Chapter 1 examines the phenomenon of sport tourism during times of change.
The phenomenon of Democratisation, which refers to the expansion of access to previously limited
opportunities, has been observed in the evolution of sport and tourism during the latter part of the 20th
century (Standeven & De Knop, 1999). The classification of participation in certain sports is still
influenced by social class distinctions. According to Booth and Loy (1999: 1), individuals across
various cultures and historical eras utilize sports as a means of differentiating themselves and
showcasing their social standing and influence. Booth and Loy (1999) argue against the notion of
post-class egalitarian consumer cultures in sports, contending that comparable status groups typically
exhibit comparable lifestyles and consumption behaviors. The correlation between socio-demographic
status, lifestyle, and consumption patterns in the domains of sport and tourism enhances the
significance and usefulness of delineating sport tourism markets in practical applications. The
consumption of sport and development processes in sport tourism have been significantly impacted by
the forces of globalisation (Bernstein, 2000) and democratisation (Standeven & De Knop, 1999), as
discussed in Chapter 4. The development of sport tourism in modern times is influenced by various
contemporary trends. These include the expanding demographic profile of sports participants,
heightened interests in health and fitness in western societies since the 1970s, increasing demand for
active engagement in recreational pursuits while on holiday since the 1980s, and growing interest in
the significant roles played by sports and sports events in urban renewal and urban imagery.
Additionally, there is a potential to leverage tourism opportunities associated with sports events.
These trends have contributed to the growth and popularity of sport tourism. The aforementioned
processes have been instigated by economic and political factors (Cooper et al., 1993; Gibson, 1998a;
Collins, 1991; Nauright, 1996), as well as evolving social perspectives and principles (Redmond,
1991; S. J. Jackson et al., 2001; Kurtzman & Zauhar, 1995). Technological advancements, such as
satellite television broadcasting (Halberstam, 1999), have played a significant role in facilitating the
"sportification of society" (Standeven & De Knop, 1999). According to Faulkner et al. (1998: 3), the
growth of sports-related travel has increased significantly as a result of these developments in recent
times. The trends in question are demonstrated in an early work by Glyptis (1989). In her study of
Western European nations, she observes that there was a significant surge in the popularity of
recreational sports across all countries during the 1980s. Additionally, there was a rise in involvement
across various social classes, with a widening range of individuals participating in numerous sports.
Moreover, there was a notable surge in the number of young people taking part in holidays, brief
respites, and secondary vacations. The trends mentioned in the text have been reinforced in the two
decades that have ensued, as noted by Hall (1992a) and the IOC & WTO (2001). The expansion of
sport tourism necessitates a thorough examination of pertinent developmental concerns, highlighting
the foundations of its growth. The present task necessitates the definition and conceptualization of
sport tourism in a manner that accentuates the multiplicity of interests in both sport and tourism,
rather than obfuscating them. There are multiple definitions within the realm of this subject matter,
which allow for the examination of sport tourism through diverse lenses. The present publication
conceptualizes sport tourism by regarding sport as a tourist magnet and emphasizing the distinctive
characteristics of sport that jointly form a distinct contribution to tourism. This is expounded upon in
Chapter 2. The purpose of this approach is to emphasize the intricate and ever-changing relationship
between sport and tourism, with the aim of elucidating the boundaries and extent of the present book.
Chapter 3 delves into the exploration of the sport tourism market's diversity, emphasizing the
multifaceted nature of motivations and the consequent diverse market segmentation approaches that
are present in sport tourism. According to Bale (1989: 9), sports can be situated on various continua
such as work-play, freedom-constraint, competition-recreation, and process-product. The diverse
motivations of travelers towards their preferred sports are likely to result in significant variations in
the experiences of sport tourists. The motivations linked with niche markets in sport tourism pose
compelling inquiries for organizers and promoters of sports events, sports associations, managers of
sports facilities, destination managers, and tourism marketers. To what degree are professional
athletes who are highly competitive interested in engaging in tourist activities while visiting a sports
destination, and what strategies can be employed to fully capitalize on this market potential? The
potential for promotional opportunities arising from the affiliation of renowned athletes with
particular tourist destinations is a significant aspect. What are the differences between tourism that is
centered around professional sports and the potential for tourism development that is linked to
recreational sports? (Focus point 1.1) The diversity of tourist encounters pertaining to sports exhibits
variations both within and among specialized market segments. This phenomenon prompts inquiries
regarding the means by which sport and tourism administrators can enhance their comprehension of
these markets, in order to cater to evolving preferences in sports and travel. The market analysis
presented herein logically leads to the contemplation of development procedures, sustainability, and
planning interventions. The concerns pertaining to commodification/authenticity, globalization, and
industry fragmentation are of significant interest to professionals in the fields of sport and tourism.
Until now, scant attention has been paid to the alteration of athletic contests, such as the
implementation of new regulations, adjustments to the duration and timing of the competitive season,
and the broadcasting of live sporting events. These modifications have significant implications for the
ways in which individuals perceive location and destination imagery in relation to sports, as
highlighted in Focus point 1.2. Chapter 4 introduces and explores the significance of these processes
and issues, which forms a crucial basis for the subsequent chapters. Chapters 5 to 8 delve into the
manifestation of sport tourism in space and the potential influences on these manifestations. The fifth
chapter delves into the interconnectedness between sport tourism-generating regions and destinations,
and the travel behaviors that are associated with sport tourism markets. The fundamental principles
and motifs explored in this chapter are derived from the field of economic geography. The
aforementioned concepts are derived from the field of sports geography and the spatial examination of
sports, as posited by Bale (1989, 1993a). The management implications that are pertinent to the matter
at hand pertain to the allocation of franchise areas within a league, as well as decisions regarding the
construction, development, or improvement of sports facilities and areas. This discourse examines the
potential impact of sports on the spatial travel patterns and itineraries of tourists within a given
destination, regardless of whether sports serve as a primary, secondary, or tertiary attraction. The
significance attributed to a particular location is impacted by the athletic activities that are practiced
within its confines (referencing Focus point 1.3). Chapter 6 delves into the examination of the notions
of place, culture, and place promotion. Sport has the ability to imbue tourism destinations with a
highly genuine form of entertainment. The relationship between culture and sport manifests in various
ways, including but not limited to sport and culture, sport as culture, and sport subcultures. The
diverse range of variations present in sport tourism destinations significantly contribute to the
meaning associated with them. Incorporating cultural variations into strategies can effectively
promote a location to diverse markets. The commodification of culture presents noteworthy
challenges. Chapter 7 focuses on the third spatial dimension as it pertains to the environment. The
present chapter examines the shared resource base utilized by both sport and tourism facilities and
infrastructure. Sport tourism is characterized by a variety of distinct issues related to natural resources
and built facilities. Outdoor recreational activities, such as downhill skiing, are often reliant on
particular topographical features and may result in permanent ecological consequences (as per Focus
point 1.4). Certain sports are more portable and possess standardized amenities that can be
constructed in areas intended to optimize market reach. The divergent impacts of environmental,
social, and cultural relevance are noteworthy. The recognition of the distinct management
requirements between sports that are resource-dependent and those that are relatively resource-
independent is necessary. Chapters 8-10 of Sport Tourism Development and Time Part 4 explore the
various forms of sport tourism that occur over time. The eighth chapter delves into the temporal
horizon of sport tourism in the short-term. The concept of visitor experience pertains to the temporal
aspects of visits, including their duration and timing, as well as the extent of engagement in
recreational, touristic, and leisure activities at the destination, and the amount of money spent by
visitors. The aforementioned phenomenon is correlated with the memories of the tourism encounter,
subsequently impacting the contentment of the guest and the likelihood of future visits. Diverse forms
of sports tourism are evident in distinct tourist encounters. The eighth chapter delves into the various
expressions of the sport tourism experience utilizing the Clawson and Knetsch (1966) framework,
which has been extensively employed in the examination of the tourist experience. The study also
evaluates the significance of the sport and tourism systems that facilitate the sport tourism encounter
in a given location. The objective of this approach is to offer knowledgeable perspectives on tactics
that could impact and improve the experiences of visitors in sport tourism. Chapter 9 delves into the
seasonal or medium-term aspect of sport tourism. The tourism industry experiences systematic
seasonal fluctuations in most destinations, leaving few unaffected. Strategies aimed at prolonging
shoulder seasons or establishing year-round destinations are prevalent in the tourism industry. Hence,
the way in which sports serve as a moderator, or can be intentionally manipulated to modify, seasonal
visitation patterns is a topic that merits further examination. The reciprocal relationship between
tourism and seasonal engagement in sports can also be observed, wherein tourism may have an impact
on the patterns of participation in sports during different seasons. Merely acknowledging the existence
of seasonal patterns in sports and tourism is insufficient; comprehending the underlying causes of said
patterns is equally crucial. The theory of leisure constraints offers valuable insights into these patterns.
One potential area of focus is the examination of various strategies, including facility design, pricing
and promotions, and event production, that have the potential to mitigate or modify seasonal
fluctuations in the domains of sport and tourism (as outlined in Focus point 1.5). The tenth chapter of
the text explores the correlation between sports and tourism over an extended period or evolutionary
framework. The impact of sport on tourism development processes, as outlined in the evolutionary
model of tourism destinations via a life cycle (Butler, 1980), is a significant factor to consider. The
spatial patterns of sports may have a significant impact on the development of tourism. It is
noteworthy that the reciprocal relationship between tourism and sports manifests in the potential for
tourism to influence the selection and prevalence of sports activities in destination regions. The sport
of golf can be considered a suitable example of this phenomenon, owing to its initial introduction to
the 'new world' by Scottish immigrants and subsequent spread to various regions across the globe in
response to the growing demand from tourists. Nostalgia sport tourism is a distinctive category of
tourism wherein individuals seek out sporting experiences that are linked to past eras. Contemporary
patterns indicate that the sport tourism sector is poised for a dynamic future. Chapter 11 of Part 5
discusses the potential of sport and tourism managers to shape the direction and speed of change by
implementing thoughtful management strategies. The present discourse requires the examination of
current patterns and novel methods of exerting influence on them. The systematic exploration of
challenges such as commodification, balancing progress and tradition, and the accelerated pace of
globalization in sports is necessary. When sport and tourism managers work together efficiently to
tackle these concerns, it increases the likelihood of achieving sustainable results. The aforementioned
themes serve as the framework for the subsequent chapters. The book's underpinnings are rooted in
the fundamental geographical concepts of space, place, and environment. Nevertheless, the
implementation of these principles in the context of sport tourism poses the complexities of a
multidisciplinary methodology. The present publication incorporates insights from various academic
disciplines, including sport management, sociology of sport, consumer behaviour, sports marketing,
economics, urban and sports geography, and tourism studies. It examines the spatial and temporal
expressions of sport tourism development. Chapters 2-10 of the text contain case studies contributed
by prominent scholars in the field of sport tourism and its associated disciplines, which serve to
exemplify various points of discussion. The chapters in question incorporate industry-based "Focus
points" to demonstrate the applicability of the discussions to the implementation of sport tourism
development. Each of Chapters 2-10 presents an analysis of the management implications and
relevant strategies. The primary objective of this literary work is to enhance the theoretical discourse
surrounding the development of sport tourism. Additionally, the subsequent chapters aim to illustrate
the pragmatic significance of the topics under consideration. The primary objective of this book is to
stimulate critical thinking among students pursuing academic studies in sport tourism, as well as
professionals operating at the forefront of the sport and tourism sectors.
Chapter 2 of the book delves into the fundamental aspects that underpin the development of sport
tourism.
Chapter 2 delves into the examination of sport tourism.
The domain of sport is commonly defined by the notion that it encompasses the subject matter
covered in the sports section of daily newspapers, as articulated by Bale (1989). A preliminary
examination of sports sections in newspapers from diverse nations reveals significant differences in
athletic pursuits across regions. Although the definitional approach may appear appealing due to its
simplicity, it falls short in encapsulating the fundamental nature of sport with regards to the shared
characteristics present in various athletic pursuits. The integration of sport sociology definitions with
the tourism concept yields valuable insights. Loy et al.'s (1978) game occurrence approach has been
considered as one of the most influential definitions of sport within this field. The authors
conceptualize sport as a subcategory of games, which is itself a subcategory of play. The concept of
sport pertains to organized activities that involve physical skill and ability. McPherson and colleagues
(1989: 15) provided a definition of sport as a physical activity that is structured, goal-oriented,
competitive, contest-based, and ludic. Sports are characterized by their structured nature, as they are
regulated by rules that pertain to both spatial and temporal dimensions. The regulations can be
demonstrated through diverse means, such as the measurements of the field and the length and tempo
of the competition or match. In formal variations of a sport, individuals exhibit a greater degree of
specificity, particularly as the level of competition escalates. In informal iterations of a given sport,
regulations are frequently broad and unspecified. An instance of this can be observed in the
uncodified code of conduct for surfing, as noted by Law (2001). Sport can be characterized as having
a focus on achieving objectives, involving competition, and being centered around contests. The three
aforementioned characteristics exhibit a strong interrelation. Sports are typically characterized by
their goal-oriented nature, as they involve the pursuit of specific objectives that are tied to factors such
as an individual's ability, level of competence, degree of effort, required skill set, and overall mastery
or performance. In the majority of cases, this objective orientation is expanded to a certain level of
rivalry. Competition can be conceptualized as a binary outcome of either emerging victorious or
suffering defeat. An alternative perspective on competition involves a less stringent interpretation,
whereby individuals compete against personal benchmarks, non-living entities, or natural phenomena.
Within the realm of sport tourism, the aforementioned perspective regarding competition presents a
more comprehensive outlook that encompasses leisurely sports, including those frequently linked with
outdoor recreational activities. The concept of participation in sports for all individuals is
encompassed within this framework, as noted by Nogawa et al. (1996). The notion of competition can
be perceived as a spectrum that spans from amateur to professional levels. The domain of tourism is
closely linked to competition. Various definitions of tourism exist, which can be categorized into three
types: those related to the common usage of the term (Simpson & Weiner, 1989), those utilized for
statistical measurement (WTO, 1981), and those employed to express its conceptual domain (Murphy,
1985). Definitions that emerge from various perspectives typically exhibit three fundamental
dimensions. According to Dietvorst and Ashworth (1995), the spatial dimension is the most
commonly occurring among them. According to Murphy (1985), tourism pertains to the movement of
individuals who are not residents of a particular place. In order to meet the criteria of a tourist, it is
necessary for an individual to depart from their place of residence and subsequently return to it at a
later time. Although the act of an individual traveling alone may not be considered as tourism per se,
it is regarded as one of the essential prerequisites for tourism to occur. This dimension has been
subject to various qualifications, such as the establishment of minimum travel distances. However, the
underlying notion of travel is considered to be universally applicable. Another frequently observed
dimension pertains to the temporal attributes linked with tourism. According to Leiper (1981: 74),
tourist trips are defined as a temporary absence from one's residence for at least one night. Definitions
formulated for statistical purposes frequently differentiate between tourists and excursionists.
According to the World Tourism Organization (WTO) in 1981, there exists a differentiation between
two types of visitors based on the duration of their stay. The former type refers to those who spend a
minimum of 24 hours at a destination, while the latter type refers to those who spend less than 24
hours. Frequently in mainstream literature and mass communication, the term "tourist" is employed to
denote both categories. The definitions provided suggest a notable intersection of interests between
the domains of tourism and sport, as illustrated in Figure 2.1. The significance of sports in the tourism
industry is noteworthy, as various forms of sports are intrinsically linked with tourism and travel. The
precise intersection of the two concepts is subject to variation based on the viewpoints of stakeholders
and their specific interests in the domain of sport tourism. The multifariousness of interests within the
domain of sport tourism engenders a crucial inquiry that necessitates the attention of both scholars and
professionals in the field. Does the field of sport tourism possess a robust theoretical framework and
specialized scholarly literature? The field of Sport Tourism Scholarship highlights the commonalities
between Sport Studies and Tourism Studies in terms of their institutional characteristics. Both of these
disciplines are relatively recent additions to the academic landscape, and have undergone significant
efforts to establish themselves as reputable fields of scholarly inquiry. In recent times, both fields have
exhibited a systematic inclination towards sport tourism, as evidenced by an expanding corpus of
literature (Glyptis, 1991; Gibson, 1998a; Standeven & De Knop, 1999). The prevalence of sport
tourism globally is a commonly cited rationale for emphasizing concentrated study in this field.
According to the Canadian Tourism Commission's report in 2002, 37% of Canadian travellers
engaged in sports activities or attended sporting events. According to estimates, sport travel
contributes approximately $CAN1.3 billion to the Canadian economy on an annual basis. According
to conservative estimates, the annual value of sport tourism in the United Kingdom is approximately
£2.61 billion (as shown in Table 2.2). The conceptualization of sport as a tourist attraction has been
discussed by Green and Chalip (1998: 276), who emphasize the importance of understanding the
similarities and differences between sport and other tourist activities from a theoretical standpoint.
The application of the tourist attraction theory offers a valuable framework for comprehending the
distinctive features of sport tourism. Although the concept of sports as a means of attracting tourists is
not novel, it has only been recently that the theoretical foundation of tourist attractions has been
thoroughly examined (Hinch & Higham, 2001; Higham & Hinch, 2003), as evidenced by the works of
Rooney (1988). The complete examination of the management implications of intentionally
positioning sport as a tourist attraction has yet to be undertaken. Leiper's (1990: 371) systems
approach to tourist attractions offers a valuable method for achieving this objective. The author
provided a definition for a tourist attraction, which consists of three distinct components: a human or
tourist element, a central or nucleus element, and an informative or marker element. Leiper (1990)
posits that the creation of a tourist attraction is contingent upon the interconnection of three distinct
elements. The initial component of this attraction system, as identified by Leiper, is the human
element. The tourist or human component pertains to individuals who are engaged in travel activities
that are primarily motivated by leisure-related factors and involve being away from their usual place
of residence. Leiper posits five assertions regarding the characteristics of this behavior.
Implications and Opportunities in Management
The expanding corpus of literature pertaining to sport tourism constitutes a novel asset for managers
operating within this domain. Academic literature that offers conceptual frameworks and illuminates
the travel behaviors and experiences of sport tourists, constitutes a valuable asset for practitioners in
the field of sport tourism. Enhanced comprehension of sport tourism markets empowers managers to
enhance their efficiency in targeted marketing and product development. Glyptis (1991) and Weed and
Bull (1997a) offer valuable guidance for managers in the realm of organizational structure and
strategy. The examination of literature on sport tourism can offer valuable insights to managers of
organizations responsible for realizing the advantages of this field. In light of the nascent state of this
corpus of literature, managers possess the potential to exert substantial influence in establishing and
bolstering research priorities. By actively engaging in research, managers can gain a deeper
comprehension of the ever-changing landscape of sport tourism, resulting in various advantages. The
perception of sports as a standalone tourist attraction signifies a significant change for numerous
managers of sports and tourism establishments. The distinctive features of sports, such as their rule-
bound nature, emphasis on physical competition, and playful elements, set them apart from other
forms of tourist attractions. The utilization of this perspective can enable tourism managers to attain a
competitive edge. The presence of uncertainty in sport competition outcomes offers notable benefits
in terms of authenticity when compared to various other forms of tourism experiences. Sport
managers can expand their market reach beyond their conventional geographic catchment areas by
strategically considering their products as tourism attractions. It is probable that customized
promotional strategies aligned with the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of the attraction
hierarchy would yield greater success compared to the conventional method of treating non-local
sport enthusiasts as a uniform entity.
