
will later have with their own children (Cozolino, 2006).
Baumrind’s Parenting Styles
Baumrind’s research (1967, 1991) also contributes to the understanding of the
effects of parenting on child outcome as she (and other researchers) have outlined how
specific parenting styles uniquely affect the development and behaviors of children and
adolescents. She identified four “themes” of parenting behaviors including disciplinary
strategies, warmth and nurturance, communication styles, and expectations of maturity
and control (Baumrind, 1967) from which three parenting “styles” were created (i.e.,
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authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive). Maccoby and Martin (1983) later suggested
that permissive parenting be separated into two distinct styles: permissive-indulgent and
permissive-neglectful. The parent behaviors and child outcomes associated with these
four styles are discussed below.
Parents with an “authoritative” parenting style are assertive in establishing and
monitoring clear limits while simultaneously showing affection and responsiveness
towards their children, and having positive engagements with them (Baumrind, 1967).
These parents empower their children by appropriately negotiating decisions so that both
the child’s and parent’s needs are met (Baumrind, 1991). The disciplinary method these
parents use is “inductive” (i.e., the use of reasoning and explanations without using
punishment strategies)
(Baumrind, 1991).
Children with authoritative parents enjoy many positive developmental outcomes.
They grow up feeling capable, successful, and happy (Maccoby, 1992). They tend to have
good social skills because they are competent at negotiating and understanding social
functioning (Baumrind & Black, 1967). They are good at solving problems and making
decisions, and they tend to be selfmotivated and excel at school. As adolescents, they are
less likely to engage in risky behaviors (e.g., alcohol and drug use, risky sexual behavior)
(Baumrind, 1991; Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, & Dornbusch, 1994). In
college, they are well adjusted and attain good grades (Strage & Brandt, 1999). Growing
up with authoritative parents provides children with a lifetime of developmental benefits.
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Parents who use an authoritarian parenting style display low warmth and
responsiveness, and high levels of control (Baumrind & Black, 1967). They are “cold”
towards their children, and they frequently yell, command, and criticize them.
Authoritarian parents do not respect their children’s thoughts, and they make up all of the
rules, leaving very little room for negotiation (Baumrind, 1991). Being raised by
authoritarian parents puts children at risk for internalizing behaviors. They tend to have
poor self-control, are anxious and insecure around their peers, and they tend to react in a
hostile manner when frustrated (Baumrind, 1967). They also show high rates of
dependency and passive behaviors, and display little exploratory behavior (Baumrind &
Black, 1967). They are more likely to look for peer acceptance since they do not feel
accepted at home. In addition, they tend to have poor critical thinking and problem-
solving skills (Kamins & Dweck, 1999). Authoritarian parenting is also linked to poor
school performance in both children and adolescents (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman,
Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987; Steinberg, Elmen, & Mounts, 1989;
Steinberg, Lamborn, Dornbusch, & Darling 1992).
Permissive-indulgent parents are high in warmth and responsiveness, but low in
demandingness (Maccoby & Martin, 1983). They excessively praise their children and
rarely guide or set limits for them (Henschel, 2014), and are easily manipulated by them
as their primary concern is to be liked by their child. These parents often take on the role
of a friend and not of a parent (Baumrind, 1991). Permissive-indulgent parenting sets
children on a poor developmental trajectory. While they tend to experience high self-
confidence, they also exhibit more behavior problems (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter &
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Keehn, 2007). For example, these children show more impulsive and rebellious
behaviors, are overly demanding of adults, and are disobedient (Maccoby, 1992,
Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter & Keehn, 2007). They tend to lack empathy, dismiss any
responsibility for their misbehaviors, and often display narcissistic behaviors (Henschel,
2014; Otway & Vignoles, 2006). Indulgent parenting has also been linked to children’s
underachievement in school settings (Onatsu-Arvilommi & Nurmi, 1997).
Finally, permissive-neglectful parents show low levels of both warmth and control
(Maccoby & Martin, 1983). They are uninvolved in the lives of their children, have little
commitment to being a parent, and see their caregiving duties as an inconvenience
(Baumrind, 1991). Furthermore, they do not support or encourage their child’s self-
regulation, nor do they supervise their child (Barber, 1996; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).
The negative effects of growing up with uninvolved and neglectful parents are
profound. These children develop poorly across all domains (Maccoby, 1992) and have
the poorest psychological adjustment, often developing delinquent tendencies (Aunola,
Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000; Hoeve et al., 2009). Additionally, these children are more likely
to engage in heavy alcohol and drug use (Steinberg, Lamborn, Darling, Mounts, &
Dornbusch, 1994) and have poor academic performance (Aunola, Stattin, & Nurmi, 2000;
Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Their academic disengagement and problem behaviors place
them on a downward trajectory (Steinberg et al., 1994). As a result of poor-quality
parenting, these children also tend to lack the social and emotional skills needed to be
able to function in society (Hoghughi & Speight, 1998; Sroufe, Egeland,
Carlson & Collins, 2005).
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Parenting Quality and Brain Development
Research studies also demonstrate that parenting quality impacts early brain
development. Studies show that during the first three years of life, the brain develops up
to 90 percent of adult size, and that the most important environmental influence on the
developing structures and functioning of the brain is the quality of caregiving
environment (Balbernie, 2001; Perry, 2001, 2002).
The brain undergoes tremendous changes during this time, and puts into place most of the
systems responsible for emotional, behavioral, and physiological functioning (Perry,
2001). Warm, sensitively attuned, and responsive caregiving shapes the emerging neural
circuitry in children’s brains, which promotes the development of emotion regulation, the
stress response system, autobiographical memory, and theory of mind (Cozolino, 2006;
Siegel, 2004). Positive early experiences help young brains strengthen synapses, prune
away unused synapses, and allow the structure and functioning of the brain to develop
normally (Perry, 2002).
Poor-quality parenting (i.e., the lack of nurturing and caring behaviors) has a
multitude of negative effects on brain structure and brain chemistry (Balbernie, 2001;
Perry, 2001; Sunderland, 2006). Children growing up in disorganized and dysfunctional
environments tend to experience delayed brain development and underdeveloped brain
regions, the suppression of neuron production after birth, and increased irritability and
stress (Ahnert, Gunnar, Lamb & Barthel, 2004; Perry, 2002). Children who suffer from
severe neglect as infants grow up to have smaller brain sizes and lack well-functioning
communication pathways between the two brain hemispheres (Nelson, Fox, & Zeanah,
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2013) which negatively impact all developmental domains (Ahnert, Gunnar, Lamb, &
Barthel, 2004;
Perry, 2002).
Summary
In sum, attachment research, Baumrind’s parenting style research, and brain
research all demonstrate that the way parents care for their children has a profound
influence on their subsequent development, and the effects tend to last a lifetime. Secure
attachments and the authoritative parenting style provide the best developmental
outcomes for children, while the permissive neglectful, and avoidant/disorganized
parenting styles provide the worst developmental outcomes. When parents are responsive,
sensitive, and set developmentally appropriate limits, children have better developmental
outcomes, such as higher self-control, better social skills, and perform better
academically compared to children being raised with different parenting styles. Children
who are raised in neglectful environments or with parents who are extremely strict and
are not willing to compromise, tend to have lower levels of self-control, have a hard time
interacting with others, and perform poorly academically compared to children being
raised with a different parenting style. Additionally, findings from neuroscience research
show that the brain develops differently depending on early life experiences. Positive
early life experiences help the brain develop optimally, and negative early life
experiences delay and may even alter optimal brain development.
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Influences on Parenting Behavior
What influences the type of parenting that adults (especially mothers) ultimately
employ in parenting their own children? Research studies have identified a number of
influences including maternal mental health, the quality of the mother’s own early
parenting, the parents’ educational (SES) level, parent gender, parent ethnicity, and
parents’ knowledge of child development and parenting skills.
First, poor maternal mental health is associated with overall poor developmental
outcomes in children (Fonagy, Target, Gergely, Allen, & Bateman, 2003; Gurian, 2003;
Moore, Whaley, & Sigman, 2004). Depression in mothers has been associated with poor
physical, mental, and emotional development in children (Gurian, 2003). Children of
anxious mothers tend to be more fearful, aggressive, and endorse less control (Whaley,
Pinto, & Sigman, 1999).
Second, the quality of the mother’s own early parenting history is also related to
how parents raise their own children: most adults (75%) parent the way they were
parented (Sroufe et al., 2005). For example, parents who grew up with a secure
attachment tend to show more warmth and positive affect towards their children (Adam,
Gunnar, & Tanaka, 2004). Conversely, parents who grew up with an insecure attachment
tend to show more negative behaviors towards their children and tend to be insensitive
and rejecting (Blizard, 2003; Cassidy &
Shaver, 1999).
Third, parents’ educational level is positively correlated with parenting behaviors:
mothers with higher levels of education are more likely to be knowledgeable about
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children’s developmental needs and are more likely to support children’s overall
development (Adam, Gunnar, & Tanaka, 2004; Benasich & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; Serbin
& Karp, 2003). Mothers with lower educational levels, by contrast, tend to be less
responsive and less likely to provide an enriching home environment for their children
(e.g., they tend to show inappropriate, intrusive, and inconsistent styles of interaction and
discipline) (Serbin, Peters, McAffer, & Schwartzman, 1991).
Fourth, current research has demonstrated that parent gender has an effect on what
parenting style they use with their children. Mothers may adopt a warmer style of
parenting, while fathers may adopt a more goal-oriented style of parenting (Russell et al.,
1998). Mothers are more likely to use an authoritative parenting style, whereas fathers are
more likely to use an authoritarian parenting style (Conrade & Ho, 2001; Holmbeck,
Paikoff, & Brooks-Gunn, 1995; Russell et al., 1998; Smetana, 1995). In general, studies
have found that mothers, compared to fathers, provide more warmth and support and
have closer relationships with their children (Holmbeck et al., 1995; Phares, 1999; Tein,
Roosa, & Michaels, 1994). The amount of time parents spend with their children may
also vary by gender. Mothers tend to spend more time taking care and interacting with
their children and adolescents than fathers do (Fagot, 1995; Holmbeck et al., 1995;
Hosley & Montemayor, 1997; Lewis & Lamb, 2003; Phares, 1999; Renk et al., 2003).
Incorporating father’s/male’s perspective in research about parental involvement is
important because fathers contribute different information compared to mothers.
It is also important to consider the influence that ethnicity has on parenting style
and practice. Current research has found that Hispanic mothers living in the U.S. report
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higher usage of discipline and lower levels of nurturing behaviors compared to Anglo-
American mothers (Cardona, Nicholson, & Fox, 2000). African American parents report
higher levels of harsh discipline (Kessler & Neighbors, 1986; Pinderhughes, Dodge,
Bates, Pettit, & Zelli, 2000). Authoritative parenting seems to be more prevalent in
European American families while authoritarian parenting seems to be widely used by
African
American, Asian American, and Hispanic American parents (Escovar, &
Lazarus,1982; Steinberg, 2001; Varela et al., 2004).
Parents’ knowledge of child development and effective parenting skills is another
important factor influencing parenting quality. Studies show that child development
knowledge is positively correlated with supportive and more developmentally-
appropriate parenting behaviors, and has a positive influence on many aspects of
childrearing and child outcome.
First, studies have shown that mothers’ overall knowledge of child development is
positively correlated with interacting more appropriately with their children
(Chamberlin, Szumowski, & Zastowny, 1979; Chang, Park, & Kim, 2009; Fry, 1985;
Grusec & Goodnow, 1994) including being more likely to implement developmentally-
appropriate practices (e.g., having developmentally-appropriate toys, using
developmentally-appropriate language when speaking to the children, and interacting
more with their children during play) (Stevens, 1984). Mothers with more child
development knowledge are also more likely to use inductive guidance (Smith, 2002).
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More knowledge about development diminishes the potential for physical abuse and the
use of corporal punishment (Thomas et al., 2003).
Second, child development knowledge helps parents be more likely to
appropriately meet the developmental needs of their children (Smith, 2002). Mothers
with adequate child development knowledge tend to adopt parenting behaviors that help
regulate children’s behaviors and that also help children’s social-emotional development
(Benasich & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; Miller, 1988; Sigel, 1992; Smith, 2002).
Knowledgeable mothers use more inductive reasoning as opposed to assertive
disciplinary techniques because they understand the developmental level of their child
(Smith, 2002).
Third, parents with more knowledge are more likely to provide more enriching
experiences. For example, greater maternal knowledge of child development is associated
with increased cognitive and language stimulation (e.g., parents read to children daily) as
well as increased engagement with the child during parent-child activities (Chang, Park,
& Kim, 2009). Greater child development knowledge provides parents with the skills to
create a supportive and higher-quality learning environment (Dichtelmiller et al., 1992;
MacPhee, 1983; Miller, 1988; Morawska, Winters, & Sanders, 2009; Parks & Smeriglio,
1986; Stevens, 1984).
Child development knowledge has also been found to help parents understand
their child’s development including the motives behind children’s behaviors which help
parents understand that such challenges as toddler meltdowns and difficulties with teens
are normal (Reich, 2005).
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Studies also show that when parents are more knowledgeable about child
development, infants perform better on the Bayley Scales of Infant Development
(Dichtelmiller et al., 1992), and children display higher levels of intelligence, language,
social, and emotional development (Assel et al., 2002; Ateach, 2003;
Bronfenbenner, 1974; Chang, Park, & Kim, 2009; Johnson, Cohen, Chen, Kasen,
& Brook, 2006; Pfannenstiel & Seltzer, 1985; Riesch, Anderson, & Krueser, 2006; Smith,
2002). Parental knowledge of child development is also related to children being more
prepared for school and performing better academically (Zigler, Pfannenstiel, & Seitz,
2008). Mothers who have greater knowledge of child development also have children
who display fewer behavior problems
(Benasich & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; Huang, Caughy, Genevro, & Miller, 2005;
McGillicuddy-DeLisi, 1985; Stevens, 1984). Greater child development knowledge has
even been shown to have the capacity to shift their children’s biology: parent’s attendance
at parenting education workshops, for example, has been found to be related to children
having a lessened likelihood of being obese, and with lower cortisol levels which lead to
less aggressive behaviors (Brotman et al., 2007).
Research-based knowledge about parenting and child development has also been
found to enable parents to more critically evaluate their own experiences growing up and
the effects of those experiences on their own development (Center for the Study of Social
Policy, 2014). This in turn has been found to allow parents to reflect on and evaluate their
current practices and to consider other, more effective ways to guide and respond to
children.
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Conversely, the lack of child development knowledge increases the likelihood that
parents will believe in and follow the many cultural myths about child development and
child guidance, e.g., “Don’t pick up a crying baby; they need to learn to quiet
themselves”; “If you give too much love to a child, it will spoil them”; “Toddlers have
tantrums because they just want attention and are trying to manipulate the parent”; “All
that child needs is a good spanking” (Kamptner, personal communication, 2015). For
example, parents often do not realize that harsh childrearing methods have negative
consequences for children including diminishing children’s curiosity and readiness to
learn, increasing anger and misconduct, and even increasing the risk of developing brain
abnormalities
(Gardner, Burton, & Klines, 2006; Perry, 2001; Straus, 2001; Straus & Paschall, 2009;
Tomoda et al., 2009). Also, a lack of developmental knowledge has been found to result
in parents being more likely to be unaware of the timing of certain developmental
milestones, and to have unrealistic and inappropriate expectations for their children
(Reich, 2005; Roggman, Benson, & Boyce, 1999). For example, parents have been found
to underestimate how early children can experience feelings of sadness and fear and to
overestimate how early children can control their emotions (Yankelovich & DYG Inc.,
2000). Having unrealistic expectations of children may cause parents to be impatient and
even to maltreat their children (Azar & Rohrbeck, 1986; Bavolek, 1989; Cowen, 2001;
Peterson, Gable, Doyle, & Ewigman, 1997; Twentyman & Plotkin, 1982). Mothers who
have unrealistic expectations typically fail to provide experiences that foster and support
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development (MacPhee, 1983), and they are less able to adequately meet the needs of
their children (Reich, 2005).
In sum, there is a strong link between parents’ child development knowledge and
children’s developmental outcomes (Benasich & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; Culp, Culp,
Blankemeyer, & Passmark, 1998; Dichtelmiller et al., 1992;
Goodnow, 1988; Honig & Wittmer, 1991; Huang, O’Brien Caughy, Genevro, &
Miller, 2005; Hunt & Paraskevopoulos, 1980; MacPhee, 1983; Miller, 1988; Sigel, 1992;
Smith, 2002; Stevens, 1984). Parents with greater knowledge tend to promote the optimal
development of children as it increases the level of appropriate parental involvement
(Bailey, 1993) and results in the overall better quality of parenting for children (Huang,
O’Brien Caughy, Genevro & Miller, 2005;
Reich, 2005; Hess, Teti, & Hussey-Gardner, 2004).
How Much Does the Typical Adult/Parent Know About Child Development/Guidance?
The general consensus from the few existing studies is that most parents know
little
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(e.g., Bigner & Gerhardt, 2014; Perry, 2013; Pillemer, 2011). The few existing
studies over the last several decades on this topic have primarily investigated parent
knowledge of developmental milestones and the physical care of young children. The
first known study assessing child development knowledge examined the type of
information mothers were most knowledgeable about, and the information they most
1
"Dr. Bruce Perry, a top researcher and child trauma expert, for example has concluded
that our culture is “child illiterate” and “developmentally ignorant” (Perry, 2013)."
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desired to learn about children’s development (Sperry & Gardner, 1965). Results showed
that mothers were the most informed about, and most desired information about, how to
physically care for infants, and that most lacked knowledge about overall child
development.
The few studies subsequently conducted over the last 30 years have reported
similar findings (i.e., that parents lack accurate knowledge about child development) (Al-
Maadadi & Ikhlef, 2015; Ertem et al., 2007; Kliman & Vukelich, 1985; Ogg, 1975; Peters
& Hoekelman, 1973; Reich, 2005; Shea & Fowler, 1983; Yankelovich & DYG Inc.,
2000). For example, a study conducted in 1985 found that many parents overestimate and
underestimate children’s skills at different ages, e.g., when a child can follow simple
directions, when babies start solid foods, when babies say their first word, or when
children make 2-to-4 word sentences (Kliman & Vukelich, 1985). More recent studies
have found the same,
i.e., that mothers expect too little too late, or too much too soon (Jahromi,
Guimond, Umaña-Taylor, Updegraff, & Toomey, 2014; Karraker & Evans, 1996; Tamis-
LeMonda, Shannon, & Spellman, 2002). Perhaps the most well known study on this topic
was a national survey conducted in the U.S. in 2000 by Zeroto-Three, which measured
parent knowledge of the development of children aged 0 to 3 years, as well as the policies
that affect children. This study assessed knowledge on intellectual, emotional, and social
development from age 0-3 years (Yankelovich & DYG Inc., 2000), and found that parents
lack accurate knowledge about child development and they underestimate children’s
abilities at an early age. In addition, it was found that parents tend to value the types of
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play that are not beneficial to the development of young children (e.g., flashcards). This
study also concluded that parents overestimate children’s abilities, they believe young
children can be spoiled, and they feel that spanking is a good disciplinary technique
(although some did acknowledge some of its negative effects) (Yankelovich & DYG Inc.,
2000).
Results of studies conducted after the year 2000 coincide with these findings.
Parents are generally unaware of the timing of physical, social, emotional, and cognitive
developmental milestones (Reich, 2005; Rikhy et al., 2010) and are unaware that sight,
vocalization, social smiling, and overall brain development begin very early in life (and
that they should begin to talk to their children early) (Ertem et al., 2007). Parents also
tend to lack knowledge about sleep patterns at different ages and how to detect sleep
problems (Schreck & Richdale, 2011). The most recent studies published in 2015 on this
topic continue to report similar findings, i.e., that mothers lack knowledge of typical child
development and are more knowledgeable about physical care and safety (Al-Maadadi &
Ikhlef, 2015; Safadi et al., 2015). The few studies that have focused on assessing parent
knowledge of child guidance found that many parents approve of the use of corporal
punishment and favor it as a form of discipline (Best Start Resource Centre, 2014; Taylor,
Hamvas, Rice, Newman, & Dejong, 2011).
Results of studies from countries outside the U.S. are consistent with the above
findings, i.e., that parents lack knowledge about early development and caregiving, and
include Turkey (Ertem et al., 2007), Canada (Rikhy et al., 2010),
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Taiwan (Tsao, 1994), Qatar (Al-Maadadi & Ikhlef, 2015), Jordan, (Safadi et al., 2015),
and Brazil (Ribas Jr. & Bornstein, 2005).
In sum, these studies demonstrate that adults lack accurate knowledge about child
development and child guidance, they have inappropriate expectations for children’s
development, and are most knowledgeable on issues pertaining to physical care and
safety. Additional shortcomings of studies assessing adults’/parents’ knowledge about
child development and child guidance are that they are limited in the range of issues
addressed: for example, they do not include questions on child guidance or brain
development, and instead generally focus on health and safety measures, developmental
norms and milestones, and developmental principles relevant to very young children (up
to age three). Second, the participants of these studies were primarily married, white,
well-educated women and for the most part, lack father/male participants. The two
studies found on father knowledge only examined father knowledge as a predictor
variable of how it impacted father involvement (Bailey, 1993; Roggman, Benson, &
Boyce 1999). Few studies include ethnically-diverse participants. Third, the
developmental age range focused on in these studies was mostly on development between
the ages of 0-3, and did not address childhood or adolescent development. Fourth, few of
the studies address parents’ knowledge about developmentally-appropriate child
guidance, or parent knowledge of the effects of commonly-used punishments such as
time-outs or corporal punishments.
Summary and Purpose of Study
23
To date, studies of parent knowledge of child development and child guidance
have focused primarily on parents’ knowledge of developmental norms and milestones of
children who are 0-3 years old. These studies have primarily assessed white, middle class
mothers and have generally not included an ethnically-diverse sample, or males. In
addition, there is very little research on how much parents know about appropriate child
guidance, including the harmful effects of harsh rearing practices.
The purpose of the current study was to gain a more accurate understanding of
what adult males and females understand about child development and child guidance by
empirically assessing knowledge of child development and parenting skills (i.e., child
guidance) utilizing an ethnicallydiverse sample. It was expected that 1) adults’ knowledge
about child development and child guidance would be very limited, and that 2) adult
females would be more knowledgeable than adult males. Finally, it was expected that the
amount of knowledge among ethnicities would not vary as it was expected that adults in
general lack accurate knowledge about child development and guidance.
CHAPTER TWO
METHOD
Participants
24
Participants consisted of 705 adults (19.1% male; 80.7% female; 0.1% missing)
recruited through CSUSB SONA system and by distributing the survey link via Facebook
and email. Adults ranged in age from 18 to 35 years (M=21.99,
SD=3.19). Participants came from diverse ethnic backgrounds: 6.4% Asian;
3.5% African American; 12.5% European American; 70.1% Hispanic; 0.4% Native
American; 1.6% Middle Eastern; 5.2% Biracial; and 0.3% “other”. (For the purpose of
this study, participants who identified their ethnicity as Native American, Middle Eastern,
or Other were grouped together due to their small numbers). The level of education
completed was as follows: 0.1% did not complete high school; 31.2% graduated high
school; 0.7% trade school; 56.5% some college; 8.7% graduated from college; 1.0%
some post graduate work; and 1.8% graduate or professional degree. Out of the 705
participants, 10.5% were currently parents. Almost 24% of the participants had no
previous coursework in child development; 51.6% had taken 1-3 classes in child
development, and
25.3% had taken four or more classes.
Measures
The questionnaire was comprised of the following assessments.
Parenting Knowledge, Skills, and Beliefs
Four assessments measuring knowledge and beliefs about child development and
child guidance were used. The first assessment was the Adult Adolescent Parenting
Inventory-version 2 (Bavolek & Keene, 1999). The AAPI-2 is a 40-item inventory
25
designed to assess the parenting and child rearing attitudes of adolescents and adult
parent and pre-parent populations (APPENDIX A). The inventory consists of five
subscales: expectations of children, parental empathy towards children’s needs, use of
corporal punishment, parent-child family roles, and children’s power and independence.
Participants rated each item on a 5-point Likert scale (SA=Strongly Agree; SD=Strongly
Disagree). Based on the known parenting and child rearing behaviors of abusive parents,
responses to the inventory provide an index of risk (high, medium, low) for practicing
behaviors known to be attributable to child abuse and neglect. The AAPI-2 is a validated
and reliable inventory used to assess parenting attitudes; Chronbach’s alpha=0.82. The
AAPI-2 is written at a fifth-grade reading level.
The second assessment utilized was the What Grown-Ups Understand About
Child Development: A National Benchmark Survey. This 64-item questionnaire, created
by Yankelovich and DYG Inc. (2000), is designed to assess adults’ (18 years and older)
knowledge about child development and child and family policies (APPENDIX B). The
survey contains nine subscales: when and how children develop, supporting children in
their development, the importance of play, expectations of young children, spoiling,
discipline, adult and child relationships, preparation for parenthood, and policies. For the
purpose of this study, the policy questions were omitted. The sampling error for this
survey is plus or minus 1.8%.
The third assessment to be used is the Engaging Families in the Early
Childhood Development Story. This 38-item questionnaire created by the
26
Ministerial Council for Education, Early Childhood Development and Youth Affairs
(Winter, 2010) investigates parents’, caretakers’, and the communities’ knowledge about
evidence-based information from the neurosciences about early childhood development
and how parents access information about child development (APPENDIX C). The
questions were derived by carefully reviewing neuroscience research about children aged
birth-eight years. All survey questions required a forced choice response.
The fourth assessment is the Outcomes of Physical Punishment Scale (OPP)
(Durrant, Rose-Krasnor, & Broberg, 2003) (APPENDIX D). Eight items from the OPP
scale were used to assess parents’ expectations for using corporal punishment (CP).
Participants rated each item on the scale using a 5-point Likert scale (1=never;
5=always). The scale is divided into two subscales, one consisting of five items indicating
positive expectations for CP use (α=0.80), and three items indicating negative
expectations for CP use (α=0.84). Items from the two subscales were summed and
averaged.
In addition to the above, five items were created to measure adults’ knowledge
about brain development. These included questions about brain development, toddler
tantrums, the effects of letting children cry for a long period of time, the effects of
experiencing rich language in the first three years of life, and the effects of experiencing
neglect and abuse at a young age (APPENDIX
E).
Items from the assessments were reorganized according to the following factors:
child development and child guidance (see Table 1). Child development items referred to
27
developmental milestones, care of children, and adults’ ideas about children’s
development. Higher scores reflect more accurate knowledge. Child guidance items
referred to child guidance and discipline techniques, with higher scores indicating greater
knowledge of developmentally-appropriate, positive child guidance skills including
knowledge of the harmful effects of corporal punishment. Variables were recoded and
participants were given two points for correct/ideal answers and zero points for incorrect
answer. For the child guidance questions, the number of points possible was 52, and for
the child development questions the number of points possible was 210.
Table 1.
Items Comprising Each of the Examined Factors
Factors:
AAPI-2
(Bavolek &
Keene,
1999)
What
Grown-Ups
Understand
(Yankelovich
& DYG Inc.,
2000)
Engaging
Families
(Winter,
2010)
OPP
(Durrant,
Rose-
Krasnor, &
Broberg,
2003)
Items
created for
use in the
current
study
Child
Guidance
1-17
1
1-8
Child
Development
18-40
2-29
1-16
1-5
28
Background information
Items included questions regarding age, ethnicity, gender, education, parents’
educational level, number of children they have (if any), previous parenting classes taken,
courses taken in child development, how prepared they felt for parenthood, how prepared
they believe most parents are when they have their first child, and their source of
knowledge for information about child development and child guidance (APPENDIX F).
Some of these items were adapted from Winter (2010) and Yankelovich & DYG Inc.,
(2000).
Procedure
The survey was created using the Qualtrics software and was distributed via the
CSUSB SONA system, through email, and Facebook. SONA participants received extra-
credit for participating in the survey.
29
CHAPTER THREE
RESULTS
Since most of the respondents were through the CSUSB SONA research system
which is only available to students in psychology and human development courses, the
participants were first divided into three groups based on the number of child
development classes taken (since it was expected that coursework in child development
would significantly impact participants responses). Of the 705 participants, 24% had not
taken any child development courses, 51% had taken between one and three courses, and
25% had taken four or more child development courses. The distribution of child
development classes by sex and ethnicity is shown in Appendix G.
Primary Analysis
The first hypothesis stated that adults’ knowledge about child development and
child guidance would be very limited. To test this hypothesis, mean scores for the above
three groups were computed. Results showed that participants’ knowledge of child
development was fairly high, and participants demonstrated more knowledge of child
development than child guidance (Table 2).
Table 2.
Mean and Percentage of Correct Responses for Child Development and Child Guidance Items by Child
Development Coursework Taken (N=705)
None 1-3 Classes 4 or More
(n=167) (n=360) (n=178)
M
(SD)
% items
correct
M
(SD)
% items
correct
M
(SD)
% items
correct
Child
Development
scores*a
128.5
(20.7)
61%
138.3
(24.3)
66%
159.2
(22.7)
76%
Child
Guidance
scores**b
18.1
(8. 4)
35%
20.7
(9.1)
40%
28.7
(9.1)
55%
* Maximum possible score for child development items: 210 points **
Maximum possible score for child guidance items: 52 points
a Child development items referred to developmental milestones, care of children, and adults’ ideas about children’s
development. Higher scores reflect more accurate knowledge. b Child guidance items referred to child guidance and
discipline techniques, with higher scores indicating greater knowledge of developmentally-appropriate, positive child
guidance skills including knowledge of the harmful effects of corporal punishment.
Child Development Coursework
32
Overall, the results showed that the amount of child development coursework
impacted participants’ child development and child guidance knowledge scores. For child
development knowledge, participants who had taken child development classes had a
higher percentage of correct answers. An
ANOVA showed statistical significance for child development knowledge F (2,
704)=82.14, p=0.000, with an effect size of n^2=0.19, suggesting large practical
significance. When analyzing eta-squared, small effect size is 0.01, medium effect size is
0.06, and large effect size is 0.14 (Cohen, 1988). A Tukey HSD post hoc test showed
there was a significant difference between participants with no child development classes
and those who had taken between 1-3 child development classes (p=0.000), with an effect
size of Hedges’ g=-0.42 suggesting medium practical significance. When analyzing
Hedges’ g, small effect size is 0.2, medium effect size is 0.5, and large effect size is 0.8
(Hedges, 1981). There was also a significant difference between participants with no
child development classes and those with four or more classes (p=0.000), with an effect
size of Hedges’ g=1.41 suggesting a large practical significance. Finally, there was a
significant difference between participants who had taken between 1-3 child development
classes and those with four or more classes (p=0.000), with an effect size of Hedges’
g=0.88 suggesting a large practical significance.
An ANOVA computed on the mean scores for child guidance for the three groups
was also significant: F(2, 704)=66.06, p=0.000, with an effect size of n^2=0.158,
suggesting large practical significance. A Tukey HSD post hoc test
33
showed that there was a significant difference between the no child development classes
group and the group who had taken between 1-3 child development classes (p=0.007),
with an effect size of Hedges’ g=-0.29, suggesting small practical significance. There was
also a significant difference between participants with no child development classes and
those with four or more (p=0.000), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=1.15, suggesting a
large practical significance. Finally, there was a significant difference between
participants who had taken 1-3 child development classes and those with four or more
(p=0.000), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=-0.85, suggesting large practical significance.
In summary, participants with four or more classes had higher scores for both
child development and child guidance compared to the other groups.
The second hypothesis stated that females would be more knowledgeable about
child development and child guidance than males. To test this hypothesis, a t-test was
performed on the male and female mean scores for child development and child guidance
knowledge (Table 3). Results showed that females scored significantly higher than males
for child development (t(702)= 6.48, p<0.001), with an effect size of d=-0.62, suggesting
large practical significance. Females also scored higher than males on child guidance
knowledge (t(702)=-4.3, p<0.001), with an effect size of d=-0.41, suggesting moderate
practical significance. When analyzing Cohen’s d, small effect size is 0.2, medium effect
size is 0.5, and large effect size is 0.8 (Cohen, 1988).
34
Table 3.
T-Test Results Comparing Male’s vs. Female’s Child Development and Child Guidance Knowledge (N=704)
Males Females
(n=135) (n=569)
M (SD) % M (SD) %
items items t df Sig.
correct
correct
Child
Development
Knowledge*a
128.7
(22.8)
61%
144.2
(25.4)
69%
-6.48
702
.000
Child Guidance
Knowledge**b
18.9
(9.0)
26%
22.9
(9.9)
44%
-4.30
702
.000
* Maximum possible score for child development items: 210 points ** Maximum possible score for child guidance items:
52 points a Child development items referred to developmental milestones, care of children, and adults’ ideas about
children’s development. Higher scores reflect more accurate knowledge. b Child guidance items referred to child guidance
and discipline techniques, with higher scores indicating greater knowledge of developmentally-appropriate, positive
child guidance skills including knowledge of the harmful effects of corporal punishment.
35
Gender
The third hypothesis stated that child development and child guidance scores
would be similar among the different ethnic groups. To test this hypothesis, participants
were first grouped into the following five ethnic groups: Asian-American, African-
American, European-American, Hispanic, and “Other”
(which included the small number of Native American, Middle Eastern, and “Other”
participants). ANOVAs were then computed on the child development and child
guidance mean scores across ethnic groupings and showed that the amount of knowledge
varied somewhat among the different ethnic groups. For the child development scores,
ANOVA results showed there was a significant difference, F (4, 704)= 9.34, p=0.000,
with an effect size of n^2=0.051, suggesting moderate practical significance. Tukey HSD
post hoc test showed there was a significant difference between European Americans and
Hispanics (p=0.000) (with European Americans scoring 154.1 and Hispanics scoring
139.6), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=0.58, suggesting a moderate practical
significance. There was a significant difference between Asian American and
European American scores (p=0.000) (with Asian Americans scoring 143.8 and
European-Americans scoring 154.1), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=1.02 suggesting a
large practical significance. Finally, there was a significant difference between Asian
Americans and Other (p=0.018) (with Asian-Americans scoring 129.2 and Other scoring
144.8), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=0.61 suggesting moderate to large practical
significance. The post hoc test also showed the difference between Asian Americans and
Hispanics was
36
approaching statistical significance (p=0.060), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=0.41
suggesting moderate practical significance. There was also a significant difference in
child guidance knowledge among the five ethnic groupings F (4, 704)=3.04, p=0.017,
with an effect size of n^2=0.017, suggesting small practical significance (Table 6). A
Tukey HSD post hoc test showed a significant difference between European Americans
and Hispanics (p=0.021) (with European Americans scoring 25.1 and Hispanics scoring
21.6), with an effect size of Hedges’ g=0.35 suggesting small practical significance.
In sum, the child development and child guidance scores among the different
ethnic groups differed with European Americans having the highest average scores for
both child development and child guidance knowledge.
37
38
40
Additional Analysis
Participants were asked several additional questions regarding parenting. First,
they were asked whether they had ever taken any parenting classes (and if not, why).
Results showed that for the total group, only 18% of the participants had taken a
parenting class (Table 5). Most of the participants who had taken parenting classes were
parents and female.
Table 5.
Results of Question: Have You Ever Taken a Parenting Class?
Total Group Males Females Parents Only Non-Parents Only
(N=707) (n=135) (n=569) (n=74) (n=631)
%
%
%
%
%
Yes
18%
5%
21%
36%
16%
No
81%
93%
78%
64%
83%
The reasons for not taken parenting classes are listed in Table 6, and generally show that
most participants had not taken parenting classes because they were not a parent and
were not expecting to be one soon.
Gender
Parenthood Status
39
Table 6.
Reason For Not Taking a Parenting Class
n
%
Not a parent/not expecting to be a parent soon
206
58%
Not needed/no interest
No chance/no time
Had not thought about taking them
No information about local parenting classes
Parenting classes not part of major
Planning to take them in future
Focus on career before thinking about children
Previously have been teachers/caregivers and do not
feel the need to take parenting classes
Had already taken child development classes
49
33
23
11
11
6
5
5
5
14%
9%
7%
3%
3%
2%
1%
1%
1%
Participants were next asked how prepared they felt for parenthood. Results
showed that as a group, most participants felt either totally or slightly prepared; results
were similar for male and female participants (Table 7). With parenthood status taken
into account, more than half of current parents felt not prepared at all and close to half of
non-parents reportedly felt “totally prepared”.
Reason:
Total Group
N
=354
Table 7.
How Prepared Participants Reported They Feel/Felt for Parenthood
Total Group Males Females Parents Non-Parents
(N=698) (n=132) (n=566) (n=74) (n=624)
%
%
%
%
%
Totally prepared
44%
49%
42%
5%
48%
Slightly prepared
39%
33%
40%
39%
39%
Not really prepared at all
12%
10%
12%
55%
6%
Not sure
5%
6%
5%
0%
6%
Gender
Parenthood Status
41
44
Next, participants were asked how prepared they thought first-time parents in the
U.S. were for parenthood. Results showed that most participants thought first-time
parents were totally prepared for parenthood (Table 8). Very few participants (1-2%)
across all groups felt that most parents were not really prepared at all.
Table 8.
How Prepared for Parenthood Participants Thought First-time U.S. Parents Were
Total Group Males Females Parents Non-Parents
(N=698) (n=132) (n=566) (n=74) (n=624)
%
%
%
%
%
Totally prepared
61%
61%
64%
64%
61%
Slightly prepared
34%
30%
32%
32%
34%
Not really prepared at all
1%
2%
1%
1%
1%
Not sure
4%
5%
3%
3%
4%
Gender
Parenthood Status
Next, participants were asked “how often” they knew where to get information
about child development and child guidance, and what resources they tended to use.
Regarding “how often” they knew where to get this information, 8.2% answered all of the
time, 28.7% most of the time, 34.7% sometimes, 19.1% rarely, and 9.3% never. Finally,
when asked where they are most likely to get information about child development and
child guidance, results showed that they are most likely to get information from family,
healthcare providers (doctors, nurses), the Internet (informational websites), parenting
classes, and teacher/childcare providers (Table 9).
Table
9.
Ukelinood
of
Using
the
Following
Resources
for
information
About
Child
Development
land
Chils
Guidance.
Som
likely:
what
likely
om
mo)
(mH)
%)
Famiy
ne
TS
Friends
27 4A
1998
43
Parenting
Groups
or
Workshops
383 328
162
103-25
Childcare
providerorteacher
41437012272
22
Health
care
providers
(doctors,
585 205
89
9-38
43
nurses)
Parent
heipine
180
209 267
284?
Pamphlet
ot
poster
Ce
ry
Magazine
57
24
320
394A
Books
m7
444
19
ee 19
Newspaper
30
49
35842738
Intomet
(information
websites)
349438012078
14
Facebook,
Twitter,
or otner
380
45
288
51219
social
networking
sites
YouTube
64
228
24
30128
TV,
movies,
ordocumentaries
«822686.
30.4
78
Videos
of
OVOs
55
280 320
«30938
Radio
20
24
set
48334
Parenting
class
47
345
14
87
47
Social
worker
29
321
28
192
70
CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to assess adults’ knowledge of child development
and child guidance. Overall, the findings of this study suggest that adults’ knowledge
varied with their previous college coursework in child development as well as with their
gender and ethnicity. These findings are outlined in more detail below.
Hypothesis 1
The first hypothesis stated that adults would generally lack knowledge about child
development and child guidance. This hypothesis was only partially supported as results
showed that participants had more knowledge than expected about child development.
Not surprisingly, however, they had little knowledge about child guidance.
Since most of the participants were students in the CSUSB psychology
department, it is likely that majoring in psychology and child development gave them
some exposure to child development concepts, thus generating higher child development
scores compared to a broader, less educated participant sample from outside the university
setting. Overall, participants with no reported coursework in child development answered
more than 60% of the child development questions correctly. Those who had taken four or
more child development classes answered approximately 80% of the questions correctly.
These latter findings are consistent with previous studies that have shown that child
development courses and workshops help adults better understand child development and
child guidance (e.g., Chang, Park, & Kim, 2009; Jarvis &
Graham, 2004; Nieuwboer, Fukkink, & Hermanns, 2013; Webb & Sheeran, 2006). When
adults’ child development knowledge is enhanced, adults’ behaviors and attitudes towards
children are also improved and they tend to become more developmentally-appropriate in
their interactions with children (Nieuwboer, Fukkink, & Hermanns, 2013; Teubert &
Pinquart, 2010). In the present study, close to 80% of the participants had taken at least
one child development class and even one class or workshop on child development has
been found to influence adults’ knowledge of child development and child guidance
(Chang, Park, & Kim, 2009; Jarvis & Graham, 2004; Roosa, 1984; Sandler, Schoenfelder,
Wolchik, & MacKinnon, 2011).
The finding that participants had a greater amount of child development
knowledge than expected may also be due to the fact that more than half of the
participants had completed at least some college. Studies have found that adults with
more education tend to have more knowledge about child development
(e.g., Al-Maadadi & Ikhlef, 2014; Benasich & Brooks-Gunn, 1996; Bornstein, Cote,
Haynes, Hahn, & Park, 2010; Dichtelmiller et al., 1992; Ertem, et al., 2007;
Ribas & Bornstein, 2005; Tsao, 1994).
The finding that participants were not as knowledgeable about child guidance
compared to child development was not surprising. While child guidance knowledge did
vary with the amount of child development coursework taken (as some child development
courses do cover child guidance), participants overall had less knowledge in this domain
than in the child development milestones. One possible explanation for this is that adults’
ideas about child guidance are generally based on how they were parented (Kind, 2005;
Meurer, 1995; Sroufe et al., 2005), and most individuals experienced discipline techniques
that were not beneficial to their development such as spanking, yelling, and shaming
(Kind, 2005). Most adults are not aware of positive guidance strategies, and thus do not
employ them when interacting with children (Best Start Resource Centre, 2014; Taylor,
Hamvas, Rice, Newman, & Dejong, 2011). Most adults in the U.S. actually have positive
views about spanking and timeouts (Yankelovich & DYG Inc., 2000), even though the
research clearly shows that these forms of discipline have negative effects on children’s
development (Gershoff, 2010).
Adults generally wish for children to grow up to be responsible, respectful, and
have good morals, and they tend to believe these goals can be achieved through physical
discipline and fair punishments (Coldron & Boulton, 1996; Taylor, Hamvas, Rice,
Newman, & Dejong, 2011). These ideas date back many centuries (e.g., Aries, 1962;
DeMause, 1974). In the last century, adults have been advised by behaviorists to withhold
from children any forms of affection; the idea was that too much love was dangerous for
children because it spoiled them
(e.g.,Watson, 1928). Decades of research has now made it abundantly clear that children
learn best when adults are warm and use positive guidance with children, not harsh
discipline or any form of punishment (Durrant & Ensom, 2012; Gershoff, 2010). Positive
guidance teaches children the skills they need to grow up to be responsible and respectful
adults who make ethical decisions (Gartrell, 2012). Clearly, there still exists a large gap
between what most people think children need in terms of discipline and what research
actually shows.
Low levels of child guidance knowledge may also be related to the idea that most
of the information that adults seek from others (e.g., doctors, family, caregivers) is about
children’s development and whether or not it is falling within the norms, not child
guidance (Goodnow & Collins, 1991; MacPhee, 1983; McKim, 1987; Shea & Fowler,
1983; Vukelich & Kliman, 1985). Studies show that adults are more receptive to hearing
information about whether or not their child is developing normally than they are about
child guidance strategies as they do not want others to believe they do not know how to
raise their own children
(Berkule-Silberman, Dreyer, Huberman, Klass & Mendelsohn, 2010; Biglan & Metzler,
1998). Adults often become defensive, in fact, when somebody tells them about guidance
strategies that are different (and perhaps more beneficial) than the ones they currently use
(Dumka, Garza, Roosa, & Stoerzinger, 1997;
O’Key & Hugh-Jones, 2010; Rohrbach et al., 1994; Spoth & Conroy, 1993; Spoth &
Redmond, 2000; Wahler, Leske, & Rogers, 1979). Parents may even say, “I do not need
anybody to tell me how to raise my children” (O’Key & Hugh-Jones,
2010).
Many of the ideas and beliefs about resistance towards learning positive child
guidance strategies can be tied back to the concept of “childism”, which is the prejudice
against children and the belief that children are property and can be controlled (Pierce &
Allen, 1975; Young-Bruehl, 2012). Stating phrases like, “What I do with my children is
my business” implies that the child has no ownership of themselves and thus belongs
solely to the parent (Kind, 2005). This results in adults not valuing or respecting young
children, and often times placing their own needs, desires, hopes, and fears above those of
children’s (Pierce & Allen, 1979). A belief in “childism” may also condone the use of
physical punishments and harsh discipline, as many parents see this as a form of showing
love and as a way to teach children right from wrong (Kind, 2005).
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 2 predicted that females would be more knowledgeable than males
about both child development and child guidance. This hypothesis was supported. These
findings are consistent with previous studies which have found that females tend to know
more than males about child development and child guidance (Bailey, 1993; Kliman &
Vukelich, 1985; Ribas & Bornstein, 2005; Tsao, 1994), possibly because mothers/females
spend more time with children (Craig, 2006; Yeung, Sandberg, Davis-Kean, & Hofferth,
2001). Cultural gender roles likely play an enormous role as from early on, most girls are
taught and are expected to be more nurturing and caring than boys (Witt, 1997). Although
gender roles are slowly changing, many females still assume the majority of the
responsibility of taking care of children and guiding children’s development, while males
tend to be more involved in the social life of children (e.g. play, outings, social
interactions) (Bailey, 1993; Cabrera, Shannon, & Tamis-LeMonda, 2007;
Ribas & Bornstein, 2005; Tsao, 1994).
Hypothesis 3
The third hypothesis stated that knowledge about child development and child
guidance would be similar across the different ethnic groups included in this study.
Results, however, showed a significant difference between the ethnic groupings for both
child development and child guidance knowledge.
European-Americans scored higher than the other groups on the child development
questions, while Asian-Americans scored the lowest. Culture may play an important role
in how adults view children’s development, and in the knowledge about the timing and
sequence of “expected” or “normal” developmental milestones. Families of different
backgrounds have different beliefs and thus may focus on different ideas, goals, and skills
when thinking about children (Goodnow & Collins, 1991; Hoffman, 1988; Super &
Harkness, 1982). European-American families tend to emphasize nurturance and guidance
when it comes to children (Kelley & Tseng, 1992), while Asian-Americans tend to focus
on achievement (Lin & Fu, 1990; Staples & Mirande, 1980). In Asian cultures children are
expected to obey their parents unquestioningly and fulfill their expectations, and children
are expected to be compliant and have respect for authority (Wang & Phinney, 1998).
Studies show that Asian-American caregivers expect children to develop emotional
maturity (self-control), compliance, and social courtesy skills at a young age (Hess,
Kashiwagi, Azuma, Price, & Dickson, 1980).
Participants’ scores for child guidance varied somewhat across ethnicity. The
primary difference was between European-American and Hispanic participants with
European-American participants scoring significantly higher than Hispanic participants.
This finding is consistent with previous studies that show non-white racial groups tend to
know less about child development (and hence child guidance) than white racial groups
(Reich, 2005), thus unconsciously affecting their parenting behaviors (Goodnow &
Collins, 1991; Hoffman, 1988; Super & Harkness, 1982). Research studies have found
that EuropeanAmericans tend to use a more authoritative parenting style (Hammer &
Turner, 1990; Rodriguez & Olswang, 2003), and as mentioned above, they tend to score
higher on measures of sensitivity, consistency, nurturance, and rule setting (Kelley &
Tseng, 1992). Authoritative parenting/caregiving is more consistent with positive
guidance strategies, which is why they may have scored higher on the child guidance
items. Conversely, Hispanics tend to use more of an authoritarian parenting style
(Rodriguez & Olswang, 2003), placing a larger emphasis on independence, self-control,
obedience, and children getting along with others
(Julian, McKenry, & McKelvey, 1994). Authoritarian parents/caregivers tend to use more
discipline and punishment strategies, which may have contributed to them scoring lower
on the child guidance items.
Another explanation for this difference in scores is that the questionnaires used in
this study were developed primarily for European American participants.
This could indirectly affect the scores of other ethnic groups.
Additional Analysis
Additional analyses revealed that overall, few participants had taken parenting
classes. Those who did were primarily female (21%) and were already parents (36%).
Why so few, given that parenting is such a difficult and challenging job? As stated above,
most parents parent the way they were parented (Kind, 2005), and most look to family and
friends for advice (Goodnow
& Collins, 1990; MacPhee, 1983; McKim, 1987; Shea & Fowler, 1983; Vukelich &
Kliman, 1985), especially low-income mothers (Keller & McDade, 2000). There are also
several myths about parenting classes that may prevent adults from seeking help and
guidance in parenting (Trevor, 2013). First, many parents believe that parenting classes
are only for parents dealing with their child’s challenging behaviors (Trevor, 2013). This
is a myth because parenting classes focus on a variety of topics like developmental
milestones, child guidance strategies, school readiness, as well as how to deal with
challenging behaviors (Kind, 2005). Parents don’t have to wait until there is a problem to
get help; there is a lot they can learn about children even before they become parents
(Kind, 2005). Second, most adults believe that parenting comes “intuitively” and there is
therefore no need to take classes (Trevor, 2013). This is a myth because parenting is a
learned behavior, and that what comes intuitively is to parent the way we were parented
(Kind, 2005). Third, parents tend to think they will be required to share their personal life
with strangers (Trevor, 2013). Many parents who take parenting classes actually find relief
in knowing that others are experiencing similar thoughts and frustrations about parenting,
and have similar family experiences; parenting classes actually serve as social support for
many (Hanna, Edgecombe, Jackson, & Newman, 2002; Telleen, Herzog, & Kilbane,
1989). Fourth, parents believe classes take too long and too much time (Trevor, 2013).
The classes may be time-consuming, but in the long run they end up saving parents
countless hours of nagging, feeling frustrated, yelling, and trying to get children to
cooperate (Trevor, 2013). Fifth, parents believe parenting classes are for people who don’t
know what they are doing (Trevor, 2013). On the contrary, after taking parenting classes
many parents feel that their parenting skills are enhanced due to the new tools and
strategies they learned, and parents feel more positive, confident, and optimistic about
their role as a parent (Feinberg, Jones, Kan, & Goslin, 2010; Gordon, 2008; Hanna,
Edgecombe,
Jackson, & Newman, 2002; Nolan, et al., 2012; Vandenhaoudt et al., 2010).
Participants in the present study listed the main reason for not taking parenting
classes as not being a parent and not expecting to be one soon.
Research shows, however, that taking classes before parenthood actually helps adults
understand what to expect once they do become parents (as opposed to trying to figure
everything out as it is happening) (Hanna, Edgecombe, Jackson, & Newman, 2002;
Nolan, et al., 2012). Being informed about child development and child guidance is
beneficial to any adult, since most adults interact and/or encounter children frequently
(e.g., relatives, siblings, own children, at the store, in the community) (Kind, 2005). There
are many advocates for the notion that parenting classes should be taught in high school
(Kind, 2005) as teenagers will gain insight into adult responsibilities, learn how children
develop and what to expect at each stage, and learn how to interact with children at a
developmentally-appropriate level (Kind, 2005). Teens who take parenting classes in high
school are more likely to want to delay parenthood due to learning about the important
impacts parents have on children’s development (Kind, 2005). Parenting education is
essential as it teaches what healthy childrearing is (Kind, 2005). This information is
valuable at any age, especially from adolescence onward.
In the present study, when participants were asked how prepared they felt for
parenthood, many non-parents said they felt totally prepared (48%), while many parents
said they felt not really prepared at all (55%). These findings are consistent with previous
findings that show non-parents rate themselves higher than parents on preparedness for
parenthood (Yankelovich & DYG Inc., 2000).
Becoming a parent has been shown to make people feel unprepared and in need of more
guidance as once parents have children they come to the realization that they are not
equipped with the right tools to be a parent (Gordon, 2008). When participants
were asked how prepared they thought first-time parents in the U.S. were for parenthood,
most participants felt parents were totally prepared for parenthood regardless of gender and
parenthood status. These findings differ from previous studies which state that non-parents
felt firsttime parents are only slightly prepared or not prepared at all, while a third of parents
felt others were totally prepared (Yankelovich & DYG Inc., 2000). Participants in the
current study may feel that first-time parents are totally prepared because in modern society,
knowledge is easily accessible via the Internet (e.g., social media, YouTube, blog post,
online magazines). Most of our participants were current college students, and research
shows that college students readily use the Internet to seek knowledge and many even say
it has enhanced their education (Jones, 2002; Kennedy, Judd, Churchward, Gray & Krause,
2008). Tech-savvy college students may perceive others as well-versed in seeking
knowledge as they are. Conversely, these results could also be another indication of the
general public’s lack of understanding of the challenges and complexities that come with
raising children.
When asked how often they knew where to get information regarding child
development and child guidance, most participants in the present study indicated that
“most of the time” or “sometimes” they knew where to get information. Currently, there
are many books, websites, and classes that claim to help
parents learn about child development and child guidance. A key challenge, however, is
making sure parents are getting accurate information as there are many parenting
materials and programs that are not research-or evidencebased, and they often advocate
for using discipline techniques that are detrimental for children’s development (e.g., time-
out, ignoring children’s behavior) (Collins, 2012). Many blog posts on the internet, for
example are written by parents and are solely based on writer’s own experiences and
opinions. Many people believe everything posted on the internet is credible information,
when at times this isn’t the case (Flanagin & Metzger, 2000).
Finally, when asked where they were most likely to get information about child
development and child guidance, participants in the present study most frequently named
family members and healthcare providers. These findings are consistent with findings of
other studies that suggest most adults get information about child development and
childrearing from their own mother and/or their primary physician (e.g., Berkule-
Silberman, Dreyer, Huberman, Klass &
Mendelsohn, 2010; Goodnow & Collins, 1990; MacPhee, 1983; McKim, 1987;
Safadi et al., 2015; Shea & Fowler, 1983; Vukelich & Kliman, 1985; Yankelovich &
DYG Inc., 2000). While adults may believe that their families know best due to the
experience they have from already having raised children, this information is often
inaccurate and full of myths (Kind, 2005).
Similarly, adults may believe that physicians are well-versed when it comes to
child development knowledge, but most doctors know about physical care and illnesses,
not about how to raise children and what is optimal for a child’s holistic development
(e.g., cognitive, emotional, social, physical) (Haggerty & Friedman, 2003; Macphee,
1983; Richmond, 1967). Most pediatricians only take classes in general medicine, and
may take child development classes as electives (with the main focus being physical
health) (Haggerty & Friedman, 2003).
A third resource identified by participants as being most likely to be used are
parenting classes/workshops. This may be the most beneficial place to get information,
especially if parent educators are well trained and are implementing research-and/or
evidence-based parent curricula.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
Limitations and Future Research
There were several limitations that may have impacted the results of this study.
First, most participants came from the online SONA system, which is only available to
students taking psychology or human development courses. As mentioned previously,
these students likely had more knowledge about child development and child guidance
compared to the general public outside of university setting. Future research should aim to
gather participants from settings outside a college campus.
A second limitation is that participants were not asked to distinguish between the
types of child development classes taken (e.g., history of child development, child
guidance, infant and toddler development, cognitive development, etc.). Future research
can examine if there is a difference in child development and child guidance knowledge
based on the type of child development classes taken.
A third limitation of this study is that most of the participants were Hispanic, a
reflection of the general student population at the university. Future research could aim to
gather more equal representations from all of the major ethnic groups as this may result in
a more accurate picture of ethnic variations in child development and child guidance
knowledge.
Lastly, the majority of our participants were female. This most likely occurred
because there tends to be more females than males in psychology and human development
classes at the site of the present study. Future research could focus on including more
equal numbers of males and females to achieve a better understanding of males’ beliefs
and knowledge about child development and child guidance.
Summary and Conclusions
Adults in this study demonstrated to be somewhat knowledgeable in child
development, while lacking knowledge in child guidance. The number of child
development classes taken appeared to be the most influential factor impacting child
development and child guidance knowledge. Gender also influenced participants’ scores,
with females knowing more than males about both child development and child
guidance. Ethnicity impacted both child development and child guidance knowledge,
with European Americans having the most knowledge about child development and
child guidance. Many of the findings in the present study were consistent with previous
research findings particularly regarding adults’ knowledge of child development. Few
studies have examined knowledge about child guidance strategies, and the present study
demonstrates that overall participants knew fairly little about positive ways to guide
children’s behavior and development.
Findings from this study emphasize the importance of child development
workshops and classes, not just for parents, but for adults in general. Parent education
workshops should focus not only on care and developmental milestones, but also on
developmentally-appropriate ways to interact with children and guide children’s
behavior that are research- and evidence-based. Since most participants tend to seek
information from doctors and nurses, it should be a requirement for health care providers
to have proper training in both child development and child guidance. Information about
child development and child guidance should also be provided in hospital/clinic waiting
rooms and available as well to all caregivers of children, e.g., grandparents, males etc.
The quality of parenting a child receives has the potential to either enhance a child’s
development or to deprive them from optimal development. Child development and
brain research studies all demonstrate the critical importance of parenting quality for
children’s lifelong development. Parenting quality has tremendous societal implications
and costs as it influences children’s later mental health, school readiness and success,
future relationship stability, and financial well-being as adults (Heckman, 2008, 2010;
Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007, 2012; Sroufe, Duggal, Weinfield, & Carlson, 2000). From
early on, children need to be cared by warm and sensitively-attuned adults that are going
to meet their needs and set developmentally-appropriate limits. Parents with the most
child development and child guidance knowledge are more likely to provide safe, warm,
and enriching experiences for their children. One of the best ways to help parents gain
more knowledge about child development and child guidance is for them to attend
parenting classes/workshops. Now that we know what information adults know and what
information adults are lacking it is crucial to find ways to effectively distribute
knowledge about child guidance and child development to diverse populations.
Research should explore ways to get more adults to participate in parenting
workshops and/or child development classes. Most adults appear to believe that everyone
goes in fully prepared for parenthood, and although no one can be 100% prepared for the
tremendous task of raising and taking care of a child, parenting classes do help. It would
be beneficial if the perceptions of adults on preparedness for parenthood matched reality.
It is the hope that as more research findings are disseminated to mainstream sources (e.g.,
magazines, social media, T.V., movies) adults will obtain more insight about child
development and child guidance and place a greater importance on educating themselves
about the early years of life.
