Southern New Hampshire University
PHL-111 Introduction to Critical Thinking
Week Two Notes: What Is An Argument?
THiNK: Critical Thinking and Logic Skills for Everyday Life
Chapter 4: Knowledge, Evidence, & Errors in Thinking
HUMAN KNOWLEDGE AND ITS LIMITATIONS
Knowledge - Information that we believe to be true and for which we have justification or
evidence
Rationalists - One who claims that most human knowledge comes through reason
Empiricists - One who believes that we discover truth primarily through our physical
senses
EVALUATING EVIDENCE
Evidence - Reasons for believing that a statement or claim is true or probably true
In arguments, evidence is used as the premises for one’s belief in a particular
conclusion.
False Memory Syndrome - The recalling of events that never happened.
Memorization Strategies
1. Visualization Inspection- Process that includes studying the visual appearance of an
object
2. Verbal Elaboration- Individuals construct sentences about the object or material they
are trying to memorize.
3. Mental Imagery- Individuals form interactive mental images.
4. Memory Retrieval- People reflect and come up with a meaning for the object or
association of the object with personal memories.
THE UNRELIABILITY OF HEARSAY AND ANEDOCTAL EVIDENCE
Hearsay - Evidence that is heard by one person and then repeated to another
Hearsay is notoriously unreliable because it is evidence that is heard by one
person and then repeated to another and so on. Most of the time by the time this
message gets to you, it is completely different from the original message.
Anecdotal Evidence - Evidence based on personal testimonies
Anecdotal evidence is unreliable because of the issue of inaccurate memory and
the human tendency to exaggerate or distort what we experience to fit our
expectations.
EXPERTS & CREDIBILITY
When seeking out experts, these credentials should be looked at:
1. Education or training from a reputable institute.
2. Experience in making judgements in the field.
3. Reputation among peers as an expert in the field.
4. Accomplishments in the field such as academic papers and awards.
Experts are one of the most credible sources of information.
EVALUATING EVIDENCE FOR A CLAIM
Confirmation Bias - The tendency to look only for evidence that supports our
assumptions
RESEARCH RESOURCES
Dictionaries/ Encyclopedias
Library Catalogues
Scholarly Journals
Government Documents
Internet
Evaluating Information- Applying the CRAAP Test
Currency:
When was the information published or posted?
Has the information been revised or updated?
Does your topic require current information, or will older sources work as well?
Are the links functional?
Relevance:
Does the information relate to your topic or answer your question?
Who is the intended audience?
Is the information at an appropriate level?
Have you looked at a variety of sources before determining this is one you will use?
Would you be comfortable citing this source in your research paper?
Authority:
Who is the author/publisher/source/sponsor?
What are the author’s credentials or organizational affiliations?
Is the author qualified to write on the topic?
Is there contact information, such as a publisher or email address?
Does the URL reveal anything about the author or source? Examples:
.com .edu .gov .org .net
Accuracy:
Where does the information come from?
Is the information supported by evidence?
Has the information been reviewed or refereed?
Can you verify any of the information in another source or from personal knowledge?
Does the language or tone seem unbiased and free of emotion?
Are there spelling, grammar, or typographical errors?
Purpose:
What is the purpose of the information? Is it to inform, teach, sell, entertain, or persuade?
Do the authors/sponsors make their intentions or purpose clear?
Is the information fact, opinion, or propaganda?
Does the point of view appear objective and impartial?
Are there political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional, or personal biases?
COGNITIVE AND PERCEPTUAL ERRORS IN THINKING
Perceptual Errors
Misperception of Random Data
Memorable-Events Error
Memorable-Events Error- A cognitive error that involves our ability to vividly
remember outstanding events
Probability Error- Misunderstanding the probability or chances of an event by a huge
margin
Gambler’s Error- The belief that a previous event affects the probability in a random
event
SELF-SERVING BIASES
Self-serving bias errors that impede our thinking:
The misperception that we are in control
The tendency to overestimate ourselves in comparison to others
The tendency to exaggerate our strengths and minimize our weaknesses
SOCIAL ERRORS AND BIASES
“ONE OF US/ONE OF THEM” ERROR
The one of us/ one of them error is the tendency to treat people who are similar to us with
respect and those who are different from us- whether in regard to race, sex, religion,
political party, age, or nationality- with suspicion or worse.
GROUP PRESSURE AND CONFORMITY
Group pressure can influence individual members to take positions that they would never
support themselves.
Groupthink : The tendency of members of a group to yield to the consensus of the group.
Diffusion of Responsibility : The tendency, when in a large group, to regard a problem as
belonging to someone else.
