Employing persons with disabilities in Madagascar

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

The employability of persons with disabilities remains a challenge in Madagascar.

Leaders and managers must be involved in the empowerment and transformational

change of persons with disabilities (Kensbock & Boehm, 2016; Shogren & Shaw, 2016).

Organizational leaders and company managers are responsible for creating a climate of

inclusion for persons with disabilities to alleviate their impairments and to promote their

employability skills (Theodorakopoulos & Budhwar, 2015). The United Nations (2017a,

2017b) claimed that disabled people are expected to enjoy their fundamental rights to

work, equally as others.

Inequality and discrimination in employment remain, however, a hindrance to the

inclusion of persons with disabilities in societal and community life (Nyombi &

Kibandama, 2014). Persons with disabilities are still marginalized from mainstream

services and economic activities, essentially because of societal attitudes, discrimination

and stereotypes, family rejection, health issues, accessibility, and communication barriers

(Christoffel Blinden Mission, 2016a; Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014; Khan, Amatya, Mannan,

Burkle, & Galea, 2015; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016; Owen et al., 2015). Synergized

efforts should be on translating global engagements into concrete actions at the country

level.

In Madagascar, company managers seem reluctant to hire disabled employees

who are perceived as incompetent and lacking vocational skills. Because of their health

conditions, impaired people engender extra costs and require accommodations in the

workplace to make it accessible (Christoffel Blinden Mission, 2016b; Gragoudas, 2014;

Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). No compulsory policy in the country mandates that

company managers hire disabled workers (Boucher et al., 2015). According to the study

findings, managers have limited awareness of disability identity and of transformational

leadership that could enable them to employ persons with disabilities.

Few scholars have investigated the leadership dimension of disabled persons’

employability. Researchers were more focused on the multifaceted challenges that

persons with disabilities face (Baumgärtner, Dwertmann, Boehm, & Bruch, 2015;

Cramm, Nieboera, Finkenflugel, & Lorenzo, 2014; Hashim & Wok, 2014). Leaders who

empower disabled persons could yield sustained transformational change in disabled

persons’ self-esteem, work engagement, and job performance (Kensbock & Boehm,

2016; Mendes & Stander, 2011). In this study, I focused on the responsibility of

managers in the efforts to promote the employability skills of persons with disabilities.

This qualitative case study consisted of an examination of the leadership practices

of 28 managers in companies, cooperatives, public institutions, and organizations

employing persons with disabilities or facilitating their access to work in Madagascar.

The purpose of the study was to explore the leadership strategies that managers could use

to enhance the employability skills of persons with disabilities in Madagascar. The study

provided information relating to vocational inclusion for individuals with disabilities. The

study enlightened the social returns or the positive image and reputation the company

may benefit when investing in the wellbeing of persons with disabilities.

In Chapter 1, I delineate the components of the study, starting with the

background, followed by the statement of the problem, the main purpose, and the

fundamental research question to be answered by the qualitative inquiry. I present an

outline of the conceptual framework. I offer an overview of relevant concepts,

participants, and other components involved in the study. The definitions of key

concepts, assumptions, delimitations and limitations, and research significance are also

presented in Chapter 1.

Background

At global level, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with

Disabilities (CRPD) and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development stand as

significant landmarks for persons with disabilities (Lee, Christianson, & Bietsch, 2016;

United Nations, 2017a, 2017b). States Parties recognized “the rights of persons with

disabilities to work, on an equal basis with others” and condemned all forms of

employment discrimination (United Nations, 2017b, p. 19). The sustainable development

goal (SDG) 8 calls for “achieving productive employment and decent work for all women

and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities by 2030” (Lee et al.,

2016, p. 7). The right to work is a significant right for persons with disabilities, as

attested by world leaders. Despite the achievements at global level, persons with

disabilities do not always enjoy the fundamental right to work.

Few scholars have displayed statistical data on disability and employment at

global and regional levels; yet, recent, disaggregated data were still hard to find. The

World Health Organization (2011) estimated that 15% of the population worldwide is

disabled. In the Southern African region, the estimated disability prevalence rate ranged

from 5% to 15% (M’kumbuzi, Myezwa, Shumba, & Namanja, 2014; World Health

Organization, 2011). Disaggregated data on employment for persons with disabilities are

difficult to find in Southern African countries. In the United States, the rate of

employment was 34.5% for persons with disabilities, meaning only 34 out of 100 persons

with disabilities were employed. The rate of employment was far higher (76%) for

persons without disabilities (Donnelly, 2017). In developing countries, data about

employment of persons with disabilities are scarce. In this study, I found that only 4.6%

of workers had disabilities in the 28 entities investigated.

Scholars have stressed core challenges that disabled persons face, such as cultural

stereotypes, discrimination, infrastructure accessibility, communication barriers, and

gender imbalance (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014; Lorenzo & Van

Rensburg, 2016; Majiet & Africa, 2015). Barriers to persons with disabilities’

employability relate to accessibility, funding, attitudes, and policies (Christoffel Blinden

Mission, 2016a). Scholars have emphasized the lack of disabled people’s vocational

training, insufficient rehabilitation programs and equity plans, inadequate recruitment and

retention strategies, poor health services, and patronized attitudes toward disability

(Baumgärtner et al., 2015; Cramm et al., 2014; Hashim & Wok, 2014; Khan et al., 2015;

Sing, 2012). In developing countries, disabled people struggle to obtain employment.

In Madagascar, the National Act 97/044, adopted in 1997, related Decree 2001-

162 adopted in 2001, and subsequent regulations adopted in 2004 are the sole legal texts

pertaining to persons with disabilities’ rights (Boucher et al., 2015; Ministry of

Population, Social Protection and Promotion of Women, 2016; Rafitoson, 2016). Societal

attitudes, limited health care and infrastructures, and poor info-technology systems

remain barriers to persons with disabilities’ inclusion in the country (Boucher et al.,

2015; Khan et al., 2015). Disabled people continue to denounce the nonapplication of

existing international and national legal texts in ensuring their legal right to work.

Scholars have not examined the nexus among the concepts of disability identity,

empowerment, employability, and transformational leadership theories. Discourse on

disability has evolved with the prevalence of the social-constructionist approach that

challenged the biomedical disability policies in the 1980s and 1990s (Connell, 2011;

Martin, 2012; Peña, Stapleton, & Schaffer, 2016). Disability identity is viewed as

facilitating disabled people with self-determination and inclusion in society (Dunn &

Burcaw, 2013; Santuzzi & Waltz, 2016; Sharma & Dunay, 2016). Scholars have also

focused on empowerment as a means to improve individuals’ self-esteem and self-

determination (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015, Niesz, Koch, & Rumrill, 2008; Rule, 2013).

Self-determination requires autonomy and independence of living that could be reached

through employment and extended social network, as well as inclusion in the community

(Shogren & Shaw, 2016). Empowered individuals with disabilities can reach their self-

determination and enhance their employability skills, thus enabling greater quality of life

outcomes.

Scholars have stressed factors conducive to persons with disabilities’

employability, such as the participation in decision making, learnership programs,

enabling workplace environments, self-help groups, rehabilitation community centers,

sustained public funding, and grants (Koza, 2015; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016; Rule,

2013; Sing, 2012). Owen et al. (2015) identified a correlation between self-determination,

social participation, wellbeing, and employability of persons with disabilities. Kirsh et al.

(2009) focused on facilitating people with disabilities’ work integration and occupational

fit. Although some strategies have merits, they may not yield tangible outcomes if the

management and leadership aspects of employability are neglected.

Scholars have stressed that transformational leadership could heighten leaders’

perspectives on types of transformational changes required when employing persons with

disabilities (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Caillier, 2014). Transformational leaders are more

likely to facilitate disabled employees’ vocational inclusion (Kensbock & Boehm, 2016;

Mertens, 2009). Theodorakopoulos and Budhwar (2015) stated that leadership fosters

persons with disabilities’ inclusion that, in turn, alleviates challenges, while promoting

performance and positive outcomes. This research examined managers’ responsibility in

promoting persons with disabilities’ employability skills.

Problem Statement

The employability of persons with disabilities in Madagascar is allied with the

employment opportunities. Despite the legislation at the national level and the CRPD at

international level, the rights to work are not effective for persons with disabilities

(Christoffel Blinden Mission, CBM, 2016a). Discriminatory attitudes and stereotypes

about persons with disabilities are still rife, particularly in the labor market (Kleynhans &

Kotze, 2014; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Barriers to persons with disabilities’

employability are multifaceted and relate to accessibility, funding, attitudes, and policies

(CBM, 2016a). The prevalence of disability was estimated at 7.5%, meaning 2.8 million

persons were with disabilities in Madagascar, among them 1.3 million were at working-

age adults (National Institute for Statistics, 2017; World Health Organization, 2011).

The United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2016) indicated that 84.6% of

the population in Madagascar is employed, with 75.3% employed in agriculture and

16.9% employed in services. People are working in the informal sector; therefore, the

high employment rate reflects a disguised unemployment that also concerns persons with

disabilities. Disabled people have limited access to social services and to livelihood

opportunities, due to the lack of appropriate policies (Khan et al., 2015). The government

is overwhelmed with the problem of poverty and is not willing to provide extra efforts in

support to disabled people (Khan et al., 2015; World Health Organization, 2011).

Some managers in companies, cooperatives, institutions, and organizations are

reluctant to employ persons with disabilities in Madagascar (Christoffel Blinden Mission,

2016; Gragoudas, 2014; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Compulsory policy requiring

managers to hire disabled workers does not exist in the country (Boucher et al., 2015),

unlike in few African countries, such as Rwanda and South Africa that have adopted their

Employment Equity Act (Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts, 2016). In Madagascar, managers

reflect the overall societal attitude, perceiving persons with disabilities as incompetent

and lacking vocational skills. Managers also associate persons with disabilities with extra

costs due to health care, accessibility, and accommodation needs (Lorenzo & Van

Rensburg, 2016).

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the management

strategies and leadership styles that managers could use to enhance the employability

skills of disabled people in Madagascar. The aim was to identify managers’ empowering

behaviors meant to foster the competitiveness and attractiveness of persons with

disabilities to employers. With the appropriate management strategies and leadership

skills, managers could be willing to open their doors to disabled workers. Policy makers

can use the findings of this study to heighten the public knowledge on the employability

of persons with disabilities in Madagascar. This study contributes to positive social

change in terms of persons with disabilities’ increased vocational inclusion and social

returns for companies.

Research Question

Scholars use the research question to represent the aspects of the problem they

aim to examine. The research question is also meant to operationalize the conceptual

framework of the study (Miles, Huberman, & Saldana, 2014). One central research

question was defined for the study and it stated as follows: How can managers in

companies, cooperatives, institutions, and organizations in Madagascar effectively foster

the employability skills of persons with disabilities through their management practices

and leadership styles? The research methodology developed in Chapter 3 was used to

answer this question.

Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework offers an overview of the relationship between factors,

concepts, processes, and populations involved in the study. Significant concepts

examined in this study were the concepts of empowerment and self-determination (Niesz

et al., 2008; Rule, 2013; Shogren & Shaw, 2016), of employment and employability

(Cramm et al., 2014; Kirsh et al., 2009; Sing, 2012), and of disability identity (Connell,

2011; Santuzzi & Waltz, 2016). Managers in companies, cooperatives, institutions, and

organizations in Madagascar need a better understanding of disability identity, and of

persons with disabilities’ employability, for them to empower persons with disabilities

who, in turn, could reach self-determination and have a better chance to access

employment.

Theories are components of the conceptual framework, and scholars use theories

to explain how significant concepts are bound (Green, 2014; Miles et al., 2014). Scholars

can use transformational leadership theories to broaden leaders’ perspectives and

practices on the types of transformational changes required when employing persons with

disabilities (Bass & Avolio, 1993; Caillier, 2014). Scholars have identified

transformational leadership theories to be appropriate for enhancing disabled people’s

vocational inclusion (Kensbock & Boehm, 2016; Mertens, 2009). In this study, I focused

on the emergent transformational leadership styles that are detailed in the conceptual

framework section in Chapter 2.

Among emergent transformational leadership theories are authentic leadership,

empowering leadership, community-based leadership, and social justice leadership.

Authentic leadership is based on altruistic intention and aims to unleash self-awareness,

positive behaviors, and organizational commitment (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009;

Scheepers & Elstob, 2016). Empowering leaders helps employees build confidence and

autonomy of decision, while focusing on constraints to performance and on creative

outcomes (Byun, Dai, Lee, & Kang, 2016). The community-based leadership contributes

to empowerment and socioeconomic engagement through improved decision making and

knowledge sharing at the community level (Haruna, 2009). The social justice leader

instills decision making and sustained relationships and builds the understanding of

disabled people’s human rights (De Matthews & Mawhinney, 2014; Rule, 2013).

Managers could use these emergent leadership theories to develop strategies to enhance

persons with disabilities’ employability.

Nature of the Study

The qualitative approach is the correct approach to answer the study research

question. Qualitative researchers elucidate a human or a social problem through a better

understanding of the meaning-making process (Maxwell, 2013; Pistrang & Barker,

2012). The participants in this study were 28 managers in companies, cooperatives,

institutions, and organizations in Madagascar who hire and employ persons with

disabilities. The qualitative inquiry is inductive and interactive by nature because

qualitative scholars acquire different perspectives from participants (Pistrang & Barker,

2012). Qualitative researchers may explore how employers understand concepts, events,

or situations pertaining to employment of persons with disabilities.

I used the case study design for this study. Scholars use a case study to conduct an

in-depth examination of information rich in context, pertaining to a determined system

with space and temporal limits (Yin, 2014). The case study is also an exploration of a

problem with a human and social aspect in a contemporary context (Yin, 2014). In my

dissertation, managers' leadership practices were the case; whereas, the employability of

persons with disabilities was the bounded system, and the context was Madagascar.

The researcher plays a role in a qualitative study, giving meanings to the

participants’ perceptions of the research problem. The researcher is the main instrument

in the study and is sought to capture a holistic understanding of the human and social

problem under investigation (Mile et al., 2014). In this study, I fully assumed my

responsibility for the design of the methodology, the data collection and analysis, and the

trustworthiness of the findings, as suggested by Janesick (2016). Prior to beginning the

study, I examined my own knowledge and cultural perspectives and made sure that I did

not influence participants’ perceptions of the research problem. I was responsible for the

design of the methodology, for data collection using instruments I developed myself, and

for data analysis and interpretation.

Definitions

The operational definitions for the study are listed below.

Authentic leadership: A leadership meant to stimulate self-awareness and self-

regulated positive behaviors, while enhancing employees’ citizenship behavior,

organizational commitment, and performance (Avolio et al., 2009; Scheepers & Elstob,

2016).

Accessibility: It consists of ensuring persons with disabilities’ access to the

physical environment, to transportation, to communication technology, and to

information (Christoffel Blinden Mission, 2018).

Community-based leadership: A leadership with a focus on communities’

decision making, shared knowledge, and growth for long-term transformational changes

and wider engagement in community and social endeavors (Haruna, 2009).

Disability: Activity limitations and participation restrictions of an individual with

physical, sensory, intellectual, learning, or other impairments, due to environmental and

personal factors that hinder his or her contribution in the community life at an equal basis

with others (Hashim & Wok, 2014; Sing, 2012; World Health Organization, 2011).

Disability mainstreaming: The way of incorporating disability-related strategies

within mainstream policies to address obstacles to disabled people’s rights and inclusion

in the society (United Nations Relief and Works Agency, 2013).

Employability: The process, policy, or circumstances that facilitate the access to

employment, including better health conditions, equal chances, and wellbeing in the

workplace, increased retention, accountability, and skills development (Rule, 2013).

Employability skills: Personal competencies, knowledge, and attributes enabling a

person to reach career success in all kinds and levels of work (Andrews & Russell, 2012;

Ju, Zhang, & Pacha, 2014, p. 204).

Empowering leadership: Leadership meant to unleash the autonomy of

employees, through delegated responsibilities, participative decision making, and shared

powers (Lee, Cheong, Kim, & Yun, 2017).

Empowerment: Philosophy sustaining rehabilitation practices that help persons

with disabilities make choices, take risks, and develop self-esteem and self-confidence

(Niesz et al., 2008, p. 114; Rule, 2013).

Inclusion: Full participation of a person in all aspects of life, including the access

to social and economic services, the recovery of a status, and the limited effects of

disability (Davey & Gordon, 2017).

Impairment: Lack of enabling environments and social recognition of individuals

with disabilities’ needs that determine their capacities to operate in society (Connell,

2011).

Livelihood: The means by which individuals or households are able to meet their

basic needs, such as food, water, shelter, and essential medicines (Christoffel Blinden

Mission, 2016a).

Self-determination: Ability to act freely and autonomously to identify and achieve

goals according to a person’s choice, competences, and interests independently from

outer inﬂuences and based on self-realization, awareness of an individual’s strengths, and

support needs (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Gragoudas, 2014; Shogren & Shaw, 2016).

Social justice leadership: A leadership based on the alteration of inequitable

policies and procedures affecting marginalized groups through advocacy engagement

toward sustaining human rights and fairness in personal, social, and developmental

aspects (DeMatthews & Mawhinney, 2014).

Transformational leadership: An interaction-oriented leadership theory grounded

on leaders’ transformational influence on followers that yields trust and loyalty,

motivation, and commitment (Mwambazambi & Banza, 2014; Tyssen, Wald, & Spieth,

2013).

Assumptions

The assumptions identified in the context of this dissertation study are listed

below:

1. Persons with disabilities have the rights to work, equally as others

2. Persons with disabilities are employable and have skills that could be

developed

3. Transformational leaders are capable of empowering persons with

disabilities

4. Participants in the study provide reliable information about their

leadership challenges and strategies to enhance disabled people’ s

employability

The previous cited assumptions underlay and legitimize the qualitative case study.

Qualitative researchers do not examine the validity of the ground assumptions, because

they are considered as self-justifying. I conducted the study to advance the knowledge

about the concepts of disability identity, empowerment, and employability, as well as

about emergent transformational leadership theories and practices. I also focused on

examining the challenges to the employability of persons with disabilities to identify

enabling management strategies and leadership styles.

Scope and Delimitations

In this study, I addressed the issue of employability of disabled workers in

Madagascar. Managers in companies, institutions, cooperatives, and organizations lack

awareness of disability-related matters and of transformational leadership that would

enable them to empower disabled persons and foster their employability skills. In this

study, I explored the leadership dimension of the phenomenon of employability. I used a

qualitative method of inquiry to examine what management models and leadership skills

leaders and managers could use to foster the employability of persons with disabilities.

The geographical boundary was Madagascar, and I targeted managers in

companies, institutions, cooperatives, and organizations located in three different regions

of the country to have a better representation of participants. The sample size was 28

persons, which is a common sample size used in qualitative research (Mile et al., 2015).

Among the 28 participants, I targeted 12 managers who employ disabled workers in

private companies and five leaders of disabled people cooperatives. I also targeted seven

managers in public institutions and four leaders in local NGOs.

Limitations

The study had limited scope, as I only focused on persons with disabilities’

employability in Madagascar. I only addressed contextual challenges to which persons

with disabilities were confronted in the area of employment. I focused more on the

leadership dimension of employability. Future scholars may use a more systemic

approach and target other aspects, such as the environmental, social, cultural, political, or

economic dimensions of disabled people’s employability. The study was limited to the

geographic context of Madagascar, though it could be of interest to scholars to have a

wider perspective of disabled people’s employability in the Southern African region.

The qualitative nature of the research does not provide rigorous evidence of

hypotheses as in a quantitative inquiry, which may lead to increased instances of bias.

The purposeful sampling that I used for data collection may also restrict the

representativeness of the participants in the study. Having 28 participants in the study

may not be sufficient for the generalization of the findings and their transferability to

other settings. The use of coding in data analysis also reduced biases and subjectivity

because the data aggregating process requires rigor. Scholars can use validation

strategies, such as triangulation, thick description, or prolonged engagement, to check

findings against other sources and perspectives to reduce distortions (Korstjens & Moser,

2018).

Significance of the Study

The results of this study may lead to positive social changes, given the numerous

challenges that persons with disabilities are facing in Madagascar (Boucher et al., 2015;

Christoffel Blinden Mission, 2016b; Khan et al., 2015). The study could be of benefit to

one of the most vulnerable and neglected groups that include groups of persons with

disabilities. With improved transformational leadership skills, managers could empower

disabled workers and positively influence their self-determination. Leaders could better

attend to the vocational needs of disabled workers (Kensbock & Boehm, 2016). Persons

with disabilities could, consequently, have better chances of access to the labor market.

Managers could gain trust and acknowledgment, as well as fulfillment from their

contributions to the wellbeing of persons with disabilities. The study could pave the way

to an inclusive society in which persons with disabilities could prosper.

Stakeholders in the field of disability could use the results of this study to

advocate for appropriate strategies within national policies to changing attitudes within

the society and implementing inclusive policies. Leaders could use the results of this

study to influence resource mobilization and partnership development in support of

persons with disabilities. The research could be of benefit to decision makers in the area

of disability at community and national levels. Managers could use the results of the

study to improve their knowledge on the employability of persons with disabilities and on

emerging transformational leadership theories and practices. Managers could know more

about the social return they gain when investing in persons with disabilities.

Scholarly studies in the areas of disability and of employment within Madagascar

are limited (Khan et al., 2015; World Health Organizations, 2011). In most African

countries, peer-reviewed articles and textbooks pertaining to leadership are scarce, and

they are practically nonexistent in the country. This study added to the literature in the

realms of disability, employment, and leadership development in the context of

Madagascar. It added to the knowledge of concepts, such as employability, disability

identity, empowerment, and self-determination.

Summary and Transition

In Chapter 1, I provided a synopsis of the main components of the study. I

highlighted the problem statement, the main purpose of the study, as well as the research

question. The chapter included insights on the conceptual framework. I also discussed the

nature of the study and provided key definitions. I outlined main assumptions,

delimitations, and possible limitations. The chapter ended with the implications of the

research, including the positive social change it may engender.

In Chapter 2, I present the literature review, starting with the literature search

strategy, followed by the conceptual framework in which I discuss key concepts and

theories that framed the study. I present themes related to disability and employment at

global, regional, and country levels. I examine transformational leadership theories and

practices, with a focus on emergent leadership, namely authentic leadership, empowering

leadership, community-based leadership, and social justice leadership. I provide insights

on transformational changes in the area of employment and disability, before outlining

possible gaps to address in the study.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Introduction

Scholars review the literature to provide a critical examination of scholarly,

seminal, and current sources, with the aim of identifying the knowledge gaps meant to

justify the study. In the literature review, scholars present the background of the study,

main trends, and concepts that serve as the foundation for the study (Walden University

Doctoral Capstone Resources, 2017; Walden University Research Center, 2012). In the

following literature review, I present scholarly research in the fields of disability,

employment, and leadership to identify the knowledge deficiencies and clarify the

research needs, while adding credibility to the study.

The employability of individuals with disabilities is a problem in Madagascar.

Several factors influence the exclusion of persons with disabilities from mainstream

services and economic activities. Scholars cite societal attitudes, discrimination, and

stereotypes as factors that contribute to the exclusion of persons with disabilities.

Accessibility and communication barriers, health issues, and family rejection are

challenges that are exacerbated by cultural and poverty pressures (Christoffel Blinden

Mission, 2016a; Khan et al., 2015; Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014; Owen et al., 2015).

Company managers may perceive disabled persons as incompetent and lacking

vocational skills, thus engendering additional costs because of health care and

accommodation needs (Christoffel Blinden Mission, 2016a; Gragoudas, 2014; Lorenzo &

Van Rensburg, 2016). Scholars should examine employability with the aim of enhancing

disabled people’s vocational inclusion.

Several researchers have focused on the multifaceted challenges that persons with

disabilities are facing (Baumgärtner et al., 2015; Cramm et al., 2014; Hashim & Wok,

2014). Few scholars, however, have concentrated on the leadership aspect of

employability. Leaders’ empowering behaviors may yield sustained transformational

change for disabled persons in terms of self-esteem, work engagement, and job

performance (Kensbock & Boehm, 2016; Mendes & Stander, 2011). Research in the field

of transformational leadership is limited in sub-Saharan Africa (Muchiri, 2011;

Mwambazambi & Banza, 2014; Ngambi, 2011). Scholarly literature on Madagascar is

scarce, and it was not possible to find studies on leadership in the areas of employment

and disability that could have informed this research. A better understanding of leaders’

practices in employing disabled workers may elucidate management challenges that

influence disabled people’s access to employment and retention in the workplace.

In this study, I explored management strategies and leadership styles that

managers in companies, cooperatives, institutions, and organizations in Madagascar

could use to enhance the employability skills of disabled people in Madagascar. I

identified and analyzed leaders’ and managers’ empowering behaviors and skills. The

study provided information to stakeholders involved in mainstreaming disability-related

strategies within national policies.

I begin the literature review with the literature search strategy, before outlining

the conceptual framework and focusing on topics relevant to the dissertation. I review

resources pertaining to global and regional challenges to disability and employment and

employment and disability in Madagascar. I then explore concepts pertaining to disability

identity, empowerment and self-determination, and employability. I investigate literature

on transformational leadership theories of relevance to the study. I conclude the literature

review by examining employability and transformational change.

Literature Search Strategy

In the literature review, I present peer-reviewed articles that I garnered from

databases, accessible through the Walden University Library. I used databases, such as

Business Source complete, Sage Journals, Academic Search Complete, Emerald Insight,

Thoreau, ABI/INFORM collection, and Google Scholar to find peer-reviewed and

scholarly articles less than 5-years-old. I used the following keywords: disability,

employment, Madagascar, leadership, empowerment, inclusion, transformational

leadership, and social change. For the qualitative methodology, I primarily relied on the

texts written by Janesick (2016), Korstjens and Moser (2018), Maxwell (2013),

McCammon and Keene (2017), Miles et al. (2014), Palinkas (2012), and Saldana (2015).

For the research design, I relied on the text on case study written by Yin (2014).

I looked over dissertations relevant to my topic and in line with my research

approach and design. I also searched for historical references that provided the

foundational theories and concepts for my dissertation. I consulted texts pertaining to the

methodology I used in the study. I consulted 160 articles, including 150 peer-reviewed

articles, 12 dissertations, and 15 texts books. Additionally, I consulted relevant

international and national organizations’ reports and relevant web links. Table 1 displays

the summary of the resources I explored for the dissertation.

Table 1 L Review Sources

Literature Review Sources

Source

2013 and Later

Prior to 2012

Total

Peer-reviewed articles

124

150

Non-peer-reviewed articles

Dissertations

Books

Websites

Total

164

202

Percentage of total

81%

19%

100%

Conceptual Framework

Qualitative researchers use a conceptual framework to illuminate the overall

inquiry and to provide a visual representation of how concepts, theories, factors,

processes, and populations are interlinked in the study (Maxwell, 2013; Miles et al.,

2014). Scholars use the conceptual framework to map the key components in the study,

so as to guarantee coherence and the publication of results with confidence (Green,

2014). When developing the conceptual framework for this qualitative case study, I first

ensured its alignment with the other parts of the research, mainly the research questions,

the purpose of the study, and the nature of the study. I chose the qualitative method to

explore leaders’ and employers’ understanding of concepts, such as disability identity,

empowerment, self-determination, and employability.

Concept of Disability Identity

Literature about disability identity is limited. Scholars have associated disability

with exclusive status and have isolated it from identity (Peña et al., 2016). From

increased knowledge in the field of disability, critical conceptions of disability identity

emerged. Scholars agreed that the concept of disability identity is a complex dynamic

featuring social structures and attitudes, persons with disabilities’ experiences of

impairment, as well as their ways of mirroring themselves and of interacting with others

(Forber-Pratt, Lyew, Mueller, & Sample, 2017; Santuzzi & Waltz, 2016). Dunn and

Burcaw (2013) defined disability identity as the sense of belonging and association with

the disability community. Occupational identity is the most salient identity for disabled

workers, and it encompasses vocational inclusion, safety, and wellbeing (Santuzzi &

Waltz, 2016). Disability identity is viewed as enabling disabled persons to overcome

challenges associated with their impairments and to find human dignity.

Concept of Empowerment and Self-Determination

Empowerment is a complex concept meant to improve individuals’ self-esteem

and self-determination through multifaceted changes that occur at individual,

organizational, and societal levels (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Shogren & Shaw, 2016).

Rule (2013) identified participation in decision making, self-help groups, and social

movements at community levels as enabling factors of empowerment. When empowered,

individuals with disabilities could reach greater autonomy and be in charge of their lives

(Rule, 2013). By being employed or self-employed, they could have a better chance of

reaching self-determination. Self-determination entails individuals’ autonomy and

independent living (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015). Self-determination facilitates

employment and social inclusion, while increasing quality of life and residential

opportunities (Shogren & Shaw, 2016). Leaders and managers play a role in empowering

persons with disabilities and fostering their employability and self-determination.

Concept of Employability

The concept of employability has gained interest in the past decade.

Employability as a concept has relevance in the field of disability because of the higher

likelihood that disabled persons are less productive and discriminated against in the labor

market (Bertrand, Caradec, & Eideliman, 2014). Employability is a pattern that orients

the relationship of employees with employment (Bertrand et al., 2014). Identifying the

attributes of employability helps determine enabling factors for persons with disabilities’

access to employment.

Bertrand et al. (2014) stated that the terms employable and unemployable qualify

the degrees of employability and stand at the two opposite ends of the employability

continuum. Kirsh et al. (2009) suggested focusing on the outcomes of employability and

employment and encouraged considering the work environment, work integration, and

occupation fit to facilitate work integration. Work outcomes could include the creation of

material and spiritual goods, as well as improved skills and abilities (Pivoda, 2012).

Although occupational engagement may facilitate empowerment of persons with

disabilities and the exercise of recognized roles, these may not be sufficient to maintain

the employability and sustain the livelihoods of disabled workers.

In the employability skills literature, scholars identified multiple abilities, ranging

in the categories of basic skills, higher-order thinking, and affective skills that refer to

personal attributes, knowledge, and genetic talents (Andrews & Russell, 2012; Ju et al.,

2014). Employers value more affective skills, such as responsibility, positive attitude

toward work, consciousness, self-confidence or creativity, and flexibility when hiring

employees (Andrews & Russell, 2012). Employability skills are not seen as merely

employees’ attributes, but as enabling conditions for successful integration in the labor

market.

Transformational Leadership Theories

Theories are features of the conceptual framework, and they provide the

foundation of the study by explaining key concepts, as well as the relationships among

them (Green, 2014; Miles et al., 2014). Scholars can use transformational leadership

theories to explore leaders’ practices and transformational changes associated with

persons with disabilities’ empowerment and employability (Bass & Avolio, 1993;

Caillier, 2014). Transformational leadership could be appropriate to the vocational

inclusion of employees with disabilities (Kensbock & Boehm, 2016; Mertens, 2009).

Theodorakopoulos and Budhwar (2015) claimed that leadership fosters persons with

disabilities’ inclusion, which alleviates challenges, while promoting performance and

positive outcomes. Transformational leadership theories are fundamental in exploring

strategies that may fit the context of the employability of persons with disabilities in

Madagascar. Figure 1 below presents the conceptual framework for this study.

Figure 1. Illustration of the conceptual framework.

As illustrated in Figure 1, the targeted participants in the study were managers in

companies, cooperatives, institutions, and organizations who employ workers with

disabilities. The context was Madagascar where persons with disabilities face challenges

that hinder their employability skills. Managers and leaders require a better understanding

of the concepts of disability identity and employability, so that they can empower

disabled persons with disabilities who could reach self-determination and have a better

chance to be retained in the workplace. Managers can use relevant transformational

leadership theories to develop skills and foster persons with disabilities’ employability.

Disability

identity

Employment

Persons with

disabilities

Transformational

change

Empowerment

Self-

determination

Transformational

leadership

Employability

28 managers in

companies, institutions,

cooperatives, and

organizations

Global Challenges to Disability and Employment

The sustainable development goal number eight (SDG8) was one of the 17 global

goals adopted in 2015 by world leaders and presented in the 2030 Sustainable

Development Agenda (United Nations, 2015). SDG8 stated “achieving full and

productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young

people and persons with disabilities” (United Nations, 2017a, p. 7). The right of disabled

persons to decent employment is among the priorities of the international community,

and world leaders echoed the challenges to decent employment and livelihood

opportunities. They claimed the need to break the link between disability and poverty by

acknowledging the increased prevalence of disability among the working-age population.

Few provisions of the CRPD relate to employment and skills development,

particularly article 27 in which states parties recognized the rights of persons with

disabilities to decent work that would facilitate the inclusion in societies (Lorenzo & Van

Rensburg, 2016; United Nations, 2017b). State parties are the 177 member states of the

United Nations that have ratified the Convention (United Nations, 2017b). States parties

are committed to ensuring decent work to disabled people and to combat discrimination

by offering equal opportunities for work of equal value. They also agreed to facilitate

disabled persons’ access to vocational training and to placement services and to promote

self-employment, entrepreneurship, or cooperatives and start-up business. Persons with

disabilities have the rights to receive reasonable accommodation in the workplace

(Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016; United Nations, 2017b). These measures are meant to

combat disability discrimination in the field of employment, so that people with

disabilities can fully enjoy their fundamental rights to work.

Gaps exist, however, between the internationally agreed upon policies and their

implementations at the country level. Translating international texts into national policies

and strategies would require decision makers’ greater political will and employers’

increased awareness of disability identity and employability. With the disability

prevalence estimated at 15% of the population worldwide (World Health Organizations,

2011), enhancing disabled people’s employability would require resource mobilization

and changes in management and leadership strategies.

The disability rate varies in countries and within countries, depending on the

definition used for disability. In France, for instance, the percentage of disabled people

ranged from 4% to 40% (Bertrand et al., 2014). The low rate is in line with the narrow

definition of disability, or the official recognition of the disability of an individual. The

high rate relates to the wide definition, meaning the declaration of one or more

impairments (Bertrand et al., 2014). WHO estimates showed that 59% of working men

and 20% of working women were with disabilities in low income countries, whereas 71%

of working men and 31% of working women were with disabilities in developed

countries, (WHO, 2011).

In the United States, the employment rate for workers with disabilities was

34.5%, meaning that out of 100 persons with disabilities, only 34 to 35 persons were

employed (Donnelly, 2017). The employment rate was twice higher (76%) for persons

without disabilities in 2015 (Donnelly, 2017). The unemployment rate was estimated at

10.7%, compared to 5.1% for persons without disability (Donnelly, 2017). In Canada, the

employment rate was 55% for persons with disabilities, compared to 84% for persons

without a disability (Statistics Canada, 2017). In South Africa, the gender imbalance is

acute with only 19.6% of women with disabilities employed, compared to 52.8% of men

with disabilities (Statistics South Africa, 2011). The same gender imbalance is witnessed

in Rwanda, as indicated in Table 2, in the following. The employment imbalance also

exists among urban and rural areas and between disabled and nondisabled employees

(National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda, 2012). Persons with disabilities tend to be

self-employed, likely because of the lack of access to the job market.

Table 2 D

Distribution of Persons with/without Disabilities Employed in Rwanda

Area/Employment Status

Persons with disabilities

Persons without disabilities

Male

Female

Male

Female

Urban

Employee

46.6

27.3

54.7

38.3

Employer

1.1

0.5

1.2

0.6

Self-employed

42.3

56.9

33.9

46.1

Rural

Employee

14.0

6.3

7.8

7.7

Employer

0.5

0.3

0.5

0.2

Self-employed

76.7

79.0

79.6

75.6

Source: National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda, 2012

Scholars have stressed persons with disabilities’ core challenges, such as

stereotypes and bias, discrimination, infrastructure accessibility, and communication

barriers (Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Cultural

stereotypes, gender imbalance, and the society biased views are impeding factors to the

inclusion and the access of persons with disabilities to leadership positions (Majiet &

Africa, 2015). Scholars have revealed the double jeopardy that disabled women face, as

they experience both gender discrimination and discrimination related to their disabilities.

Additional problems may occur, such as marginalization, or physical, sexual, and

emotional abuse (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Razafinjato, 2011).

Christoffel Blinden Mission (CBM, 2016a) advocated for governments’ and

stakeholders’ obligations to protect disabled people’s rights to work and to sustained

livelihood. CBM revealed obstacles to disabled people’s inclusion in work and livelihood

that relate to accessibility, finance, attitudes, and policies. Scholars also emphasized the

lack of rehabilitation programs and patronizing attitude toward disabilities, thus

hampering persons with disabilities’ vocational inclusion (CBM, 2016a; Khan et al.,

2015; Sing, 2012). Although scholars’ attention was more on the structural and attitudinal

barriers, little emphasis was on the employability of persons with disabilities.

Attending to the needs of disabled employees remains a global challenge. For

instance, it is difficult to find sign language interpreters to facilitate deaf people’s

communication, particularly in rural areas. The WHO (2011) revealed that only 62

countries provide sign language interpreting services, 43 countries provide sporadic

training on sign language interpretation, and 30 countries have less than 20 sign language

interpreters (including Iran, Madagascar, Mexico, Sudan, Thailand, and Tanzania).

Ensuring disabled people reasonable accommodation in developing countries requires

synergized efforts at the international and national levels.

A number of financial initiatives exist for providing accommodations for persons

with disabilities, but scholars questioned the impact of the social cash transfer (Gooding

& Marriot, 2009). Scholars identified hindrances to implementing cash transfers, such as

accessibility and availability, limited awareness, low funding levels, accountability, and

eligibility. Cash transfers may also increase the perception of charity and dependence of

persons with disabilities and undermine any sense of empowerment and employability. In

a number of developing countries, demeaning attitudes toward persons with disabilities,

inequitable eligibility criteria, and corruption undermined the implementation of social

cash transfer program (Gooding & Marriot, 2009). Social cash transfer alone cannot

address disability-related challenges, hence the importance of a wider inclusive approach

and non-discriminating legislation.

Echevin (2013) examined the issue of disability-presumed impediment on

productivity, thus making disabled persons less attractive in the job market. Policy

makers may link disability with developing countries’ poverty and weak resilience.

Disabled persons are mostly affected by lower incomes and have limited chances to

access quality education and employment. In CapeVerde, Echevin revealed disparities

among social categories and found that the disability rate was higher in rural areas

(3.81%) than in urban areas (2.71%). Echevin also found that the disability rate was more

pronounced among children under 5 (0.78%) and elders above 65 years (8.11%). The

disability rate is also higher among the poorest (4.16%), than the wealthiest (2.4%).

Sing (2012) pointed out the inadequate recruitment and retention strategies for

persons with disabilities, as well as the limited number of qualified workers with

disabilities. Inequality remains at all stages of the recruitment process, from the initial job

advertisement to the final interview. Victor et al. (2017) pointed out unfair hiring

decisions and treatment in the workplace, which may lead to disability discrimination.

When employers are asked to hire employees with disabilities, they have preference for

some types of disabilities, like mild physical or learning disabilities that would not

involve high costs for accommodations (Flanagan, 2016). Persons with visual impairment

are considered the costliest, because they often require another supporting employee

(Flanagan, 2016). Scholars should explore the costs associated with different types of

disabilities in the workplace in developing countries.

Few scholars have examined disabled employees’ job satisfaction. The lack of

ﬂexibility in the workplace may lead to reduced job satisfaction among disabled

employees (Baumgärtner et al., 2015). A higher level of education positively influences

disabled workers’ job satisfaction (Kamal & Tomoo, 2014). Further studies could focus

on job satisfaction for persons with different types of disabilities.

Challenges to Disability and Employment in Southern African Region

Research on disability and employment in the Southern African region,

particularly Madagascar, is scarce. Some scholars, however, have conducted studies that

were of relevance to this study. Madagascar shares similarities with its neighboring

Southern African countries in historical and cultural ties, economic development

challenges, and have societal structure based on communitarianism.

Most countries in the Southern African region do not have recent or reliable

databases on disability and refer only to the estimated prevalence rate for disability,

which ranges from 5% to 15% (World Health Organization, 2011). For instance, the

percentage of persons with disabilities was estimated at 7.5% in South Africa, 12.97 % in

Malawi, 11.43 % in Mauritius, 5.78 % in Zambia, 7.5% in Madagascar, and 10.98 % in

Zimbabwe (Mitra, 2011; M’kumbuzi et al., 2014; National Institute for Statistics, 2017;

WHO, 2011). Without reliable statistics, it is difficult to create a strategy suitable to

address the challenges persons with disabilities are facing.

More scholarly studies have been conducted in South Africa where progress was

registered in terms of legal texts and strategic framework in support of persons with

disabilities. Yet, the country is not achieving disability employment equity. The South

African legal framework emphasizes persons with disabilities’ inclusion in the labor

market, starting with the Constitution, the Employment Equity Act adopted in 1998, the

Code of Good Practice on Disability in the workplace adopted in 2001, and the Technical

Assistance Guidelines on the Employment of Persons with Disabilities adopted in 2007

(Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts, 2016).

The South African social security agency created national grants to persons with

disabilities. Although the grant provides disabled people with some life comfort, it

hampers their willingness to embark on employment endeavors (Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts,

2016). Mitra (2009) examined the limited economic significance of the South Africa

Disability Grant program on labor supply. The researcher found an inadequate disability

screening in the past decade that led to a higher probability of individuals with

disabilities’ lack of incentives to work. Disability grants have likely contributed to

persons with disabilities’ unwillingness to work and to a culture of dependency.

A number of factors limit the access to work of disabled youth, which can lead to

economic and social exclusion (Cramm et al., 2014). Scholars evidenced significant

relationships between a lack of vocational skills, job availability, and unemployment of

youth (Cramm et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2016). Social attitudes and poor health are also

linked with unemployment, as well as inadequate recruitment and retention strategies

(Cramm et al., 2014; Scheepers & Elstob, 2016). Policy makers must reduce the obstacles

to employment of disabled youth to lessen the inequality between disabled and

nondisabled persons.

Legal Framework on Disability in Madagascar

Despite advocacy efforts at international and national levels, the only compulsory

national texts related to disabled persons’ rights in Madagascar are the National Act

97/044 adopted in 1997, subsequent Decree 2001-162 adopted in 2001, and regulations

adopted in 2004 (Boucher et al., 2015; Ministry of Population, Social Protection and

Protection of Women, 2016; Rafitoson, 2016). The National Act has provisions for the

rights of disabled people to vocational training and employment. The National Act

stipulates the role of the government in terms of disabled people’s accessibility and

equality of opportunities. The government must facilitate the employment of disabled

people and encourage private companies to hire persons with disabilities and

accommodate them in the workplace.

The Decree 2001-162 was released in 2001 in application to the act adopted 4

years earlier. The Decree 2001-162 was supposed to mark a greater engagement of the

government, and other stakeholders, in the promotion of disabled people’s rights to

vocational training and employment (Ministry of Population, Social Protection and

Protection of Women, 2016; Rafitoson, 2016). Similar to the 1997 National Act, words

such as “encourages”, “favors”, or “could” are included throughout the text, translating a

lack of engagement from the government. By using these words, Decree 2001-162 shifted

the responsibility of disabled workers’ empowerment to employers in private companies

and leaders in cooperatives and rehabilitation organizations.

The regulations, consecutive to Decree 2001-162, were only issued in 2004, 3

years after its adoption. The regulation 2004-24667 made provisions for disabled

people’s access to employment in the public and private sectors (Ministry of Population,

Social Protection and Protection of Women, 2016). The Law 2003-044 on Labor Codes

in Madagascar includes a specific section under Chapter 3 pertaining to workers with

disabilities. It provided the creation of incentive measures for companies hiring disabled

workers (International Labor Organization, 2004). No effective actions were taken, so

far, for the implementation of the incentive measures. The existing legal texts are

outdated and present shortcomings, because they do not create government obligations to

mainstream disability related matters in other national acts.

CBM (2016b) reported on achievements in Madagascar, namely the adoption of

the National Disability Mainstreaming Plan in 2015, subsequent to the ratification of the

CRPD in December 2014. In December 2017, the national parliament adopted the related

optional protocol. Despite these achievements, the international convention was not yet

translated in terms of national acts, decrees, or regulations. Challenges remain, such as

the insufficient attention to disabled persons’ special needs and the limited knowledge on

disability. The Platform of Federations of People with Disabilities (PFPH), an umbrella

for disabled people organizations, continues to denounce the non-application of persons

with disabilities’ rights, particularly the rights to health, education, employment, and

mobility (CBM, 2016b). Little progress was registered in the past 10 years, particularly in

regards to disabled persons’ rights to employment.

The PFPH has been involved in reporting on the process of SDGs’

implementation in Madagascar. The United Nations Human Rights Committee

recommended more inclusion of disability perspectives in national policies and strategies

(International Disability Alliance, 2016). The United Nations Human Rights Committee

called for increased awareness of combating stigmatization and discrimination and

allocation of budgetary lines in the national and sectorial budget (International Disability

Alliance, 2016). Governments must collect and disseminate comprehensive and

disaggregated data to assess trends and progress towards the realization of persons with

disabilities’ rights (International Disability Alliance, 2016). The United Nations Human

Rights Committee emphasized the rights of women and girls with disabilities, stressing

the vulnerability of these groups, as well as gender imbalance. The report made no

mention of employability for persons with disabilities.

Employment and Disability in Madagascar

Scholarly literature in the field of Madagascar employment and disability is

difficult to find in scholarly databases. International and national NGOs, however,

provide information pertaining to employment and disability in Madagascar, even though

these reports are targeting the larger public and disability stakeholders. I also found

articles in Google Scholar that contributed to this literature review. I focused on the

national legal framework pertaining to employment for persons with disabilities. These

few, but significant, documentation materials enabled an overview of persons with

disabilities’ current situation in Madagascar.

Statistical data about disabled people’s employment are lacking in Madagascar,

though few scholars brought to light data pertaining to household financial difficulties

and unemployment. Boucher et al. (2015) reported on financial difficulties of 87% of

households in the Southern region of Madagascar, where disabled persons are

economically and socially excluded. With more than 90% workers in the informal sector,

Madagascar presents a disguised unemployment (International Labor Organization, 2015;

Lee et al., 2016; National Institute for Statistics, 2017). No sufficient knowledge exists on

how disguised unemployment affects persons with disabilities.

With high levels of poverty and limited resources, the government in Madagascar

is not set up to provide extra efforts in support to persons with disabilities (Khan et al.,

2015; WHO, 2011). Scholars claimed that societal attitudes and limited health care

services are barriers to persons with disabilities’ social and economic inclusion in

Madagascar (Boucher et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2015). Khan et al. (2015) identified poor

health care services and limited info-technology systems as hindrances to progress in

disabled employees’ vocational inclusion. Khan et al. also pointed out the “disconnect”

between disability and community-based rehabilitation. Khan et al. focused on the health

dimension of disability and placed less emphasis on its social dimension and related

rights-based approach.

Razafinjato (2011) stressed contextual hindering factors to persons with

disabilities’ rights, such as infrastructure inaccessibility, absence of benefits, and the lack

of appropriate accommodations. Razafinjato called for solidarity among persons with

disabilities to overcome disability challenges. The International Disability Alliance

(2016) denounced the limited access to services and livelihood, particularly for women

with disabilities, in Madagascar. The International Disability Alliance also highlighted

the vulnerability of children with disabilities, who are often victims of abuse and lack

access to mainstream education and to health care.

Boucher et al. (2015) focused on persons with disabilities’ participation in local

governance in the Southern region of Madagascar. Boucher et al. outlined families’

rejection or neglect of family members with disabilities. Disability is perceived as a

shame and a source of evil that led to culturally-based discrimination in the Southern

region of Madagascar. Boucher et al. stressed disabled people’s lack of confidence that

leads to exclusion and invisibility. The aforementioned challenges may not be sufficient

to explain persons with disabilities’ limited access to employment and livelihood.

Almanza et al. (2015) examined youth employment in Madagascar and indicated

that 16.58% of youth workers were in the public or private sector in Madagascar, whereas

32.8% were self-employed, among which 71% was in the agricultural sector. Almanza et

al. did not provide analytical insights about individuals with disabilities, although the

survey included questions on disability status. Fafchamps and Minten (2009) found a

significant relationship between welfare, health status, provision of public services, and

insecurity in Madagascar. Disabled people belong to the most vulnerable groups in the

society and are the first victims of insecurity, which affects their access to employment

and livelihood opportunities.

Persons with disabilities are likely to lack access to decent work, even though this

is one of the universally agreed upon SDGs. Lee et al. (2016) reported on the

implementation of SDG 8 that pertains to productive employment and decent work.

Under SDG 8, persons with disabilities were clearly mentioned among targeted

vulnerable groups. Lee et al. identified problems, such as the high rate of informal work

in Madagascar, unemployment, insufficient job creation, and gender and wage inequality.

Persons with disabilities are not able to access employment; however, the government in

Madagascar has not adequately addressed this problem.

Models of Disability

The concept of disability identity was introduced in the conceptual framework. In

this section, I highlighted different models and perceptions of the disability construct that

pertain to disabled persons’ empowerment and employability. Historically, disabled

persons were labeled as dysfunctional and unhealthy, requiring medical treatment before

they were acknowledged as a part of an oppressed minority group that deserves status and

privileges (Peña et al., 2016). Scholars recognized disability as a complex and

multidimensional concept that features organic, functional, and social aspects (Bertrand

et al., 2014; Connell, 2011).

Disagreements still exists between the proponents of the medical model and the

proponents of the social model of disability. Under the medical model, disability is

defined as the consequence of individual malfunction, while in the social model disability

is the consequence of environmental obstacles that limit categories of individuals’

participation in the society (Bertrand et al., 2014; Mertens, 2009; Sing, 2012). In the

medical model, disability is considered a sickness requiring medical community

commitment, while the social model includes the environmental response to individuals

with a disability (Mertens, 2009). Proponents of the disability rights movement accused

the proponents of the medical model as establishing barriers that hamper persons with

disabilities’ attainment of rights (Travis, 2014). Disability is increasingly accepted as a

dimension of human difference and not as a defect.

Discourse on disability has evolved with the prevalence of the social

constructionist perspective that opposed the biomedical disability approach (Martin,

2012; Peña et al., 2016). According to the social perspective, the contextual environment

may create disabilities, such as attitudinal and structural barriers, that limit individuals

with impairments’ ability to evolve in society (Martin, 2012). In the social disability

conception, the emphasis is on the interactions between the individual and the

environment (Travis, 2014). Lorenzo and Van Rensburg (2016) advocated for the

disability inclusion and social change and the recognition of disabled people as active

citizens who are able to participate in the social and economic development. Scholars

should focus on contextual factors, or on organizational norms and employers’ practices

that produce inequality between persons with and without disabilities.

The social model reached a hegemonic position after the adoption of the CRPD in

2006. The international convention marked the shift from the charity mindset to the

development mindset, acknowledging disabled individuals as subjects with full rights,

instead of objects who only require social protection and health care. Disabled people are

recognized as capable of making decision for their lives and of being agents of change in

the society (United Nations, 2017b). The CRPD is expected to bring about change in

attitude and mindset in societies and to instill the value of disability identity.

Disability Identity and Employment

Over time, a critical disability theory emerged, and a number of researchers raised

the issue of disabled people’s social identity. The disability language evolved, shaped by

cultural specificities and by individual and group differences (Peña et al, 2016). Scholars

recognized the concept of disability identity complex dynamic, yet no common

understanding was reached. Forber-Pratt et al. (2017) suggested considering the disability

identity concept as enabling people with disabilities to mirror themselves and interact

with others. The knowledge of disability identity may help managers to foster persons

with disabilities’ employability through improved rehabilitation and social and economic

support.

Santuzzi and Waltz (2016) pointed out the complexity of disability identity and

argued that it features social structures and attitudes, as well as persons with disabilities’

experience of impairment. Dunn and Burcaw (2013) outlined the sense of belonging to

the disability community. The knowledge of disability identity positive aspects (e.g.,

pride, self-esteem, and community attachment) allows individuals to understand how

people live with their impairments. Connell (2011), however, warned about the unique

consideration of the perspective of disability in occidental countries. Connell invited

scholars to tap into the social and intellectual resources in the global South of the world

to develop strategies that will address disabled groups’ marginalization and will make

their voices heard.

The negative self-perception of persons with disabilities’ own impairments can

inhibit their employability (Hashim & Wok, 2014). Scholars have not sufficiently

explored the behavior of disabled workers’ potential impacts on the organization and the

community (Hashim & Wok, 2014). Persons with disabilities are seen as in need of

sympathy and relief service, rather than being seen as productive individuals who could

contribute to the effectiveness of organizations and the economic growth of the nation.

Sharma and Dunay (2016) suggested avoiding pessimistic and demeaning

language and to explore positive facets of disability to instill positive thinking and

contribute to the wellbeing of persons with disabilities. Positive thinking can lead to

improved disabled people’s values and human dignity. The way disabled people are

presented in the media may impact their acceptation or denial of disability identity

(Zhang & Haller, 2013). Managers can use disability identity to enable disabled persons

to overcome challenges associated with their impairments, while facilitating their self-

determination and inclusion in society.

Occupational identity is the most salient identity for workers. Scholars should

focus on disabled workers’ vocational needs, safety, and wellbeing (Santuzzi & Waltz,

2016). When given the opportunity to work, persons with disabilities could retrieve their

human dignity and could consider their disability as a “pride” instead of a “shame”

(Razafinjato, 2011). Metzinger and Berg (2015) provided insights on vocational identity

that they claimed as having a life role for disabled workers with chronic conditions.

Further understanding of the concept of disability identity could be instrumental when

exploring measures to facilitate disabled persons’ empowerment and self-determination.

Empowerment and Self-Determination

Many scholars have focused on empowerment, which is understood as a complex

process, and essential in fostering self-esteem and self-determination in individuals with

disabilities (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Niesz et al., 2008; Rule, 2013; Shogren & Shaw,

2016). Niesz et al. (2008) stressed internal psychological factors of empowerment, such

as the sense of responsibility, commitment, and goals orientation, and situational-social

factors, mainly economic security, partnership, and supportive networks. When

empowered, disabled individuals can control their lives and be directly involved in policy

implementation and vocational service delivery.

Persons with disabilities should make autonomous decisions for them to reach a

greater work opportunity. Al-Zboon and Smadi (2015) identified empowerment as

helping persons with disabilities make decisions, and reach autonomy and self-

determination. Rule (2013) advocated working with, instead of working for, persons with

disabilities. Managers must better understand the complexities of the empowerment

process, so that they can engage in social actions for and with persons with disabilities.

A number of empowerment initiatives were proven to be successful in few

countries and could be worth to replicate in the context of Madagascar. Self-help groups

or social movements at community levels involving persons with disabilities were

developed in South Africa to address powerlessness and oppression to which South

Africans were familiar with during the apartheid regime (Rule, 2013). In India, self-help

groups were created for social and economic empowerment of women with disabilities

(Chitra & Suta, 2016). Self-help groups were increasingly developed in community-based

rehabilitation in countries such as Ethiopia and Rwanda (Christoffel Blinden Misssion,

2016c). Disabled women benefited from capacity building, financial benefits through

microcredit, and marketing facilities. Self-help groups created resource mobilization,

funds management, leadership building, funding sustainability, and microfinance learning

mechanism. Empowering initiatives should, however, occur in the long run to ensure

their sustained outcomes.

Rule (2013) called for a scrutiny of the complexities of empowerment in

community-based rehabilitation. Rule suggested exploring African cultural values, such

as Ubuntu, to facilitate persons with disabilities’ inclusion within community. Ubuntu is

viewed as a humanistic philosophy that is grounded in human dignity, kinship,

compassion, mutual respect, and community interaction (Muchiri, 2011). In Madagascar,

empowerment aligns with the ways that disabled persons overcome societal attitudes and

cultural barriers. Leaders and managers should, therefore, be mindful of gender, the

cultural dimension, and the nature and diversity of impairments that may influence

empowerment strategies of disabled people.

Al-Zboon and Smadi (2015) examined the level of self-determination among

women with disabilities in Jordan and found a high correlation between empowerment,

motivation, and self-determination. Self-determination is aligned with academic

achievement, vocational skills, and job development. Autonomy and independent living,

work, and social networks are also self-determination factors (Shogren & Shaw, 2016).

Managers can use self-determination to facilitate the inclusion of vulnerable groups in

society and yield improved quality of life outcomes (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015).

Gragoudas (2014) advocated for the incorporation of self-determination in curriculums

and rehabilitation practices to foster choice and decision making, as well as the aptitude

to set goals and solve problems.

Empowerment strategies may yield meaningful outcomes in terms of persons with

disabilities’ social status, job satisfaction, and quality of life. When empowered, persons

with disabilities might have a better chance to reach self-determination and be employed

or self-employed. Organizational leaders and company managers have, however, a role in

empowering persons with disabilities. They must, therefore, improve their management

practices and leadership skills.

Enabling Factors to Disabled Persons’ Employability

In this section, I highlighted factors conducive to persons with disabilities’

employability that emerged from recent scholarly studies. Scholars have identified

enabling factors, such as contextual, environmental, financial, personal, and educational

factors. Owen et al. (2015) found a significant correlation between employability and

quality-of-life change factors, namely independence or self-determination, social

participation, and wellbeing factors. A shared understanding exists about all citizens’

right to employment, which is needed for health and social inclusion (Kirsh et al., 2009).

Kirsh et al. (2009) suggested considering factors linked to the persons and the work

environment to facilitate people with disabilities’ work integration and occupational fit.

Kirsh et al. emphasized the importance of work for recovery of persons with mental

illness and for persons with intellectual disabilities.

Hashim and Wok (2014) stated that appropriate job design, setting adjustment,

and attractive work environment are enabling factors to employees with disabilities’ job

satisfaction, commitment, and loyalty. High flexibility and decentralized context could

also enhance disabled workers’ job satisfaction (Baumgärtner et al., 2015). As opposed to

centralized environment, flexible settings are less formalized, thus favoring work

engagement (Baumgärtner et al., 2015). Scholars must examine how to make employers

better committed to disabled workers’ retention in the workplace and how to cope with

related cost.

The lack of sustained funding in support to disabled persons remains an impeding

factor in developing countries, where disability is intertwined with poverty (Lorenzo &

Van Rensburg, 2016). Gooding and Marriot (2009) recommended incorporating cash

transfer within a broader program. Koza (2015) advised sustaining grants for employment

to address persons with disabilities’ lack of effectiveness and absence of attractiveness to

employers. Disability stakeholders should promote a systemic approach, encouraging

disabled workers’ implication in the design of transfer schemes and their implementation.

Koza (2015) suggested considering nonfinancial factors to support persons with

disabilities’ employment. Kamal and Tomoo (2014) emphasized the tie between

employability and quality education and pointed out physical impaired persons’ limited

chances to find a job, despite their respective high level of education. Contextual factors,

particularly cultural factors, should be considered when promoting persons with

disabilities’ access to education and vocational training in countries such as Madagascar.

Corporate culture and organizational flexibility are significant factors related to

disabled employees’ retention in the workplace (Baumgärtner et al., 2015). Employees

are more likely to be satisfied with their job in a scale company where the work

environment is more attractive (Sutherland, 2013). Sutherland explained that individuals

have psychological needs for autonomy that employers should take into account.

Sutherland focused on the nuance between job satisfaction and wellbeing. Job satisfaction

refers to individuals’ achievement and fulfillment from work (Victor et al., 2017),

whereas wellbeing refers to life satisfaction and happiness (Sutherland, 2013).

Individuals with disabilities merit both job satisfaction and wellbeing.

Management Strategies toward Disabled Persons’ Employability

In this section, I explored meaningful management initiatives that scholars

developed in recent years. The suggested strategies are multifold and occur at individual,

organizational, and societal levels. At the individual level, scholars recommended person-

centered planning, occupational fit, learnership programs, work competitiveness and

attractiveness, as well as work readiness (Espiner, 2015; Metzinger & Berg, 2015; Sing,

2012). At the organizational level, scholars recommended accessible infrastructures and

setting adjustment, attractive workplace environment, appropriate job design, fair

recruitment process, and ﬂexibility (Baumgärtner et al., 2015; Sing, 2012). At community

and societal levels, scholars recommended community-based rehabilitation, resources

mobilization, attitude-changing programs, knowledge about disability, and accounting on

cultural specificities (Kleynhans & Koitze, 2014; Rule, 2013).

Sing (2012) proposed a job access framework that entails rehabilitation

community centers, priority attention given to people with disabilities in the recruitment

process, learnership programs, sustained public funding, and an enabling workplace

environment. Lorenzo and Van Rensburg (2016) advocated for youth with disabilities to

have better access to decent work and suggested encouraging business start-ups.

Promoting decent jobs could facilitate the retention of disabled workers in the workplace,

while enhancing their accountability and skills (Sing, 2012). Access to “decent work” is

mentioned in international and national legal policies, although its effective

implementation has not been examined.

Few researchers recommended attitude-changing programs to improve leaders’

and managers’ knowledge of disability. Based on experiences they conducted within a

leadership program in South Africa, Kleynhans and Koitze (2014) established how

learners without disabilities could change their behaviors when put in context with

persons with disabilities. Kleynhans and Koitze claimed that their acquaintance had,

likely, instilled attitude change in both groups. An attitude-changing program may,

therefore, lead to the insertion of disabled workers in the workplace and in the

community, while restoring their dignity (Kleynhans & Koitze, 2014). The lack of

awareness about disability-related issues can sustain ignorance on how to respond to their

needs.

Espiner (2015) envisioned person-centered planning as a means to promote a

sense of ownership and motivation and to translate persons with disabilities’ aspirations

into achievable goals. Metzinger and Berg (2015) developed work readiness tools aimed

at building vocational and occupational proﬁles. Metzinger and Berg stated that tools

could assist young disabled workers in better managing their specific health conditions,

while fostering their identities and ensuring their work success. These strategies may not

yield tangible outcomes if persons with disabilities are not effectively involved in

decision-making processes that impact their lives.

Some African countries have included initiatives, such as the extended public

works program that targets youth with disability inclusion in South Africa, the epilepsy

South Africa Western Cape Branch program, and the disability catalyst Africa program

(Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts, 2016). These strategies enabled platforms for dialogue and

interaction among disability stakeholders and raised awareness on disability-inclusive

development. Based on advocacy, affirmation, and accountability, these initiatives

facilitated persons with disabilities’ participation in academic and public forums

(Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts, 2016). The initiatives can be replicated in other countries in the

region.

In Rwanda, the government compensation program in support to the poor includes

persons with disabilities and yielded significant outcomes among working-age adults

(Kiregu et al., 2016). Successful inclusive services to disabled people entail micro-

savings, cash transfers, and placements in appropriate workplaces (Kiregu et al., 2016).

Echevin (2013) assessed the occurrence of discrimination based on disability in the labor

market in Cape Verde and suggested promoting disability-oriented policies to reduce

discrimination at a younger age. Further examination of the management strategies’

outcomes may provide more information about their effectiveness and possible

transferability.

Transformational Leadership Theories Construct

Scholars have not examined the aspect of leadership when employing persons

with disabilities. Scholars concentrated more on persons with disabilities who benefit

from empowerment, rather than on leaders and managers who bear the responsibility of

empowerment and transformational changes (Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014; Lorenzo & Van

Rensburg, 2016). A better understanding of transformational leadership theories and

practices might be of help to managers employing disabled workers.

Despite several attempts, scholars did not find a consensus about one universally

agreed definition of leadership. Birkinshaw and Goddard (2009) defined leadership as the

influence of leaders’ traits and behaviors on followers. Uhl-Bien and Marion (2008)

defined leadership as the mutual influence between the leader and the follower, with the

primary aim of achieving common targets. Leadership entails leaders’ use of social

power to motivate followers and instill in them positive changes (Uhl-Bien & Marion,

2008).

Scholars recognize leadership as dynamic and strategic, holistic, global, and

complex (Avolio et al., 2009). They have focused both on leaders’ and followers’

reciprocal influence in driving leadership development. Modern organizations present

multifaceted interactions, making employees’ voices and behaviors essential for their

success (Kwak, 2012). A better knowledge of leadership complexities may facilitate the

design of strategies that could help leaders and managers sharpen their skills in their areas

of competences.

Transformational leadership is an interaction-oriented theory based on leaders’

and followers’ mutual influence (Tyssen et al., 2013). Burns (1978) and Bass (1985) first

launched the idea of transformational leadership in the late seventies and early eighties,

and later gained the support from other scholars, such as Howell and Avolio (1993),

Barling, Weber and Kelloway (1996), Lussier and Achua (2009), Avolio et al. (2009),

and Grant (2012). Scholars expanded the theoretical knowledge and practical

implementation of transformational leadership, thus leading to the diversification of

transformational leadership theories. Transformational leadership is superseding other

leadership theories, and its application spans diverse areas of activities and geographical

contexts.

Scholars emphasized the four dimensions of transformational leadership:

“inspirational motivation, idealized influence, intellectual stimulation, and individualized

consideration” (Burns, as cited in Grant, 2012, p. 459). Transformational leadership core

values include compelling vision and collective identities, as well as confidence and

optimism (Tyssen et al., 2013). Transformational leaders engender positive impacts on

performance, due to enabling factors that create efficiency and commitment, motivation,

and creative mindsets (Tyssen et al., 2013). These values of transformational leadership

are at the core of persons with disabilities’ empowerment and employability.

Scholars have expanded the theoretical knowledge of transformational leadership.

Cailler (2015) emphasized that transformational leaders concentrate on followers’

motivation and leaders’ long-term influence. Transformational leaders yield

organizational change and sustained results because they instill intrinsic motivation, trust,

and commitment in followers (Mwambazambi & Banza, 2014). In the field of

employment, transformational leadership is desirable, because leaders could encourage

employees to use their inner talents and skills to achieve individual and shared goals. In

the workplace, a climate conducive to interactions will nurture employees’ sense of

responsibility and kinship, while improving their social change awareness (Grant, 2012).

Transformational leadership strategies could facilitate persons with disabilities’

employability.

Leadership Research in the African Context

Despite the progress of management and leadership research worldwide, scholarly

studies in the African context are scarce. Leaders can use transformational leadership

theories to cope with recurrent and emerging development problems hampering the

progress in several African countries, among them Madagascar. The lack of governance

and widespread corruption dominate the public and private sectors, whereas inequality

widens between the wealthiest and the poorest in the society (Mwambazambi & Banza,

2014; United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2013). Ngambi (2011) posited

“the major challenge facing Africa is not the absence of leaders, but the absence of

appropriate and effective leadership for its diversity of people and resources” (p. 7).

Leadership must be developed in African countries to reach a long-term organizational

management quality and to generate sustained social changes.

Few researchers have conducted studies on leadership or leadership development

in the employment and disability realms in African countries, including Madagascar.

Scholars shared the understanding of the non-universality of leadership behaviors and

called on leaders to develop a multicultural perspective and respect to other cultural

values (Kuada, 2010; Majiet & Africa, 2015; Mwambazambi & Banza, 2014).

Mwambazambi and Banza (2014) drew the attention on transformational leaders’ moral

responsibility and role as catalyst for the transformative changes required at various

levels on the African continent. A transformational leader has increased awareness of

African communities’ potential and cultural specificities that may create unnecessary

clashes (Mwambazambi & Banza, 2014).

Kuada (2010) suggested distinguishing leadership practices in the African context

from leadership practices in other parts of the world, without considering them as

ineffective. Ngambi (2011) claimed that poor leadership in Africa had destructive effects

on the development of the continent. It is, therefore, recommended investing in Africa’s

human resources and harnessing workforce potentials. Rule (2013) examined the societal

model that distinguishes African countries. The researcher considered the cultural

peculiarities and organizational structure of African countries. Instead of the

individualism philosophy underlying occidental societies, African leadership should use

the collectivism philosophy at the basis of African social systems, traditional family ties,

and ethnic or religious backgrounds (Muchiri, 2011).

Tsheola and Nembambula (2015) stated that transformational leadership was

inconsistent with the bureaucratized public system in South Africa. Transformational

leadership attributes, such as inspirational vision, intellectual stimulation, or individual

consideration, are not observed within the South African modern society, despite several

restructuration attempts (Tsheola and Nembambula, 2015). Government reduced power

over all sectors and managers in non-public sectors’ increased leadership initiatives may

improve the governance environment in African countries.

Mwambazambi and Banza (2014) called for better awareness of African leaders

and the need for them to apply transformational leadership in diverse organizations,

including churches. Mwambazambi and Banza invited churches to work for and with the

communities, while considering global issues impacting development. Empowerment,

through transformational leadership, may strengthen values required for effective

transformational changes within communities. The emergent generation of African

leaders should be mindful of the African individual’s and communities’ wellbeing, based

on values of kinship and wisdom.

Emergent Transformational Leadership

Transformational leadership theories can be used to explore the employability of

persons with disabilities in Madagascar. Kensbock and Boehm (2016) stated that

transformational leadership would better fit the needs of disabled people.

Transformational leaders could influence persons with disabilities’ self-determination and

job performance and consider their health issue and emotional exhaustion. Schalock and

Alonso (2012) claimed that leaders in disability organizations are mentoring and

coaching, as well as empowering and partnering, to foster individual growth of impaired

persons. Leaders who espouse the values of wisdom, consciousness, and critical thinking

could foster the inclusion mindset and mitigate biased societal attitudes, while increasing

awareness on disabled people’s vocational skills (Schalock & Verdugo, 2012). Emergent

transformational leadership could provide answers to the issue of employability of

persons with disabilities and instill the desired transformational change.

Authentic Leadership

Few scholars have explored authentic leadership, which is an emergent

transformational leadership theory that stems from the concept introduced by Bass and

Steidlmeier (1999), Luthans and Avolio (2003), and Avolio and Gardner (2005).

Authentic leadership combines altruistic intention and self-conscience, as well as values

and beliefs (Scheepers & Elstob, 2016). Avolio et al. (2009) identified openness and trust

as attributes of authentic leaders when making decision. Authentic leaders instill self-

awareness and citizenship behavior in employees to reach higher commitment and

organizational performance (Avolio et al., 2009). Scheepers and Elstob (2016) stated that

authentic leaders positively influence followers’ performance. Using the Authentic

Leadership Questionnaire, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, and the Grant’s scale,

Scheepers and Elstob evidenced a significant relationship between authentic leadership

and work engagement. Authentic leadership could inform appropriate strategies for

fostering persons with disabilities’ employability in Madagascar.

Empowering Leadership

Scholars define empowering leadership as the managers’ ability to lead by

example and to allocate responsibilities and autonomy to employees (Arnold et al., 2000;

Kirkman & Rosen, 1997; Lee et al., 2017). Empowering leaders promote the participative

approach in decision making and give importance to leaders’ coaching and personal

attention. Byun et al. (2016) suggested enhancing empowering leadership effectiveness

through employee task visibility. Byun et al. found a significant relationship between task

visibility, motivation, and creativity. Mendes and Stander (2011) found a significant

association between leaders’ empowering behaviors, role clarity, and work engagement.

Leaders’ empowerment of employees in the workplace entails delegating authority and

encouraging decision making. Empowering leaders can foster the employability of

persons with disabilities.

Empowering leaders also give value to information sharing, skills development,

and innovation (Mendes & Stander, 2011). Lee et al. (2017) questioned the effectiveness

of empowering leadership, pointing out the effect of “Too-Much-of-a-Good-Thing” that

may occur when the combination of leadership, personality, job design, and company

growth reach the inflection point (p. 3). Lee et al. explained that empowering leaders’ and

employees’ performance curvilinear relationship is influenced by the employee learning

orientation. Through empowering leadership, leaders are expected to enhance employees’

understanding of the meaning of their work and to sharpen their creativity (Lee et al.,

2017; Zhang & Bartol, 2010). Zhang and Bartol (2010) found the positive impact of

empowering leadership on creativity that, in turn, may unleash employees’ commitment.

The emphasis on employees’ creativity within the organization may not be sufficient

when considering persons with disabilities’ occupational needs and to sustain their

employability.

Community-Based Leadership

Haruna (2009) focused on developing a leadership theory that gives prominence

to African community values. Haruna examined the limits of leadership theories

grounded on traits and behaviors that dominated the discourse in Africa. A community-

based leadership entails communities’ decision making and shared knowledge, thus

facilitating a wider sociocultural engagement (Haruna, 2009). Community-based

leadership could fit the African context, because it differs from individually-based

leadership, common in occidental countries and organizations. Scholars recommended

considering Africa’s culture and history and the social structure based on community

norms in leadership development. A community-based leadership may succeed in the

context of employment for persons with disabilities in Madagascar, because it is

consistent with the local sociocultural value systems in the country.

Social Justice Leadership

Social justice aligns with the social-constructionist perspective of disability and

could be used to explore the occurrence of oppression and human rights issues (Rule,

2013). According to De Matthews and Mawhinney (2014), a social justice leader is

action-oriented and draws from the leader’s communication and learning skills,

emotional awareness, and ability to make decision and sustain relationships. When

entering the workplace, individuals with disabilities are usually employed with the

minimum salary, and they are hardly promoted if compared to individuals without

disabilities (Luria, Kalish, & Weinstein, 2014). Social justice leaders may provide the

answer to disabled employees’ discriminatory treatments. Implementing social justice

leadership, however, requires lobbying and advocacy, particularly from disabled people

groups.

Leadership and Ethics

Scholars have increasingly discussed themes, such as leadership and ethics and

leadership and gender and culture. Leadership could not be dissociated from ethics,

because leaders who prone ethical values could positively influence followers. Leaders

who prevent persons with disabilities from entering the job market are ignoring their

rights to work, thus constituting an ethical violation.

Ethical leadership is linked with work engagement and trust in a leader who

preserves ethical values within the workplace, such as equity and integrity (Engelbrecht,

Heine, & Mahembe, 2014). Levine and Boaks (2013) suggested distinguishing between

ethical aspects of leadership and attributes such as power, charisma, influence, or

authority. Personal traits may also influence leaders’ ethical behaviors (Kalshoven, Den

Hartog, & De Hoogh, 2010). Conscientiousness, agreeableness, and emotional stability

are essential features of ethical leadership, such as role clarification, power sharing, and

fairness (Kalshoven et al., 2010). Burnes and By (2012) advocated for ethical values as a

means of gaining positive organizational outcomes. A better knowledge of ethical

leadership may, therefore, prevent the development of a leadership strategy that does not

include the ethical values required when employing persons with disabilities.

Leadership, Gender, and Disability

Gender and cultural diversity are more and more influencing leadership practices

in the area of employment and disability. Gender discriminations are rife, and disabled

women suffer from a double jeopardy, because of their gender and their impairments (Al-

Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Majiet & Africa, 2015). Women with disabilities encounter

additional problems, such as marginalization and physical, sexual, and emotional abuse

(Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Majiet & Africa, 2015). When compared to men with

disabilities and to nondisabled women, women with disabilities have less access to

employment or to social and economic security (Echevin, 2013). Majiet and Africa found

a significant relationship between leadership emergence, cultural intelligence, and

gender. Gender balance in the area of disability requires further exploration.

Scholars have focused on the challenges that women with disabilities are facing

when they are in leadership position (Shanaaz &Adelene, 2015). The participation of

women with disabilities in organizations’ leadership is limited, because of stereotypes

and cultural traditions (Shanaaz &Adelene, 2015). Male domination, or patriarchy, is the

norm in many disabled people’s organizations, and women with disabilities have little

chance to reach leadership positions. For the same reasons, women with disabilities have

limited opportunity to be employed, unless they gain sufficient self-esteem.

Transformational Changes in the Area of Employment and Disability

Transformational change is at the heart of all transformational leadership theories

and practices. Leaders and managers should instill transformational changes in persons

with disabilities for them to gain self-determination and accede to decent employment

and livelihood. Studies on transformational leadership in the area of disability are scarce.

Majiet and Africa (2015) claimed that biased views exist about leadership incapacity of

individuals in marginalized groups and discrimination affects mostly women with

disabilities. Transformational changes are multifaceted and occur at individual,

organizational, and societal levels.

Individual Level of Change

The work environment has become increasingly complex, prompting employees

to adjust their employability to the exigencies of the job market. Employees are required

to learn faster, to be well skilled and creative, and to deliver quality work. Through a

consideration of disabled workers’ identity in the workplace, company managers may

address the needs of disabled workers and influence their employability skills (Santuzzi

& Waltz, 2016). Leaders assume prominent responsibilities toward building the decision-

making capacity of disabled employees through coaching and modeling or evidence-

based practices (Beadle-Brown, Bigby, & Bould, 2015; Schalock & Verdugo, 2012).

According to Kensbock and Boehm (2016), transformational leaders respond to the needs

of people with impairment, because they instill in them greater self-esteem and

autonomy. To reach sustained and effective transformational change, individuals with

disabilities should operate in-depth internal transformation.

Ratliffe, Rao, Skouge, and Peter (2012) advocated for the use of culturally-based

information and communication technology (ICT) initiatives that lead to persons with

disabilities’ empowerment. Broadened collaboration and networks and easy access to

assistive technology are among the enabling factors to transformational change at the

individual level (Ratliffe et al., 2012). Disabled workers can use ICTs to strengthen their

self-advocacy and change the negative perceptions of disability (Ratliffe et al., 2012).

ICTs may, therefore, contribute to the employability of persons with disabilities and their

vocational inclusion, providing that it is associated with an accessible training.

Eagly and Chin (2010) developed an inclusive leadership theory grounded in

individual identities, values, and ethical principles that may yield effective individual

transformational changes. Cole, Bruch, and Shamir (2009) suggested exploring social

distance that influences the interactions between the leader and the followers. Deshler

(2016) considered human resources personnel as change agents within organizations who

can play transformational roles. More than others, employees with disabilities should be

aware of the changes in the workforce and harness their employability skills.

Organizational Level of Change

Transformational changes within organizations are multiform. Strategies, such as

cash transfers, self-help groups, and micro-savings and placement programs enable long-

term transformational changes at organizational levels (Chitra & Suta, 2016, CBM,

2016c; Kiregu et al., 2016). Innovative models of employment, such as cooperatives of

persons with disabilities, social micro-enterprises, could also yield significant social

return (Owen et al., 2015). These strategies may engender tangible outcomes in terms of

persons with disabilities’ empowerment and organizational transformational change.

In response to social and environmental pressures, companies are increasingly

using concepts of corporate social responsibility. Organizations are engaging in corporate

social responsibilities with a social and development motivation (Moyeen & West, 2014).

Corporate social responsibility initiatives are part of the overall efforts to address

developmental and environmental challenges (Moyeen & West, 2014). Cooney (2011)

explored the social purpose of businesses and suggested slowing the pace of growth

through varied activities and subsidization strategy. Employees with disabilities may

benefit from corporate social responsibility schemes, providing that their needs are

accounted for and their rights to decent work are respected.

Societal Level of Change

For change to be effective, it should occur, not only at the intraindividual level or

within the organizations, but within the society at large. The design of policies and

strategies at the national level enables addressing persons with disabilities’ challenges.

Appropriate sectorial policies should feature capacity development, resource

mobilization, strategic partnerships, and research development (Khan et al., 2015). Kamal

and Tomoo (2014) found a significant relationship between disability, decent

employment, and level of education. The government should invest more in disabled

people education and vocational training to ensure their insertion in the labor market.

CBM (2016a) offered an overview of how inclusion impacts work and livelihood,

such as the increased gains and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities and their

families. The government and the society will benefit, as well, from inclusive

development efforts. CBM also developed a technical livelihood guideline designed to

promote loans and savings groups, in light of the ILO (2015) employment standard. The

guideline offers tools to disability stakeholders for their advocacy about the inclusion of

disabled people. CBM, however, focused less on the leadership dimension of disability

inclusion. Persons with disabilities could stand as agents of positive change in the shared

efforts toward building an inclusive society.

Addressing the complex issue of employability requires a systemic and adaptive

approach. Managers should understand systems’ dynamic and complexity and improve

their learning capabilities to become system-level thinkers and system-living players

(Reeves & Deimler, 2011; Stefanski, 2011). Leaders should be familiar with the

complexity leadership theory that features learning, creativity, and adaptive capacity

(Uhl-Bien & Marion, 2008). Manager awareness of the different levels of

transformational changes will help managers define the most appropriate leadership

strategies aimed to foster persons with disabilities’ employability.

Gaps in the Literature and Related Study Findings

In the literature review, I identified significant gaps that justify the need for the

study on employing persons with disabilities. Meaningful findings stemmed from the

thematic analysis of participants’ responses and were presented in Chapter 4, in a

separate section (pp. 168-173). The identified key findings were thoroughly interpreted in

Chapter 5. The study contributed to extend the literature on employment and disability in

Madagascar, by providing insights about hindering factors to persons’ vocational and

societal inclusion. The study filled the knowledge gaps about management and leadership

theories and practices by identifying enabling management strategies and

transformational leadership styles that could foster disabled persons’ employability. I

emphasized in Table 3, the key study findings against the knowledge gaps in the

literature.

Table 3

Overview of Key Findings in Line with Gaps in Literature

Gaps in literature

Study findings

Insufficient scholarly studies

about policies and strategies

to accompany the

implementation of the CRPD

and the attainment of SDG8.

According to Finding 2 (p.168), the government

lacked engagement and resources to ensure the

implementation of the recommendations in the CRPD

and to achieve SDG8. National legislations are

outdated, weak, and not in conformity with the

CRPD. No incentive policies or programs exist, such

as tax relief that could encourage managers to hire

persons with disabilities. The government should

play a leadership role in developing the legal

framework.

Lack of disaggregated

statistical data about the

employment of persons with

disabilities, in developing

countries, among them

Madagascar.

According to Finding 3 (p. 169), the employment rate

is very low for disabled workers (4.6%) in three

targeted regions of Madagascar. Disaggregated socio-

economic data on disability do not exist and the

ongoing national household census is expected to

provide disaggregated by types of disabilities and

gender.

Paucity of scholarly literature

in the field of employment

and disability in Madagascar.

In light of Finding 1, Finding 4, Finding 7, Finding

11, and Finding 12 (p. 168 to172), the study

outcomes filled the knowledge gap about the

employment of persons with disabilities in

Madagascar. Hindering factors were highlighted

(accessibility, societal attitudes, inequality and

discrimination, non-retention, and lack of attention to

the extra costs of employing disabled workers).

Lack of knowledge about

disability identity and

disabled persons’ personality

development.

Finding 6 (p.170) confirms the scarce knowledge

about disability production cycle, disability construct,

and disability identity. The unfit between tasks and

impairment, and negative attributes do not facilitate

persons with disabilities’ access to formal works.

(continued)

Table 3 S

Overview of Key Findings in Line with Gaps in Literature (continued)

Gaps in literature

Study findings

Scarce knowledge about

disabled youth

unemployment, informal

work, or unpaid family work

According to Finding 5 (p.170), the study enlightened

the issue of unemployment in Madagascar that affects

disabled persons. Informal work attracts more persons

with disabilities who are often constrained to unpaid

family work. The context of poverty exacerbates the

problem.

Limited strategies for

persons with disabilities’

vocational and social

inclusion.

According to Finding 11 (p. 172), the study emphasized

the merit of empowerment as key factor to disabled

persons’ self-determination and social inclusion. When

empowered, disabled workers’ employability increased

and occupational identity is the most salient identity for

persons with disabilities.

Limited knowledge about

the employability of persons

with disabilities and about

management strategies to

foster employability.

In line with Finding 12 (p.172), the study elucidated

management strategies that could enhance the

employability of persons with disabilities. I found

accompanying measures, namely legislative and

regulating texts, financial and material support, physical

and communication accessibility, and reasonable

accommodation in the workplace. Enabling

management strategies include promoting social

entrepreneurship, facilitating the access to credit, and

developing inclusive cooperatives and self-help groups.

Lack of scholarly studies on

transformational leadership

in Madagascar and limited

knowledge about the

leadership dimension of

employability

In light of Finding 13 (p.172) and Finding 14 (p.173),

the study filled the gap of knowledge about the

leadership dimension of employability in Madagascar. It

revealed the merit of an inclusive transformational

leadership in fostering the employability of persons with

disabilities, through increased coaching, in-training

supports, compassion and kinship, motivation and

confidence building, and personal development.

Literature Gap 1. Insufficient scholarly studies about policies and strategies

to accompany the implementation of the CRPD and the attainment of SDG8. As

highlighted in Table 3, the Study Finding 2 (p.168) and Finding 6 (p.170) filled the gap

of knowledge about the insufficient implementation of internationally agreed upon texts

pertaining to persons with disabilities’ access to decent employment. I found the national

legislations outdated and not sufficiently implemented. The study brought to light their

weaknesses and non-conformity with the internationally agreed texts, namely the CRPD

(United Nations, 2017b) and the 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda (United Nations,

2015). Managers in companies, cooperatives, institutions, and organizations, have also

limited knowledge of national legislations. Concrete measures are lacking, such as tax

alleviation or grants that may encourage company managers to employ disabled workers.

Due to the limited resources and loose political will, the government could hardly

ensure the implementation of the recommendations in the CRPD and lacks concrete and

efficient strategies toward achieving SDG8. I emphasized the leadership role of the

government in terms of legal framework development and implementation. Disabled

people organizations (DPOs) are also sought to strengthen their advocacy for the

integration into national sectorial programmes of inclusive measures that could facilitate

the access of disabled persons to work and livelihood opportunities.

Literature Gap 2. Lack of disaggregated statistical data about the

employment of persons with disabilities, in developing countries, among them

Madagascar. The literature review revealed the lack of disaggregated statistical data

about the employment of persons with disabilities, particularly in developing countries,

including Madagascar. Disaggregated data are desirable in scholarly research, as they

could serve as baseline information for a study. The present study extended the

knowledge about the proportion of disabled people who have access to employment in

Madagascar. It adds to the findings of the study conducted by Boucher et al. (2015) in the

Southern region of the country. The researchers found 87% of households, including

disabled persons, were excluded from livelihood opportunities. Almanza et al. (2015)

also found 16.58% of youth workers, including disabled youth, employed in the public or

private sector, whereas 32.8% were self-employed, mostly in the agricultural sector.

According to the Study Finding 3 (p.169), I found more specific information

about the employment of persons with disabilities. The employment rate was very low for

disabled workers (4.6%) in the companies, cooperatives, and institutions in the three

targeted regions of Madagascar. The national household census started in 2017 and is

expected to provide disaggregated by types of disabilities and gender (National Institute

for Statistics, 2017). Scholars are encouraged to focus on analyzing the results of the

census and to conduct quantitative research that could provide further knowledge about

the status of persons with disabilities’ employment in Madagascar.

Literature Gap 3. Paucity of scholarly literature in the field of employment

and disability in Madagascar. Another important gap was the paucity of scholarly

literature in the field of employment and disability in Madagascar. Scholars have focused

on multiform challenges and strategies to enable persons with disabilities to cope with

them (Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Butterworth,

Callahan, Gold, and Associate (2010) evidenced a relationship between poverty,

disability, and employment and recommended more consideration of disability in the

discussion about quality of life.

In light of Finding 1, Finding 7, Finding 11, and Finding 12 (p. 168 to171), the

study contributed to extend the knowledge about the challenges to the employment of

persons with disabilities in Madagascar. I found societal attitudes, inequality and

discrimination, and the misperceptions about the productivity and competences of

disabled workers as main hindering factors to the employability of disabled persons. I

also flagged the limited accessibility within the workplaces and the non-disability-

friendly environment in Madagascar. The study revealed the lack of attention to the extra

costs of employing disabled workers and to investments that may improve disabled

persons’ employability. The limited resources prevent also the government from

providing adequate support to persons with disabilities. I found that the measures for the

retention of disabled workers in the workplace were insufficient. The scarce number of

disabled workers within companies translated to manager reluctance to hire persons with

disabilities. The main reasons were the limited education and vocational training of

disabled persons.

Literature Gap 4. Lack of knowledge about disability identity and disabled

persons’ personality development. The study contributed to fill the gap of knowledge

about disability identity and personality development of disabled people. Closing the

knowledge gap on disability identity is paramount to decision makers within companies

and organizations tasked with disabled people’s empowerment. Scholars recommended a

systemic approach of disability, inequity, and justice to ensure the respect of persons with

disabilities’ multiple needs (Dunn & Burcaw, 2013; Forber-Pratt et al., 2017; Peña et al.,

2016).

In line with finding 6 (p.170), I found that managers lack knowledge about the

disability production cycle, disability construct, and disability identity that could help

them overcome their reluctance to hire disabled workers. The unfit between the task

assigned and the impairment hampers the access of persons with disabilities to formal

works. The negative attributes of disabled persons, such as their intrinsic characters, lack

of confidence, inhibition, or the use of the impairment as a means for charity often tarnish

the image of persons with disabilities.

Literature Gap 5. Scarce knowledge about disabled youth unemployment,

informal work, or unpaid family work. According to Finding 5 (p.170), the study

enlightened the issue of unemployment in Madagascar that affects disabled persons. The

study contributed to fill the knowledge gap about disabled youth unemployment. Scholars

examined youth unemployment and the mismatch between vocational skills and job

supply, informal work, or unpaid family work (Lee et al., 2016). Some scholars have

focused on the connection between disability and poverty in developing countries

(Echevin, 2013; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). I provided insights about the issue of

disguised unemployment in Madagascar that also affects disabled persons. Informal work

attracts more persons with disabilities who have limited vocational or livelihood choices

because of the unequal access to the job market and the fierce competition. Disabled

persons are often constrained to unpaid family work, because of societal attitudes and

discrimination. The context of poverty exacerbates the problem of unemployment.

Literature Gap 6. Limited knowledge about the employability of persons

with disabilities and its complex dynamics. The study extended the knowledge about

management strategies that could enhance the employability. The study elucidated the

knowledge about employability and its complex dynamics. Scholars concentrated on

enabling contextual factors, such as resource mobilization, community-based

rehabilitation, and accessibility (Koza, 2015; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016; Sing,

2012). Other scholars explored individual factors, such as personal planning and attitude-

changing programs, to enhance disabled workers’ competitiveness and attractiveness

(Espiner, 2015; Gragoudas, 2014; Kleynhans & Koitze, 2014).

In line with Finding 12 (p.172), the study elucidated management strategies that

could enhance the employability of persons with disabilities. I found accompanying

measures, namely legislative and regulating texts, financial and material support, physical

and communication accessibility, and reasonable accommodation in the workplace.

Enabling management strategies include promoting social entrepreneurship, facilitating

the access to credit, and developing inclusive cooperatives and self-help groups.

Accountability, clear financial and administrative procedures, diversification of the

production and the performance management of workers are key conditions for the

organizations’ success. Promoting start-up businesses could better fit persons with

disabilities’ competences and health conditions. Employing persons with disabilities

should be seen as a form of corporate societal responsibility and a way to change the

mindset within the workplace and the community.

Literature Gap 7. Lack of scholarly studies on transformational leadership in

Madagascar and limited knowledge about the leadership dimension of

employability. An important gap was the limited scholarly studies on transformational

leadership in Africa, including Madagascar. In light of Finding 13 (p.172) and Finding 14

(p.173), a greater knowledge of emergent transformational leadership theories and

practices could provide an answer to persons with disabilities’ employability in

Madagascar. Scholars rather explored disabled persons’ challenges and environmental

factors that foster their access to social and economic services (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015;

Baumgärtner et al., 2015; Gragoudas, 2014; Shogren & Shaw, 2016). Santuzzi and Waltz

(2016) stated that transformational leaders may address persons with disabilities’ needs

and influence their employability.

In this research, I have focused on the leadership dimension of employability

because of limited knowledge on the issue. I found managers’ transformational leadership

features, such as aspirational vision, motivation, compassion and human treatment,

empowerment, creativity and innovation as facilitating disabled employees’ participation

in the decision-making process. The study revealed the merit of an inclusive

transformational leadership in fostering the employability of persons with disabilities,

through increased coaching, in-training supports, compassion and kinship, motivation and

confidence building, and personal development. Managers should provide equal

treatment between disabled and nondisabled workers, while ensuring that attention is

given to disabled workers, according to their needs. Managers should develop disabled

workers’ creative skills and consider innovation as a means to facilitate employability.

Literature Gap 8. Limited strategies for persons with disabilities’ vocational

and social inclusion. The literature review elucidated scholars’ limited focus on persons

with disabilities’ vocational and social inclusion. Transformational leaders could foster

the inclusion mindset within the workplace and the society, while increasing awareness

on disabled people’s vocational skills (Schalock & Verdugo, 2012). According to Finding

11 (p. 172), the study emphasized the merit of empowerment as key factor to disabled

persons’ self-determination and social participation. When empowered, disabled workers’

employability increased and occupational identity is the most salient identity for persons

with disabilities. I found that vocational inclusion is a key factor to disabled persons’

self-determination and social participation. An inclusive leader is cognizant of diversity

and multicultural perspectives and is respectful of individual differences. The

government is called to incorporate disability-related strategies within mainstream

policies to ensure social inclusion.

Summary and Conclusion

In Chapter 2, I outlined persons with disabilities’ employability challenges at

global, regional, and national levels, as well as strategies used to improve their vocational

inclusion. The identified knowledge gaps and the findings from the study evidenced the

importance of the study, specifically focused on the leadership aspects of the problem of

employability for persons with disabilities in Madagascar. Emergent transformational

leadership and transformative changes at different levels were used to define the most

appropriate leadership strategies that could enhance the employability and vocational

inclusion of persons with disabilities in Madagascar.

Chapter 3 is devoted to the research methodology suitable to the qualitative case

study and to answer the research question. I present the research design, the role of the

researcher, the sampling strategy, the data collection approach, the data analysis plan, and

the issue of trustworthiness in the study. I end Chapter 3 by considering ethical

procedures.

Chapter 3: Research Method

Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative, case study was to explore the management

strategies and leadership styles that managers could use to make employability more

readily available for persons with disabilities in Madagascar. The aim was to identify

leaders’ and managers’ empowering behaviors that enable persons with disabilities to be

employed. The study contributed to positive social change by promoting an inclusive

society in Madagascar in which persons with disabilities could enjoy their rights to work.

The purpose of the study stands as the primary determinant of the research. The

purpose of the study sets the tone for the rest of the dissertation, along with the problem

statement and the research question (Maxwell, 2013). Figure 2 presents the qualitative

method with the case study design.

Figure 2. Illustration of the qualitative method.

In Chapter 3, I present the details of my research method to achieve the set

objectives and answer the research question. I start with the research design, highlighting

the reasons for the choice of the design. I outline the prominent role of the researcher

who is the principal instrument in qualitative research (Clark & Veale, 2018). A

description of the methodology follows, including the sampling strategy, the data

collection approach, and the data analysis plan. Chapter 3 ends with the discussion of the

issue of trustworthiness in the study.

Participants’

selection

Purposeful

sampling

Sample

size: 25

Intensity

sampling

Sensitizing

sampling

Instrumentation

Data collection

Face to face

interviews: 25

participants in

03 regions

Interview

Protocol

Letters of

consent

Interview

Planning

Target

population

Data analysis

Observation

reflective

journal

Interview

transcript /

translation

Data from

Observation,

Photos, videos,

field documents

Primary

analysis of

interviews

transcripts

and other data

Coding process

(pre-coding,

axial coding,

holistic coding)

Cross-case

pattern analysis

Comparison-

focused approach

Final write-up

Issue of

trustworthiness

and ethics

Research Design and Rationale

The research question for the study reads as follows: How can leaders and

company managers in Madagascar effectively enhance the employability of persons with

disabilities, through their management practices and leadership styles? The central

phenomenon under inquiry was the employability of persons with disabilities, while the

targeted groups were organizational leaders and company managers in charge of persons

with disabilities’ empowerment and employment.

The research question was open-ended, starting with “how,” thus indicating an

inductive approach common to qualitative research rather than the deductive approach. In

the research question, I focused on the case of employability and the social context of

management practices and leadership styles. In the research question, scholars state the

main inquiry expectation to help the researcher orient the methodology for the field of

study (Miles et al., 2014). The purpose of the study was to answer the research question

and to provide a solution to the research problem.

I used the qualitative method because it was appropriate for the resolution of the

problem and for answering the research question Qualitative researchers explore people

and their settings holistically and interpret participants’ perceptions of an issue to

elucidate the meaning of a social or a human problem (Maxwell, 2013; Taylor, Bogdan,

& DeVault, 2015). Quantitative researchers use theories and standardized instruments to

address a problem and to compare the numerical summary with the existing norms,

whereas qualitative researchers explore textured data that are valuable for inductively

generating a theory (Pistrang & Barker, 2012). In qualitative research, the emphasis is

more on the human and social interaction and on expanding the scope of the constructed

knowledge (Dowling, Lloyd, & Suchet-Pearson, 2016).

I was interested in interpreting and generating meaning through a holistic view of

the phenomenon of employability of persons with disabilities. As the qualitative

researcher, I probed participants’ deep understanding of the central phenomenon of

employability of disabled persons and their management and leadership challenges. I

analyzed participants’ perceptions of key concepts of employability, disability identity,

and empowerment and focused on participants’ knowledge of transformational leadership

styles that managers could use to sharpen the employability skills of persons with

disabilities.

For the qualitative study design, I considered both the case study design and the

phenomenology design. I opted for the case study design because it better suits the

complexity of the problem of the employability of persons with disabilities. Yin (2014)

contended that the case study enables a comprehensive and in-depth exploration of the

social problem in its real context setting and within a contemporary system. The case

study was appropriate to this study, because it involves the investigation of a single case

and of a specific group of population as recommended by Saldana (2015).

In phenomenology, the focus is on a reflexive analysis by the researcher or on

participants’ understanding of the phenomenon’s meaning (Latham, 2014; Moustakas,

1994). Often, phenomenologists rely more on participants’ lived experiences rather than

on theory, with a focus on how they understand, capture, and document the lived

occurrence (Merriam, 2014). Phenomenology is associated with a number of challenges,

particularly, its structured nature, the need to carefully choose participants, and to

understand broader philosophical assumptions (Moustakas, 1994).

Role of the Researcher

In qualitative research, the role of the researcher is central because the researcher

is the key instrument. As the instrument, the researcher’s background knowledge and

cultural feelings can affect the study (Taylor et al., 2015). The researcher is responsible

for the design of the research methodology, the choice of participants, the conducting of

interviews, data analysis, and the trustworthiness of the study (Janesick, 2016). As the

researcher in this qualitative study, I was ready to assume such responsibilities.

I used my leadership experiences and my background knowledge of disability-

related matters within this study. I am working in the field of disability in Madagascar,

and I am familiar with the topic. I am sensitive to the challenges that persons with

disabilities continue to face in many sectors of activities, including their limited access to

work and livelihood. Through several projects targeting persons with disabilities I helped

to develop in Madagascar, I had an understanding of the leadership challenges relating to

the employability of persons with disabilities. Through this study, I engaged in the

creation of knowledge susceptible to yield positive social changes in the areas of

employability and disability. I was, however, cautious and mitigated biases and ethical

issues. In this regard, I developed accurate instruments to be objective in the choice of

participants, to collect faithful data, and to rigorously analyze the research findings. I paid

attention to the issue of trustworthiness and reliability of data collecting. In so doing, I

limited the risk of conflict of interests.

Methodology

In the section below, I detail the methodology that guided my qualitative case

study. I outline the logic of participants’ selection and the instrumentation. I also detail

the procedures for recruitment, participation, data collection, and data analysis plan. The

aim was to ensure the credibility of the study and its replicability in other contexts.

Participant Selection Logic

The qualitative researcher can use multiple sampling strategies for the

identification of participants; yet, I chose the most commonly used method, purposeful

sampling, because the sampling is strategic and purposive (Miles et al., 2014, Palinkas,

2012). I considered as criteria in the purposeful sampling strategy the relevance of the

sample to the research question and the conceptual framework, the likelihood of the

phenomenon to appear, and the possibility to generalize the findings (Miles et al., 2014).

I ensured that the sampling plan was feasible in terms of time, cost, and access to

participants. The sampling plan ethics should be viable in terms of informed consent,

potential benefits and risks, and relationship with participants (Miles et al., 2014).

From the array of purposeful sampling methods, I used the comparison-focused

sampling strategy that was instrumental when analyzing similarities and differences

among data collected (Palinkas, 2012). As a part of the comparison-focused sampling

strategy, I collected a range of data that provide information about the overall challenges

disabled workers are facing and the management challenges and leadership practices

managers have used or could use in fostering disabled people’s employability. The

sensitizing sampling was also meaningful, because it enabled clarifying participants’

perceptions of concepts and theories, such as disability identity, empowerment,

employability, and transformational leadership.

I selected 28 participants purposefully among managers in companies,

cooperatives, NGOs, or public institutions employing persons with disabilities. The

sample size was higher than what I had initially planned, 25 participants. The sample size

of 28 participants enabled an in-depth examination of hindering factors to employability

of persons with disabilities and of managers’ enabling strategies and leadership styles.

The size was big enough to enable the generalization of the findings of the study and its

replicability to other settings (Miles et al., 2014). Having 28 participants in the study also

provided an opportunity for a more structured approach that facilitated the comparison of

data for similar patterns or significant differences (Maxwell, 2013).

Among the 28 participants, I targeted managers who were employing, or have

already employed, persons with disabilities. The participants were managers in

companies, in cooperatives, in organizations involved in persons with disabilities’

empowerment, or in public institutions. I also targeted participants who were not

necessarily central to the phenomenon. The distribution of the research population was as

follows: 12 managers in private companies; four managers of disabled people

cooperatives; seven managers in public institutions; and four leaders of local NGOs, such

as community-based rehabilitation organizations and disabled people organizations.

Focusing on other instances, such as disconfirming or exceptional instances, could clarify

the limits of the findings and possible variations (Miles et al., 2014). I identified

participants in three regions of Madagascar, so that the study could have a wider scope

and participants have better representativeness.

I chose participants thanks to the cooperation of relevant stakeholders involved in

disability and employment in Madagascar. I obtained the required letters of cooperation

from the ministry in charge of population and the ministry in charge of vocational

training and employment. The platform of persons with disabilities’ organizations, the

Office of the Urban Commune of Toamasina/Atsinanana, and the NGO Fanilo in the

Vakinankaratra region also cooperated in the identification of participants.

I proceeded to a preliminary prospection of documents that provided information

about companies employing or having employed persons with disabilities. Thanks to the

cooperation with the above mentioned institutions and organizations, I was able to

explore directories, census, or relevant reports that oriented me in recruiting participants.

The participants recruited were persons who were volunteers and accessible in the three

targeted regions. I chose the regions, organizations, and companies according to the

resources and the time available for the field study. I had to make sure that the population

was sufficiently representative and the gender balance was respected.

Instrumentation

The qualitative method entails a number of data collection instruments, including

observation, interviews, and focus group (Taylor et al., 2015). Data collection means can

also improve the quality of data, such as video and audio tapes. In this study, I used the

face-to-face interview, which stands as the predominant means to collect information in

qualitative research and to garner interviewees’ perspectives of the phenomenon under

study (Dowling et al., 2016). Interviewing, however, requires an ethical and a well skilled

researcher who could provide objective and insightful meaning to the data collected

(Taylor et al., 2015).

Using the face-to-face interview, I explored participants’ experiences in

employing persons with disabilities, their perceptions of challenges and understanding of

relevant concepts of disability identity, empowerment, or employability. I captured

interviewees’ consciousness of cultural and social aspects of the issues under inquiry. I

exerted creativity, flexibility, and openness to explore emergent forms of data.

As the qualitative researcher, I ensured accurate interview settings and anticipated

possible drawbacks. I made sure that the environment was conducive to good

communication and quality interaction, as well as trust building. The success of the

interview depends also on the interview tools validity. I asked clear and open-ended

questions to get thoughtful and detailed answers and to make smooth transitions between

questions. I provided detailed information about the interview process in Chapter 4.

Data Collection

For the field study, I personally conducted the collection of data in the three

targeted areas. The summary of the field study was placed in Appendix B. I spent 3

weeks collecting data and started the primary analysis immediately, when the data

collected were still fresh. For the interview, I used Malagasy or French, the languages

spoken in Madagascar, in order to get accurate and faithful responses from interviewees.

To ensure that the interview responses were accurately translated in English, I worked

with a professional translator. To anticipate the withdrawal of participants, I established,

ahead of time, a plan for the recruitment of new participants to be interviewed. I provided

the details of the data collection, including the interview process and settings in the

following section and in Chapter 4.

Interview Process

Interviewing includes procedures for developing the interview protocol and

making sure that the interview setting is conducive to positive outcomes. Establishing a

relaxed exchange and building confidence with the interviewee is the first condition of a

successful interview (Janesick, 2016). The success of the interview depends on the

researcher’s skills and the quality of the interview instruments. One week prior to the

face-to-face interview, I sent by e-mail the letter of consent to each targeted participant,

including the purpose of the study, the interview requirements and settings, and key

interview questions. I conducted preliminary and follow-up interviews to clarify the

responses and minimize unfaithful transcription of the interview data.

I conducted the interview for around 45 to 60 minutes, in accordance with the

common duration in qualitative interview (Brinkmann, 2016). When possible, I used a

good quality tape recorder to increase the credibility of data, though I had to ensure that

the interviewee was comfortable with it. The tape recorder could also intimidate the

interviewee who may not be willing to share (Corbin & Strauss, 2014). For most

participants, I was able to conduct the interview in quiet places where the interviewees

felt at ease, like offices or conference rooms. To facilitate the comparison of answers, I

asked the questions in the same order to all participants, as recommended by Janesick

(2016). As the interviewer, I formulated the purpose of the interview and the questions,

taking time to repeat and explain as necessary.

Face-to-face interviews may present obstacles, such as unexpected silence, a

participant who is timid, or a participant who is too prolix. To avoid interviewees’

discomfort, I kept in mind that I should not distress the interviewee, and I ensured that the

open-ended questions did not end up into unanticipated disruptions (Pistrang & Barker,

2012). To minimize bias during the interview, I used reflexivity to help me recognize the

possible effect of my own reactions. I worked on improving my awareness of the

difference between my thoughts and the participants’ views. I ensured that my behaviors

did not negatively impact the interviewees’ responses. I asked additional questions to

elicit more information. I let the interviewee know when the information gathered was

sufficient.

I also provided room for the interviewee to ask questions and to reflect on the

interview protocol. I conducted follow-up interviews to clarify the responses and to get

further information, whether through e-mail or phone call. The quality of the interview

depends also on the interviewers’ listening ability (Janesick, 2016). I paid attention to the

interviewees’ responses with both verbal and body language. I had to be patient, not

interfere, and orient the interviewee toward the topic of discussion. I considered cultural

factors, because participants react differently in different contexts of the regions in

Madagascar. I provided detailed discussion of the interview process in Chapter 4.

Interview Protocol

In Appendix A, I provided the interview protocol I explained in this section. I

used the protocol for the interview to facilitate the collection of trustful data and

interactions with interviewees. As explained in the protocol, I started by introducing

myself and by explaining the purpose of the interview. I then introduced the theme of my

dissertation and shared information about Walden University. I mentioned the aim of the

research, which was to understand participants’ perceptions of challenges and ideas about

leadership strategies to enhance the employability of persons with disabilities. I then

explained the interview setting and asked for authorization to record the conversation. I

invited the interviewee to read and to sign the consent letter if it met his or her agreement.

I reassured the interviewee about the confidentiality of the data gathered during the

discussion.

To make the interviewee at ease, I asked general information about the workplace,

including the number of disabled workers in the workplace and the types of their

disabilities. I then invited the participant to share his or her management experiences with

employees with disabilities. The questions were organized in six major categories: (a)

overall challenges and factors hindering social inclusion, (b) obstacles to employment, (c)

awareness of disability and share of responsibilities, (d) understanding of concepts and

theories, (e) management strategies and leadership skills, and (f) costs and social returns.

I prepared 20 interview questions in the interview protocol, including probing

questions I have asked when the need arose. Probes were helpful to expand on the

answers to the major questions and to get further details about issues that had been

unnoticed (Miles et al., 2014). I used the interview questions to elucidate interviewees’

perception of disabled people’s challenges to social inclusion and obstacles to

employment. I drew their attention to concepts and theories that may improve their

understanding of their role in enhancing the employability of disabled workers. I oriented

interviewees to reflect further on their management practices and on alternative

leadership.

Qualitative Data

The primary data collected were the handwritten notes and the transcript of

participants’ interview responses. The interviews data provided information about

participants’ management and leadership practices, and enlightened challenges to persons

with disabilities’ employment. The data collected paved the way to alternative leadership

strategies that may enhance disabled workers’ employability. Scholars can add to their

data analysis by the use of materials that could offer a wider perspective of the

environment (Janesick, 2016). I took some photos that gave an idea of the interview

settings or important interactions. The audiotape transcripts featured meaningful

information, such as sounds, conversations, and body language. They facilitated data

management and offered more information about the setting, social environment, and

interactions (Janesick, 2016). I asked for letters of consent from participants, so that I

could release their photos if needed.

Fieldwork generates documentation that is a valuable source of information, such

as archives, meetings or program reports, or capitalization documents (Janesick, 2016). I

explored relevant documents pertaining to managers’ and leaders’ interactions with

workers with disabilities in their workplace. The documents were historical documents

about the company, directories, employees with disabilities’ records, or programmatic

and financial reports.

During the field study, I used a reflective journal that contributed to the meaning-

making process and generated relevant data. Journaling is essential in qualitative inquiry,

as it could be used as a reminder of perceptions and feelings. It also provided raw

materials for reflexivity and self-assessment (Janesick, 2016). I used the journal to record

ideas, reflections, concerns, or issues related to the methodology. The data gathered in the

journal added to the interviews data and documents collected, and offered meaningful

information about the topic of study.

Interview Transcription and Notes

I took notes and did the transcription manually, right after each interview session,

while the information was still fresh, so that I could maintain the reliability and

faithfulness of the interview responses. The immediate verbatim transcriptions of

interviews enabled scholars to ascertain the reliability, the credibility, and the

trustworthiness of the study (Stuckey, 2014). Checking is essential in qualitative research

to ensure the accuracy of answers (Birt, Scott, Cavers, Campbell, & Walter, 2016). After

the completion of the transcription, I returned via e-mail the copy of the transcripts to

participants for them to make the necessary review within a one-week deadline.

I assumed that the transcript was correct if it was not returned within one week.

After the checking, I revised and uploaded the interview transcripts into NVivo12

software for the coding and analysis of the data. The transcripts captured interviewees’

ideas and perspectives of the challenges pertaining to the employability of persons with

disabilities and of their management and leadership practices. The data generated from

the responses to the questions elucidated the leadership aspects of disabled persons’

employability. I provided detailed discussion about the transcription in Chapter 4.

Data Analysis Plan

Qualitative researchers must ensure in-depth analysis and meaning-making of the

collected data and should examine the settings and participants’ responses from different

vantage points (Taylor et al., 2015). I used coding to aggregate the primary data into main

categories and themes that were used to translate the meaning of participants’ responses.

Coding requires a suitable technique that consists of identifying similar ideas in

interviewees’ responses, and assigning code labels that allows for easier classification

and comparative analysis (Gibbs, 2005; Maxwell, 2013). I started the data analysis early

in parallel with the data collection. Preliminary data and patterns emerged after each

interview session and were refined before the subsequent interview sessions.

Coding Process

The debate about the merits or not of precoding remains, because not all basic raw

data gathered in the field study, such as field notes, write-ups, or photos, could be used in

further processes (Miles et al., 2013). Precoding features the usual steps of coding,

consisting of giving labels to similar segments in the interview transcripts. I used

precoding to categorize similar ideas, or patterns, and identify main themes for

subsequent analysis and discussion. Precoding mitigates data workload, although it may

lead to a loss of meaningful information and of subjectivity and biases. I developed a

predetermined list of codes, and I outlined the possible link amongst codes in light of the

conceptual framework.

I then continued with open hand coding of raw data that stem from the interviews.

Hand coding may appear time consuming and subject to higher biases. Open hand coding

consists of segmenting raw data to delineate meaningful concepts (Yin, 2014). As a

follow up to the open hand coding, I refined the categories by identifying codes that

frequently appear among those in earlier open coding (Yin, 2014). I used the axial coding

that enables a visual representation of the phenomenon under study (the leadership

aspects of the employability for persons with disability), the context, intervening factors,

and resulting consequences.

Prior to the coding exercise, I predicted possible themes that might be helpful in

orienting the coding process, as recommended by Miles et al. (2014). Prediction,

however, may involve a deductive approach, because it requires assigning probable

outcomes of the coding process. The themes I predicted included (a) challenges to

persons with disabilities’ employment, (b) factors of employability, (c) strategies for

empowerment of person with disabilities, (d) leaders’ transformational leadership, and (e)

disability identity and transformational change.

I conducted direct interpretation in the qualitative case study. Direct interpretation

consists of analyzing interviews’ data separately, and then bringing them together and

identifying common patterns before developing related themes (Miles et al., 2013). I

chose the type of codes, giving preference to the inductive approach of coding and to

values coding that enlighten participants’ attitudes, beliefs, and ethics, as suggested by

Miles et al. (2013). Scholars can use holistic coding to capture the overall meaning of

data and to develop categories and themes (Miles et al., 2014). It consists of assigning a

single code, rather than line-by-line code to data in the corpus.

Software for Analysis

A qualitative researcher should be skilled to ensure the quality, the storage, and

accessibility of the data collected (Miles et al., 2014). A computer-assisted qualitative

data analysis software (CAQDAS) could be of help in managing the collected data,

although the researcher should be acquainted with it (Woods, Macklin, & Gemma, 2016).

The use of CAQDAS does not minimize the role of the researcher who bears the

responsibility of labeling the codes, choosing the most suitable CAQDAS, making sense

of the data, and using his or her critical thinking and creativity.

I opted for the latest version of the software, NVivo 12 that appears more friendly

and easier to manipulate. NVivo 12 software provides a number of applications, such as

the facility to export and store documents in Word, PDF, or Jpeg formats, to display the

results reports and to do analytic memoing. Qualitative researchers use analytic

memoing, or creative memos, to achieve distance from the raw data (Saldana, 2015). I

also used NVivo because it allows easier data search and retrieval, and it was useful for

data display and graphic mapping (Miles et al., 2014). Mapping out the interrelationships

of the codes is one of the software’s advantages (Edwards-Jones, 2014). Using NVivo, I

was able to get the whole picture of the problem of managers’ leadership practices and

persons with disabilities’ employment challenges.

Leximancer software is another CAQDAS used in qualitative research. It is

appropriate for managing a large quantity of data, including observation documents and

interview transcripts and documents (Sotiriadou, Brouwers, & Le, 2014). The biggest

advantage of Leximancer is the automated analysis it could generate. Other advantage of

the Leximancer software is the limited manual intervention; however, data interpretation

still requires the presence of the researcher (Sotiriadou et al., 2014). Considering the

rather limited amount of data gathered in the qualitative study, I preferred using NVivo.

In Chapter 4, I provided a detailed report on the use of NVivo software in the data

analysis.

Data Analysis

No specific rules exist for the meaning-making of the findings after the coding

process. I started the analytical process with the examination of individual interviews,

because, in the case study, the focus is on investigating single issue or specific entity, or

isolated event, as recommended by Saldana (2015). I conducted as well a cross-case

pattern analysis of the interviews data. I used the comparison-focused approach to

highlight differences and similarities, as well as their relation with other data collected in

the field of study, as suggested by Miles, Huberman, and Saldana (2014).

The qualitative research provided findings at the final stage of the analysis

process. As the researcher, I involved my reflexivity, meaning my self-awareness of own

competences, values, and knowledge that could affect the study (Woods et al., 2016).

Using critical thinking and intuition were instrumental as well in making sense of the data

(Janesick, 2016). I gave priority to iterative processes of data collection and analysis

because they facilitate in context meaning-making of the findings. I started the data

analysis as early as possible, concomitant with the data collection.

Subjectivity and biases can occur during the interview because the researcher

presence may influence the interviewees’ responses (Williams, 2015). When conducting

the analysis, the researcher’s analytical skills and integrity are paramount. To minimize

biases, I had to make sure that the interpretation of the transcribed responses remains

objective. I ensured the alignment of the analysis with the other parts of the study. I bear

in mind that the analysis is meant to provide answers to the research question and to

confirm or infirm the assumptions. I provided detailed discussion of the data analysis in

Chapter 4.

Issues of Trustworthiness

Various words are used in qualitative research in reference to validation and

trustworthiness, namely credibility, transferability, dependability, or confirmability.

Despite their nuances, these words have a common ground, which is the quest for quality

standard of data and processes in qualitative research (Miles et al., 2014). During the

interview process, I strived to avoid biases and subjectivity that may constitute a threat to

the trustworthiness of the study, as outlined by Maxwell (2013).

Biases and subjectivity are mainly due to the researcher’s underlying

assumptions. Interviewees may also react differently to the researcher influence. Miles et

al. (2014) identified analytic biases, holistic fallacy, elite bias, or personal bias as the

main invalidating threats. Miles et al. recommended that the researcher engage faithfully

in the study and to exert rigor and objectivity. In this study, I interacted with the

participants with respect and professionalism. I endeavored to build trust and an open

exchange, while making sure of the accuracy of the findings.

Credibility

In qualitative research, credibility, or internal validity, refers to the believability

and values of the findings gathered from the field study. The credibility could be

established through the researcher’s commitment in the field that broadens the

understanding of the case under study (Houghton, Casey, Shaw, & Murphy, 2013). To

establish the credibility of the findings, I used triangulation that consists of cross-

checking findings and comparing them with findings in other sources (Maxwell, 2015).

Cross-validating responses from diverse participants in different settings could reduce the

risk of biases and unforeseen occurrences, thus enhancing the generalization of the

findings (Maxwell, 2013).

I used triangulation to confirm the completeness of the data and to enhance the

credibility of the research, as suggested by Houghton et al. (2013). Ensuring the good

quality of the audio recording guaranties the acuracy of the interview transcription. I

searched for rival explanations as possible, meaning testing the viability of the findings or

looking for evidence that may disconfirm the conclusions or the assumptions, as

suggested by Miles et al. (2014). Checking the credibility of data may not be sufficient to

ensure the trustworthiness of the research. Enhancing the transferability of data may

further strengthen the quality of the research.

Transferability

Checking for the transferability or representativeness of the findings consists of

ensuring that the data are valid in other settings and contexts. The commonly used

approach is the thick and rich description of the results, including detailed reports of the

context, methods, and samples of primary data (Houghton et al., 2013). The thick

description enables a broad overview of the research and may inform other scholars who

could refer to the findings in their research. To check for transferability, I looked for

contrasting cases and was able to interview additional participants in the field. I also

shared the draft analysis with some interviewees, so that to contribute to the accuracy of

the dissertation write-up (Miles et al., 2014). I also had prolonged engagement with

participants as needed, to check results and to make a thick description of the findings.

Dependability and Confirmability

Dependability refers to the degree of the stability of the findings and is the

equivalent of reliability in quantitative research, whereas confirmability relates to the

accuracy of the data or their neutrality (Houghton et al., 2013). The process of

establishing both dependability and confirmability are similar. I recorded ideas and

reflections throughout the data collection to assess the dependability of the findings and

to ensure the transparency of the research process. I also documented reflections and

ideas that could further help in the development of themes and subthemes, as

recommended by Houghton et al. (2013). I checked as well for the convergence of

original data and identified themes to assess the dependability of the findings.

I assessed confirmability by using reflexivity and my own critical understanding

of the research process. Reflexivity entails the self-awareness of competences and values

or knowledge that may inform the study (Woods et al., 2016). All along the study, I

ensured that subjectivity and biases do not influence the research results and that the

findings were accurate. My background knowledge should not influence the meaning-

making process. I also used NVivo in establishing confirmability, because the software

enables, for instance, locate passages that show only one person’s perception instead of

the majority of the participants’ perceptions.

Ethical Procedures

At every stage of the fieldwork, ethical concerns may arise, especially in the case

of my dissertation that involves a sensitive group: persons with disabilities. Ethical

concerns might relate to recruitment materials and processes or to data collection and

intervention activities. Conducting a study within a scholar’s own work environment may

lead to ethical issues due to conflict of interests (Miles et al., 2014). To avoid ethical

concerns, I ensured that the procedures were strictly followed in the choice of

participants, in the sample strategy, in analyzing data, and in validating of findings. I also

addressed ethical concerns that might have arisen when two participants initially planned

for an interview were suddenly unavailable. From the waiting list I prepared in advance, I

was able to recruit substituting participants.

The institutional review board (IRB) at Walden University is responsible for the

compliance of the study with ethical standards, regulations, and guidelines at national and

international levels. I completed and submitted my IRB application, as soon as I received

the authorization to do so after the successful defense of my proposal. The purpose of

IRB is to prevent potential risks and manage conflict of interests. It also serves to

integrate ethical considerations that protect participants and to maintain the

confidentiality and integrity of the research data (Walden University, 2010). Beneficence,

justice, and respect for persons are the three main ethical principles, according to the

Walden University IRB. Beneficence entails maximizing benefits and minimizing harms,

whereas justice relates to the fair dissemination of the research benefits (Walden

University, 2010). Respecting the autonomy and ensuring the protection of participants is

a significant ethical principle.

To mitigate ethical issues, I carefully chose participants and I strived to preserve

their anonymity when responding to interviews. I prepared the consent letters ahead of

time, and I took time to probe the questions’ validity. I envisaged the likelihood of a few

participants dropping out or the reluctance of some interviewees to cooperate, as well as

the possible delay in the data collection process. I also ensured interview settings that

were conducive to participants’ collaboration. I shared the implications of the research in

terms of positive social change and of benefits that participants may get from the study.

I prepared documents, such as data use agreements and letters of cooperation that

I submitted to the entities where I recruited the participants. I also prepared the consent

form in three versions (English, French, and Malagasy). Upon approval of the IRB

submission (Appendix C), I submitted to interviewees the letter of consent that included

the confidentiality agreements for their signature. I also included in the letter of consent

information about the purpose of the study and about data collection methodology. I

highlighted possible risks and inconveniences during the data collection and clearly

stated the dissemination strategy of the data collected. I carefully designed my interview

protocol, so that to minimize tensions and identify possible trade-offs. I acted with

professionalism and respect with the participants in the study and strived to be culture-

sensitive when interacting with the participants, so that to avoid conflicts of interest.

Summary

I used the methodology plan outlined in Chapter 3 to guide the field work for my

qualitative case study on employing persons with disabilities in Madagascar. The plan

was meant to answer the research question and to identify strategies that could help

leaders and managers improve the employability of persons with disabilities. I provided

the rationale for the choice of the qualitative approach and of the case study design. I

emphasized the role of the researcher at every stage of the qualitative research. As a part

of the methodology plan, I explained the use of the purposeful sampling strategy to

identify 28 participants among managers and leaders involved in disabled people’s

employment and empowerment. I highlighted the face-to-face interview as the main data

collection strategy to capture interviewees’ perceptions of the problem of persons with

disabilities’ employability. I also discussed the interview protocol and coding procedures

that would support a critical and in-depth data analysis. The sections about

trustworthiness and ethical issues concluded Chapter 3, where I emphasized the need to

guarantee a quality dissertation study in accordance with Walden University

requirements. In Chapter 4, I detail the implementation of the research methodology.

Chapter 4: Results

Introduction

In this qualitative case study, I aimed at examining managers’ strategies and

leadership that could improve disabled people employability skills in Madagascar.

Managers’ transformational leadership is instrumental in fostering disabled workers’ job

performance and self-esteem, as well as in preventing emotional exhaustion (Kensbock &

Boehm, 2016). I conducted this study to answer the following research question: How

can managers in companies, cooperatives, institutions, and organizations in Madagascar

effectively foster the employability skills of persons with disabilities through their

management practices and leadership styles?

Qualitative research is meant to explore participants’ perceptions and experiences

of a phenomenon (Clark & Veale, 2018). No common guidelines exist; therefore, the

decision on how to proceed belongs to the researcher who has to exert critical focus and

interpretive thinking (Clark & Viale, 2018). In this chapter, I present the research setting,

followed by the demographic characteristics of the 28 participants in the study. The

process of analysis and the main findings that emerged from the data analysis, using

NVivo 12 software, are also discussed. The data collected included the interview

transcripts, the field documents, and the researcher field notes. To respect the

confidentiality of the data and to preserve participants’ anonymity, no identifiable

information about the participants or their respective entities were written in the data

analysis outputs and in the present chapter.

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Setting

Few scholars outline the field study setting, demographics, and socioeconomic

characteristics of participants that may enhance the transferability of the findings

(Korstjens & Moser, 2018). No occurrences have hampered the field study initial plan,

except the withdrawal of two potential participants. The first participant was a manager in

a company that signed the letter of cooperation and agreed to be interviewed, but was not

reachable. The second participant also accepted the e-mail invitation, but was not present

in the site for the set appointment.

The waiting list of potential participants was useful in finding three additional

participants who expressed interest to be in the study. Instead of the planned 25

participants, 28 participants were interviewed before reaching the saturation point. To

achieve data saturation, the researcher finds that new collected information starts

repeating previously collected data (Elo et al., 2014). The responses from the 28

interviewees provided a rich and substantive material for the subsequent analysis and

interpretation.

Another challenge was the difficulty to arrange the appointment with two

managers within large companies who had difficulty allocating time for the interview.

Qualitative researchers have to exert strategic thinking and creativity to ensure the

completion of the study (Houghton et al., 2013). I had to change the appointment three

times and to limit the questions to the essential main points, to capture their attention on

the scope of the study. The study was time consuming, and budget was a concern because

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I had to travel to conduct interviews in the three targeted regions. These concerns,

however, did not impact on the quality of the research outcomes.

Demographics

Due to the limited resource and time, I used purposeful sampling for the

recruitment of the participants with the aim to select information-rich cases as advised by

Palinkas (2012). In purposeful sampling, participants are intentionally selected, based on

their knowledge of the research phenomenon (William, 2015). I used as selection criteria

the managerial status of participants, their experiences in employing disabled workers or

in empowering persons with disabilities, their availability and willingness to participate,

and their ability to express opinions in an articulate and reflective manner as suggested by

Palinkas (2018). I purposefully recruited 28 participants in three main regions of

Madagascar. Table 4 displays the repartition of the participants per regions.

Table 4

Distribution of the Participants per Region

Region/city

Institutions

Companies

Cooperatives

Organizations

Total

Analamanga/

Antananarivo

Vakinankaratra

Antsirabe

Atsinanana/

Toamasina

Total

The first site, Antananarivo, is the capital of Madagascar and is located in the

Analamanga region, which is the most populated in the country with more than 4 million

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inhabitants (National Institute for Statistics, 2018). The second site, Antsirabe, is located

170 km South from Antananarivo in the region of Vakinankaratra, and it is considered as

the economic capital with its numerous industrial and agricultural zones (National

Institute for Statistics, 2018). The third site, Toamasina, is located in the East coast in the

region of Atsinanana, and it is the second largest city in Madagascar with the main port.

It was easier to reach managers in Antananarivo and in Antsirabe, considering the

proximity of the sites and the scope of the economic activities in the regions of

Analamanga and Vakinankaratra (National Institute for Statistics, 2017). The likelihood

of finding companies or institutions employing persons with disabilities was higher. In

Toamasina, it was more difficult to reach the site and to find managers who were willing

to participate in the study, likely because of cultural factors. Building trust with

participants and having them involved in the study required more time. Table 5 provides

the summary of participant demographics and characteristics.

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Table 5 P ’ Demographics and Characteristics

Participants’ Demographics and Characteristics

Entities

Number

Gender

Age Range

Position

Companies

Private

30 to 60

CEO; Manager;

HR Responsible

Public

40-65

HR Director

Institutions

Private

Public

30-40

40-60

Deputy Director

President; Mayor;

HR Responsible;

Chief of service

Cooperatives

30-60

Manager; Coordinator

Associations/

Organizations

30-65

Coordinator; Manager

Total

30-65

According to Table 5, participants share managerial position in various entities.

Most of them are high ranking managers in charge of the human resource. I chose a

higher number of participants in companies because I meant to explore the leadership

strategies of managers who were employing disabled workers in large and private

settings. It was difficult to recruit managers in companies because they were mostly

concerned about the confidentiality of the data and the risk of disclosure of information

about their employees.

It was easier to recruit managers in public institutions who were cooperative and

enthusiastic to participate in the study. The participants from cooperatives and

organizations provided diverse insights about the problem of employment of disabled

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persons. According to the age range of participants, the managers in companies and

institutions appeared more experienced. The gender unbalance was likely due to a lack of

women in managerial positions, especially in private companies and in public

institutions. Figure 3 displays the gender distribution by entity.

Figure 3. Gender distribution per entity.

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Data Collection

Distribution of Participants

The 28 managers recruited for the study were purposefully selected in companies,

cooperatives, and institutions employing persons with disabilities, as well as in

organizations and associations that facilitate the access of persons with disabilities to

employment. Executives of the relevant entities signed the letters of cooperation, so that

they could collaborate in the recruitment of participants, according to the IRB

requirements (Walden University, 2010). In the consent forms, I outlined the study

background, procedures, risks, and benefits for participants who voluntarily accepted to

involve in the study. In Figure 4 the distribution of the participants per region and per

entity is visualized.

Figure 4. Distribution of participants per region and entity.

The distribution per entity slightly differs from what was initially planned. Instead

of four managers in an institution, seven were interviewed. The number of managers

recruited from cooperatives changed from five to four. The number of managers (12)

recruited from companies remained unchanged. Finally, five participants were recruited,

Analamanga

Vakinankaratra

Atsinanana

Total

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as planned, from associations of persons with disabilities or from organizations

facilitating the empowerment of persons with disabilities.

In Figure 5, I presented the proportion of the population per entities to highlight

the focus of the study on managers employing disabled workers in companies and in

public institutions. The managers from the two entities had their specificities in terms of

management and leadership practices and in terms of understanding disabled workers’

challenges. It was insightful to scrutinize the management model that prevails in

cooperatives in which disabled workers constitute the majority of the employees.

Managers in associations or organizations in charge of empowering persons with

disabilities were not necessarily central to the phenomenon of persons with disabilities’

employability. Their perceptions and views, however, enabled clarify the limits of the

findings and possible variations (Miles et al., 2014).

Figure 5. Proportion of participants per entity.

25%

43%

14%

18%

Institutions

Companies

Cooperatives

Associations/

Organizations

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Interview Process

The invitation to the face-to-face interview was sent out to each potential

participant, including the IRB-approved consent form. I followed the invitation with

phone calls to agree on the exact date and time for the interview. I spent 3 weeks

conducting face-to-face interviews with the 28 participants in three different regions.

A semistructured, face-to-face interview was conducted to uncover participants’

insights, experiences, and perceptions of concepts pertaining to the research problem.

Information gathered from the semistructured interviews span from participants’ general

to specific insights (McCammon & Keene, 2017). Twelve participants based in the

capital, Antananarivo in the region of Analamanga, were first interviewed because of

their geographic proximity to me. The following week, I travelled to Antsirabe in the

region of Vakinankaratra and conducted face-to-face interviews with 10 participants. The

last week, I continued in Toamasina in the region of Atsinanana for the interview of the

remaining six participants.

The face-to-face interview is not a mere instrument for verbal exchanges, but

consists of embodied communication and social practice that generates human interaction

and knowledge (Brinkmann, 2016). I spent an average of 45 minutes to 1 hour for each

interview, in accordance with the common duration in a qualitative interview. I used

Malagasy, the native language, to make the interviewees at ease and speak openly. I

started the interview by explaining the intent of the study, the interview procedures, and

the voluntary and confidential nature of the study. I allowed time for the interviewee to

read the letter of consent before signing it.

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For all interviewees, I asked up to 10 questions in the same order, and I added a

few probing questions, depending on the quality of the response. I was also able to take

some pictures and collect field documents that helped in the data analysis. I gathered

interviewees’ responses and took note of their body language that complemented the field

data. Among the challenges I encountered was the use of the tape recorder. I noticed that

some of the interviewees were reluctant and were nervous when I mentioned that the

interview would be recorded. The tape recorder can intimidate the interviewee who may

not be willing to share (Corbin & Strauss, 2014). In such a case, I preferred to take note

of the responses, asking the interviewee to repeat, when necessary. I also used a volunteer

note taker when possible.

The qualitative interview continues to dominate the field of social sciences.

Beyond interviewing, data collection methods are expanding, with the aim of deepening

critical reflection and broadening knowledge construction (Dowling et al., 2016). Every

single interview was a source of information rich in context. The data collected provided

a ground for the research topic. I learned how to behave with the interviewees,

considering their cultural specificities and their context. Most of the interviewees were

enthusiastic and polite. I followed the interviewee’s flow, even if the response were not

necessarily in compliance with the questions. With interviewees who showed reluctance,

I strove not to spend much time and to make them at ease, orienting the questions around

their areas of interest.

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Preparation of the Data Collected

The raw field notes derive from the interview process and constitute meaningful

information that still require thorough processing to make them understandable before

they could be analyzed (Miles et al., 2014). I started by expanding raw field notes, typing

them up into electronic documents, transcribing the audio recordings, and condensing the

data through coding, generating categories and themes, and writing analytic memos, as

suggested by Miles et al. (2014). The type up of the handwritten notes into electronic

documents was a challenging process. For each interviewee, I collected an average of six

pages of handwritten notes. Keeping the integrity of the responses requires proceeding to

the immediate transcription of the interview responses (Stuckey, 2014). I strove to type

up the raw field notes after each interview session while the information was still fresh,

so that I could maintain the reliability of the interview responses.

I accumulated 85 pages of cleaned transcripts for 28 interviewees in an electronic

version. I spent further times on the translation of the transcripts, with the help of a

professional translator. I had to ensure that the translations were accurate. After the

completion of the transcription, the transcripts of the interviews were sent back by e-mail

to participants, for them to make the necessary review and return in a 1-week deadline.

Checking is essential in qualitative research to ensure the accuracy of answers

(Birt et al., 2016). Overall, the participants expressed their satisfaction with the transcript,

and many of them did not provide changes. Some participants returned their transcripts

with a few corrections or additional insights. For those I did not receive a response from,

I assumed that they were agreeable with the interview transcripts. I still went back,

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however, to the field study to meet with some participants with whom I wanted to have

further discussion and to collect additional documents.

Fieldwork generates documentation, such as interview transcripts, records,

artifacts, and archives that constitute sources of information (Mile et al., 2014). In the

field, I collected documents and information from the companies, cooperatives,

associations, and institutions where the participants were recruited. Documentation such

as archives, directory, relevant reports, and capitalization documents complemented

interviewees’ responses. My personal reflective journal added value to the data collected

and contributed to the meaning-making process. The rich information gathered from the

fieldwork was organized in participant files and uploaded into NVivo 12 software.

Data Analysis

No common formula exists for conducting data analysis. When immersing in the

data, identifying codes, categories, and themes emerge organically (Janesick, 2016).

According to Miles et al. (2014), coding is analysis, because it entails reflection on the

data meaning. In this section, I provide the coding processes, starting with the open hand

coding, followed by the NVivo coding.

Open Hand Coding

Coding is the transition process from the organization of the data collected to their

objective analysis (Clark & Veale, 2018; Miles et al., 2014). Coding entails decoding, or

deciphering the core meaning of a segment of data, and encoding or labelling the segment

with an appropriate code (Clark & Veale, 2018). I started with the open hand coding of

the interview transcripts that is common when beginning a coding process. The open

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hand coding consists of segmenting the raw data to delineate blocks of concepts

(Edwards-Jones, 2014). I then used selective coding to refine the earlier identified

categories (Yin, 2014). Selective coding consists of using the most frequent codes to

categorize data more completely (Charmaz, 2014).

From the hand coding process of three interview transcripts, I identified more

than 20 codes. The codes were descriptive (qualifying traits, behaviors, or achievements)

and analytical (influence, inspiration, strengths, or weaknesses; Miles et al., 2014).

Among descriptive codes were societal attitudes, negative or positive behaviors,

workplace setting, or contextual and structural challenges. Limited knowledge,

misperception, reasonable accommodation, inclusion, empowerment, and motivation

were among the analytical codes identified. Other analytical codes were decision making,

capacity building, creativity and innovation, personal development, quality management,

and compassion and humanity.

Coding Using Software

Qualitative software does not conduct data analysis but facilitates the

management and display of data and codes for the researchers’ analysis and meaning-

making exercise (Miles et al., 2014). Considering the number of codes identified from the

hand coding, I decided to continue the coding process with NVivo 12, the newest version

of the software mostly used in qualitative data analysis (QSR International, 2018). NVivo

requires the researcher to be familiar with its use and to learn how to get the maximum

benefits from it. The latest version provides more accurate statistics and reports. NVivo

software codes directly the data on the screen, displaying the nodes’ statistics, as well the

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mapping of the data (Edwards-Jones, 2014). NVivo12 is convenient for the coding of

voluminous information, and it provides an accurate and transparent picture of the data

collected (QSR International, 2018). The software is instrumental in the analysis of

individual themes and in mapping how they relate to each other (Edwards-Jones, 2014).

I uploaded the 28 interview transcripts and other meaningful materials into

NVivo12. I inserted the identified codes from the hand-coding process into NVivo, under

the nodes file. The nodes are the smallest category level in NVivo software used to label

and classify the fragments in the interview transcripts during the coding process (QSR

International, 2018). I was able to code on screen all interview transcripts in 1 week.

NVivo 12 reduces the biases and facilitates the subsequent interpretation of the data

(QSR International, 2018).

Organizing the nodes is a part of the analytical process. When the nodes are

cataloged in a hierarchy, the researcher can draw connections between themes, develop

ideas and reflect on the topic (Edwards-Jones, 2014). NVivo 12 includes on the screen

the list of nodes, the sources, the references, and their respective statistics. Within each

file or interview transcript, the statistics of the nodes also appears.

Recognizing the value of both manual and electronic tools is crucial in qualitative

data analysis. Aggregating the text or visual data into categories of information and

seeking evidence for the codes necessitates human presence. The researcher is

responsible for deciding how to proceed and must exert interpretive thinking (Clark &

Veale, 2018). The passages coded may also represent contradictory views. Figure 6

reflects the aggregation of the nodes into categories and themes.

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Figure 6. Aggregation of the nodes into categories and themes.

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As displayed in Figure 6, the nodes were aggregated into categories, and the

categories were aggregated into themes. Defined categories include processes and

concepts, factors, actors, or the impacts and outcomes. Factors-related categories were

societal attitudes, awareness raising needs, workplace accessibility, and limited access to

job opportunities. Employability, empowerment, transformative change, disability, and

inclusion were categories relating to processes. Government responsibility; managers’

attributes; and disabled workers’ attributes relate to actors, while sustainability and social

returns relate to impacts and outcomes.

NVivo 12 Outputs

NVivo 12 facilitates the management of outputs, because it provides a number of

reports, such as the code summary report and the coding summary by code report (QSR

International, 2018). The code summary report provides the detailed statistics per file,

namely the number of the files, coding, references, words coded, and paragraph coded. It

is instructive about the most frequent nodes referred by participants.

Among the 28 nodes identified, persons with disabilities’ potential work had the

highest rank with 71 references, followed by reasonable accommodation (48), equal

treatment (44), disabled workers’ weaknesses (43), awareness raising needs (43), and

accessibility (42). To a lesser extent, participants were also concerned with issues

pertaining to the contextual challenges (41), societal attitudes (38), government

responsibility (37), persons with disabilities’ capacity building (37), lack of knowledge

(31), and work setting (30). Figure 7 shows the number of references within nodes.

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Figure 7. Number of references within nodes.

Coding Hierarchy Chart

The coding hierarchy chart is also helpful for analysis. It permits the classification

and a visual representation of all nodes in one glance according to their proportion. From

one glance, the organization of the nodes under categories and themes appear. The chart

also displays the level of importance of the nodes. From the coding hierarchy chart, the

processes of transformative change, employability, and empowerment that derive from

managers’ transformational leadership are influenced by the contextual factors and by the

actors’ share of responsibilities. Contextual and structural challenges (e.g., societal

attitude, the workplace setting, and including accessibility and reasonable

accommodation in the workplace) were the most cited factors impacting persons with

disabilities’ employability.

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The coding hierarchy chart also shows that main actors (e.g., the government,

managers, and persons with disabilities themselves) are influencing the process of

transformative change, employability, and empowerment through their responsibilities

and their positive or negative attributes. The impacts and outcomes of the processes of

transformative change, employability, and empowerment include the social returns, in

terms of persons with disabilities potential works, equal treatment, inclusion, and the

sustainability, through partnership development and future management strategies. Figure

8 displays the coding hierarchy chart.

Figure 8. Coding hierarchy chart.

Categorization of Nodes

NVivo software is also instrumental for the organization of the nodes per key

words. It explores key words, discovers patterns, and enables visualization of their

correlation. Figure 9 displays the diagram of items clustered by word similarity for a

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number of nodes pertaining to the leadership styles attributes that managers could use to

facilitate the employability of persons with disabilities.

Figure 9. Diagram of items clustered by word similarity.

NVivo aligned future strategies with visions and values and transformational

change with capacity building, awareness raising and empowerment. Creativity and

innovation were associated with quality management, while compassion and human

development related to motivation and equal treatment. Finally, partnership development

aligned with knowledge sharing and personal development.

Comparative Analysis Among Files

NVivo displays a diagram that reflects the percentage of the nodes, thus

facilitating the comparative analysis among files. Four samples of diagrams are presented

in Figure 10. The four diagrams were chosen to illustrate four different responses by

representatives of four different entities from where the participants were recruited

(private company, cooperative, public institutions, and association).

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Interviewee from a private company (C1)

Interviewee from a cooperative (O1)

Interviewee from a public institution (I1)

Interviewee from an association of disabled

people (A1)

Figure 10. Comparative diagrams of responses by four entities’ representatives.

The disparity and commonality in the four responses emerged from the

comparison of the four diagrams. Interviewees from private companies were more

concerned with workers with disabilities’ negative behaviors in the workplace and

limited knowledge. They reflected the managers’ attributes, such as the lack of

knowledge about disability and about legal texts, the business dominating mindset, and

the misperceptions about disabled persons working competences.

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Interviewees from public institution were more concerned about persons with

disabilities’ potential work ability and their equal treatment with others. Although they

recognized the importance of quality management, they considered contextual and

structural challenges, mainly societal attitudes, as the main factors hampering persons

with disabilities’ employability. They recognized disabled workers`positive attributes and

gave importance to capacity building.

Interviewees from cooperatives were keen to discuss disabled workers’

empowerment needs and the workplace setting, including accessibility. Interviewees

considered among enabling leadership strategies the quality of management and

transformative change, and they denounced recurring contextual and structural

challenges. Interviewees from associations were more focused on the disabled worker

attributes, including their weaknesses, their positive behaviors, their potential work

abilities, and the equal treatment they may require.

Evidence of Trustworthiness

Scholars identified credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability as

the main criteria to assess the trustworthiness of a qualitative study (Korstjens & Moser,

2018). In the field study, reflexivity, rigor, and objectivity were my principal drivers.

Reflexivity is self-awareness of the researcher’s own role in the process of collecting,

analyzing, and interpreting the data, as well as the researcher’s assumptions that may

influence the research findings (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). I used reflexivity to ensure

the quality of the participant selection, data collection, and data analysis. The use of

qualitative software, NVivo 12 allows a precise and accurate reporting of participants’

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responses, thus preventing the researcher from the use of his or her own insights (Woods

et al., 2016).

Credibility

According to Korstjens and Moser (2018), credibility is the criteria used to

ascertain that the findings are correct and in conformity with the original interviewees’

responses. I strove to conduct the study as planned, to minimize the risk of biases. I used

triangulation to cross-check the data, by comparing the findings from different sources

(Houghton et al., 2013). For instance, when a participant stated that there is no extra cost

involved in employing disabled workers, I cross-checked the information from other

sources, such as documents collected in the field study. When I had doubts about a

response, I also searched for rival explanation.

Prolonged engagement in the field is also a strategy to ascertain credibility

(Korstjens & Moser, 2018). I spent sufficient time interviewing the participants and

collecting documents to complement the data analysis. I used a tape recorder or a

volunteer note taker to guaranty an accurate electronic transcription of the handwriting

notes. I proceeded to the transcription right after the interviews, when the data were still

fresh. I returned the interview transcripts to the participants and asked them to check the

accuracy of the responses. I had prolonged engagement with the participants as needed,

to check with them passages in the interview transcripts. I ensured that the English

translation of the transcripts were accurate.

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Transferability

Transferability relates to the potential for extrapolation and generalizability of the

qualitative research findings to other settings (Elo et al., 2014). Accounting about the

field study setting, participant’ characteristics, sampling strategy, interview procedure,

and protocol may enhance the transferability of the findings (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). I

used thick and rich description of the results to ensure the transferability of the finding.

Thick description is among the strategies that enable ensuring the rigor of the research,

through a trustful analysis of the data by themes (Houghton et al., 2013). I provided

detailed reports of the setting and the methodology used in the field. I highlighted a

number of quotes from the primary data that were repeatedly stated by different

participants. I looked for contrasting cases and was able to interview additional

participants in the field.

Dependability and Confirmability

Dependability entails the consistency of the findings with the original data, and

the alignment of the analysis process with the standard analysis in a qualitative case study

(Houghton et al., 2013). Confirmability relates to the neutrality or the objectivity of the

findings that should be based on participants’ viewpoints instead of the researchers’

preferences (Korstjens & Moser, 2018). Korstjens and Moser recommended using an

audit trail that establishes a transparent research path. It includes the decisions made

during the research process and how the findings emerged.

To ensure the dependability and confirmability of the findings, I used a reflective

journal in which I noted my observations, insights, sampling strategies, and relevant

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information about the data management. I strove to avoid subjectivity and ensured that

my background knowledge did not influence the meaning-making process. I went back

and forth through the field documents, the interview transcripts, and the NVivo reports

and outputs to make sure that the results of the data analysis were aligned with the

original data. I also immersed myself in literature about qualitative research methodology

to ensure that the data analysis was in line with qualitative case study analysis. I based

the development of categories and themes on the documented reflections. I also checked

the convergences of identified themes with the initially defined themes.

Results

In this section, I presented in-depth thematic analysis of the study findings. The

analysis was articulated around themes and subthemes that were derived from the NVivo

outputs. Thematic analysis consists of detecting similar patterns in the data collected and

of organizing them under categories and themes (Clark & Veale, 2018). Korstjens and

Moser (2018) recommended reading the raw data back and forth, coding and relabeling

codes as needed, to study the findings until they are able to provide the intended depth of

insight. I selected themes and subthemes in light of the research questions and based on

the frequency of responses, their distribution, and their meaning to the participant. I

focused on how the categories weaved together to form the themes.

The thematic analysis was grounded on the NVivo coding summary by code

report and the 28 transcripts that I read. The recurring participants’ statements revealed

key messages organized around the following themes: (a) contextual factors to inclusion,

(b) obstacles to employment, (c) stakeholders’ responsibilities, (d) understanding of

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relevant concepts, (e) management strategies, (f) enabling leadership styles, and (g) social

returns. The identified themes were in line with the initially defined categories of

interview questions, as indicated in the interview protocol (Appendix A).

Contextual Factors to Inclusion

Below are the interview questions to participants that fell under this theme:

Q1: What do you think are the challenges persons with disabilities are facing

in Madagascar?

Q2: What are the main factors that may hamper the inclusion of persons with

disabilities in the society?

In response to the questions, the participants’ common responses were captured under the

following subthemes.

Societal attitudes. The social and economic inclusion of persons with disabilities

was subject to multiple contextual factors. What commonly stemmed from the

participants’ responses were the societal attitudes and the deficit of legislation as the

main factors impacting the inclusion of persons with disabilities. Participants cited

discrimination, exclusion, and segregation 14 times, and equality and inclusion 31 times.

Interviewees stressed that persons with disabilities belong to vulnerable families. “The

context of poverty and vulnerability of the majority of the population does not work in

favor of the inclusion of disabled people” stated one interviewee. Scholars evidenced a

relationship between the poverty status and major disability, described as the cycle of

poverty and disability (Christoffel Blinden Mission, 2016a; Kiregu et al., 2016; Lorenzo

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& Van Rensburg, 2016). In Table 6, the keywords pertaining to societal attitudes and

awareness raising needs are displayed.

Table 6 K Interviewees’ Resp

Keywords in Interviewees’ Responses

Negative inference

In line with

Positive inference

Vulnerability

Diminished

Miserable

Unconsidered

Persons with disabilities

Traditional beliefs:

Bad fate; witchcraft; shame;

Lack of involvement

Parents and families

Sensitization,

Discrimination

Exclusion

Segregation

Lack of empathy

Stereotypes

Prejudgment (mad, fool, contagious)

Community

Equality

Inclusion

Awareness raising

sensitization,

Reluctance

Managers

lobbying, and advocacy

Weak legislation

Government

lobbying, and advocacy

Poverty

Context

Participants raised the hindering effects of traditional beliefs and families’ lack of

responsibility. They reported that many families still hide their disabled children or often

reject them, because they are seen as “a shame” and “a bad fate” or “witchcraft”.

Interviewees’ responses aligned with researchers’ findings concerning persons with

disabilities’ marginalization by the community and their families (Lorenzo & Van

Rensburg, 2016). Interviewees agreed that parents are not involved sufficiently in the

education of their disabled children. “They have to work and therefore leave their

children begging in the street” explained one interviewee. “If there are two children in a

family, the one without disability is prioritized for education” said another interviewee.

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Participants stressed persons with disabilities’ difficulty integrating in the society,

“because they have to face others’ eyes.” Often families do not know who to reach out

for assistance. “There is no empathy by the community to others’ problems,” asserted one

interviewee. A leader of a disabled persons’ organization stated that “persons with

disabilities are diminished and often perceived as dirty, miserable, and belonging to the

lowest level of the society.”

Interviewees agreed that societal attitudes and mindset should change. “Each

citizen has a role to play in changing their day to day attitudes vis-a-vis persons with

disabilities,” stressed one interviewee. Interviewees called to “go beyond stereotypes and

prejudgments” and avoid inappropriate languages such as “the fool,” “the mad,” or

“disability is contagious.” One interviewee shared what a person said about a dwarf

worker: “How come this person could be a civil servant?” Interviewees were convinced

that a better awareness about persons with disabilities’ talents will contribute to change

the societal attitude.

A number of participants outlined the need for awareness raising campaigns at

different levels of the society and within the workplace. The words “awareness raising,

sensitization, lobbying, and advocacy” came up 37 times in the responses. Participants

denounced the lack of awareness about the inclusion of persons with disabilities. A leader

of a disabled persons’ organization advised to be more systemic and to “raise the

awareness of all disability stakeholders, government, the media, and companies’ CEOs”.

Participants emphasized the importance of parents and families’ awareness. A

participant within a public institution stated “parents of children with disabilities are the

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first to sensitize.” A manager of an association stated that “parents are not aware of or

deny the limited intellectual capacity of their grown child with learning disability.” The

association hired a family assistant to provide regular training to parents, encouraging

them to share their anxieties, life problems, or their life story.

Participants underlined the need to sensitize other employees on disability issues.

One manager suggested “sensitizing employers in the private sector on disability issues,

using concrete success stories of disabled workers.” An interviewee said, “colleagues at

work should learn how to behave with disabled workers.” Many agreed that within the

workplace, persons with disabilities should not be viewed differently, because they could

work equally as others if their reasonable accommodation was considered. “Within the

company, the manager is the first responsible to raise the awareness of the personnel,”

said one interviewee.

Participants stated that raising awareness of the population was still a challenge

because of cultural beliefs in Madagascar. Transformation takes time to occur; yet, it

starts from the society attitudinal shifts through behavior changes and relationship

building (Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Interviewees confessed that they could not

persuade the community and the families that disabled persons have potentials for work.

“We spent three years to persuade a wood work company manager to hire one blind

person who is gifted in wood sculpture and is even better than the other workers” said a

member of an organization. According to a manager in a public institution, “the society

and the government in Madagascar are not sufficiently aware that persons with

disabilities could give a lot instead of being a plight for the society.”

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Educating the population requires time and innovative strategies. Researchers

offered recommendations for the promotion of inclusion of disabled workers in the

workplace in terms of resources mobilization, infrastructures accessibility, and disability

awareness campaigns (Kleynhans & Koitze, 2014). One interviewee said that “each day

is not sufficient to raise the awareness of the population.” Some participants suggested

organizing lobbying campaigns, awareness raising events, open doors, “living together”

events, advocacy activities, and disabled workers’ testimonies within companies. Dawson

et al. (2014) asserted the value of story-telling as means of providing innovative

opportunities and facilitating change of the collective mindset.

Participants recommended disseminating best practices and using the media as a

means to educate the community. Bringing to the forefront experiences facilitates the

sense making of events and concepts and the provision of future strategies and

possibilities (Dawson, 2016). Nonworking disabled persons also learn from the

experiences of disabled workers. “Disabled persons’ ability and skills are not visible and

should be better used to raise the public and government awareness,” said a manager.

Obstacles to Employment

Below are the interview questions asked to participants that fall under this theme.

The questions follow the order in the interview protocol:

Q3: Why persons with disabilities have difficulty to access to the job market?

Q4: What might be the problems encountered by disabled workers in the

workplace?

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Q5: How do you perceive the phenomenon of disguised unemployment in

Madagascar?

Q7: Are you aware of legislative texts that could facilitate the employment of

persons with disabilities?

Q19: What do you think are the extra costs employing persons with disabilities

engender?

Limited and unequal access. Many factors limit the access of disabled persons

to employment, leading to their economic and social exclusion (Cramm et al., 2014).

Participants in the study underscored a number of obstacles to persons with disabilities’

employability. They flagged the fierce competition in the job market and the

nonconducive environment to disabled workers’ vocational inclusion. “Companies have

too many requirements at the recruitment (years of experiences, availability, skills,

mobility, good physical and health conditions, and family situation) hence the exclusion,”

stated one interviewee. Figure 10 displays the illustration of the process of access to the

job market, in which similar conditions applied both to disabled and nondisabled persons.

Fierce competition

Companies’ requirements

Non-adapted job advertisement

Non-conducive context

(Exclusion, unemployment,

Limited access to credit)

Inequality of access

Figure 11. Illustration of the access to employment.

Job market

Disabled persons

Non-disabled persons

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Participants underscored the lack of measures for the retention of persons with

disabilities in the workplace. “Companies are hiring then firing disabled workers,” said a

leader of disabled persons’ organization (DPO). Scholars stressed the lack of employment

equity plans, inadequate recruitment, and retention strategies (Sing, 2012). Participants

often cited the lack of work that fits the impairment: “Instead of adapting the company to

the needs of the disabled persons, the jobs should be adapted to the impairment of the

person,” advised one interviewee. The task assigned should be appropriate to the

impairment of the disabled worker.

Interviewees pointed out the differential access to job opportunity. “Despite their

capacities, disabled people do not have the same rights to work equally as others,”

deplored one DPO leader. Interviewees emphasized managers’ preference for a person

without a disability than for a person with disability, even if they have the same

competences.

The discrimination and inequality in the access to the job market are exacerbated

by structural barriers. One interviewee stressed that “job advertisements are usually done

via newspapers, whereas blind persons cannot read; or through radio, whereas deaf

persons could not hear.” Interviewees highlighted the limited access to credit and

insufficient conditions to access decent work. Leaders of cooperatives complained about

the rise of raw materials; therefore, they hardly made benefits from the products’ sale.

Unemployment. Participants were not familiar with the term “disguised

unemployment” in the interview question. They, however, agreed that disabled persons

have no choice than “informal work” when they cannot access the job market. Many

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workers are in the informal sector in Madagascar, hence the phenomenon of disguised

unemployment (International Labor Organization, 2015; Lee et al., 2016; National

Institute for Statistics, 2017).

Participants pointed out the high level of unemployment in the country and the

fact that persons without disabilities themselves were struggling to access the job market.

“Overall, the majority of workers in Madagascar face bad conditions of work,” stated one

interviewee. Few researchers focused on the issue of disabled persons’ unemployment

and provided knowledge about financial instruments to counteract it (Cramm et al., 2014;

Koza, 2015). Yet, participants agreed that national strategies to address the issue of

unemployment are missing. Table 7 shows the disaggregated number of disabled workers

and nondisabled workers within the 28 entities.

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Table 7

Number of Disabled Workers within the 28 Entities

Entities ID

Hearing

Impaired

workers

Visually

impaired

workers

Physically

impaired

workers

Intellectually

impaired

workers

Total

Nondisabled

workers

125

C10

193

C11

295

C12

1990

1390

110

250

350

130

160

200

Total

124

258

5539

Note. A1 to A5 indicate Associations/Organizations; C1 to C12 indicate private Companies; I1 to I7

indicate Institutions; O1 to O4 indicate Cooperatives

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I found a limited number of disabled workers within entities from where the

participants were recruited. As displayed in Table 7, only 258 disabled workers were

working in the 28 entities compared to 5,539 nondisabled workers, meaning only 4.6% of

workers in the said entities had disabilities. In addition, 57 were working in associations

or organizations (A1 to A5), 105 were working in private companies (C1 to C12), 31

were working in public or private institutions (I1 to I7), and 65 were working in

cooperatives (O1 to O5). The number of workers with physical impairments was the

highest (124); whereas, workers with other types of impairment were less represented:

hearing impaired workers (63), intellectually impaired workers (50), and visually

impaired workers (22). The figures attested some managers’ reluctance to employ

persons with disabilities, particularly visually impaired workers.

Workplace accessibility. Scholars agreed that persons with disabilities have

difficulties, not only to access to the work, but also in remaining in the workplace where

barriers relating to accessibility and inclusion are rife (Lee et al., 2016). Most of the

participants concurred that the contextual environment was not disability-friendly, and it

was hard to find accessible buildings in the main cities of the country. Accessibility

emerged in participants’ responses, with the word cited 33 times. One interviewee from a

cooperative raised the issue of infrastructural barriers and stated that “most of the public

offices have stairs instead of elevators; and the roads in cities are inaccessible for

wheelchairs.” The provision of wheelchairs to persons with reduced mobility is scarce

and sporadic in Madagascar and does not meet the real need.

Participants outlined the difficult access to information. Accessibility consists not

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only at ensuring the physical access to a place, but also the access to communication

(Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). An interviewee said, “speakers in TVs are not used to

describe loudly visual image of what is written on the screen, so that to accommodate

visually impaired persons.” One interviewee complained about the lack of assistive

devices, such as hearing aids for hearing impaired people and sounding devices for

visually impaired people.

Participants denounced the poor quality of the public transportation system. One

interviewee stated that “public transports do not accept wheelchairs; thus, workers with

reduced mobility have to crawl to enter the bus.” Another interviewee explained that

“disabled workers have to leave their home early, at 5 am in the morning to avoid the

crowd during the rush hour, the long queues and to prevent from bullying.”

Managers in public institutions recognized the difficulty for workers with reduced

mobility to reach offices located in upper floors. Elevators do not exist, and a manager

stated, “A blind worker has no accessibility problem because he already knows by heart

the number of steps to get to the third floor of the building.” A leader of a DPO

complained that “managers in private companies do not think about the accessibility

standards when building their workshop.” One interviewee reported about the case of a

worker who requested to move in the first floor because of his vertebral column problem.

The response was “either you stay in the second floor or you leave.”

Managers in private companies underscored the “difficulty to change the

workplace settings to accommodate disabled workers’ accessibility.” The main argument

was the limited budget to ensure accessibility in the workplace. Managers were reluctant

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to invest in physical accessibility settings because of the extra cost they may engender.

According to an interviewee, “managers will gain in investing in a ramp as its cost is

almost the same as that of a building stair.”

Insufficient knowledge of disabled workers’ rights. Participants had little

awareness of the rights of persons with disabilities, such as their rights to be educated and

trained, to work or to access livelihood, to associative life, and to express their voices.

Interviewees from public entities and DPOs were better aware of the CRPD and the

Human Rights Convention. Leaders of DPOs asserted that they do not enjoy the human

rights defined in the Convention. They added that international NGOs organized too

many workshops around the CRPD. “The related budget should be better used for

livelihood projects,” claimed one interviewee.

Interviewees had limited knowledge of national legislation pertaining to disability

and pertaining to work. When asked, one interviewee answered, “I did not investigate

much about the Labor code but I will learn from now.” Interviewees were of the view

that the national laws and regulations pertaining to disabled workers’ rights were not

widely disseminated. Most of the participants denounced the nonimplementation of legal

texts and the nonrespect of disabled workers’ rights.

Interviewees lacked knowledge about how to make national laws in compliance

with the international texts. They were unaware about how to translate the national laws

into implementable regulations. Interviewees were somewhat aware of regulations at the

community level, such as the charter for accessible city in Antsirabe. Interviewees from

private companies called the government to protect the rights of disabled workers in

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private companies. “The government should ensure that the same conditions are applied

to disabled and non-disabled workers,” said one interviewee. Another interviewee

suggested sanctioning those who were not respecting disabled workers’ rights.

Extra cost. Of interest were the participants’ perceptions about the extra costs

that the accommodation of disabled workers may engender. In the interview responses,

22 references to extra cost were registered. Participants were unanimous in stating that

disabled workers do not engender additional expenses. One interviewee affirmed that

“the company does not necessitate extra-budget because disabled workers they hired are

not a burden.” A participant from a public institution stated that “the budget remains

unchanged whether there is a disabled worker or not.”

Interviewees were, however, aware about the physical accessibility needs. One

participant deplored the absence of a budget to rehabilitate the workplace for a better

accessibility. Interviewees invited to invest in infrastructure, such as a ramp that “costs

almost the same as a stair.” One interviewee warned, however, that “rehabilitating the

infrastructure according to the accessibility standard would engender extra-charges.”

According to another interviewee, “accommodation should not cost much when using

local raw materials, such as cardboard; plastics; or recycled materials.”

Participants raised the possible shortfall due to disabled workers’ slow

productivity. “The provision of assistive devices, such as wheelchairs, crutches,

prosthesis, white canes, may engender extra-costs,” said a manager in a large company.

Another interviewee mentioned the cost of health care and suggested strengthening health

support scheme with health insurance agencies.

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Managers in public institutions emphasized the lack of budget that prevented

them from considering extra costs for disabled workers’ accommodation. “Even though

we want to provide support to persons with disabilities, it is not possible,” said one

interviewee. “Sometimes I even have to pay from my pocket to accomplish my social

responsibility.” In the contrary, another manager explained that “the budget of the

institution could cover the expenses related to disabled workers therefore there is no need

to worry about the extra-costs.”

Stakeholders’ Responsibilities and Attributes

The following questions asked to participants fell under this theme:

Q8: Who should take the responsibility of facilitating the access to

employment of persons with disabilities?

Q9: What are the relevant actors, namely managers and disabled workers’

main attributes?

Q10: What existing or potential works do you think are most suitable for

persons of disabilities?

Government attributes and responsibilities. The government should encourage

both disabled persons to access the work and employers to hire and retain them in the

workplace (WHO, 2011). The national law adopted in 1997 stipulates that incentive

measures should be developed and the state should encourage the employment of

disabled persons in the private and public sectors. Yet, no strategy or program provides

tax relief for companies employing workers with disabilities in Madagascar. Interviewees

emphasized the absence of policies that ensure companies to hire disabled workers. “The

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government has interest to encourage companies to hire disabled workers to alleviate its

charge,” stressed one interviewee.

Participants agreed that “the government has a leadership role,” as attested the 37

references about government responsibilities in the interviewees’ responses. Interviewees

deplored the limited change of the government bearers’ attitudes, despite years of

advocacy. A participant pointed out that “no specific efforts come from the government;

no budget and no real planning.” They shared the views that “disability issues are not a

priority for the government.”

Participants from public institutions shared their efforts in terms of legal

framework, advocacy and awareness raising, accessibility, and sporadic provision of

wheelchairs or other assistive devices to disabled persons. Interviewees flagged recent

decisions to recruit civil servants with disabilities within public institutions. One

interviewee from the ministry in charge of population underscored the “leadership role of

the ministry, in terms of legal framework (laws, decree, regulations) development and

implementation.” The interviewee also informed about the “flexibility hours applied to

disabled workers.”

Other participants, however, pointed out the lack of political will and engagement

of the government, often accused as neglecting the persons with disabilities. “If the

government pursues the same policy, only the mild disabled persons will be taken into

consideration,” said one interviewee. Participants were concerned about the

implementation of legal texts. Interviewees stressed the government duty in facilitating

the implementation of the CRPD. They shared information about the situation in other

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countries, such as the United States and France where the governments took concrete

inciting measures. “Decision makers are sought to implement the existing laws,” said one

interviewee.

Interviewees from public institutions raised the “noneffective decentralization of

competences” from the national government to the regional and communal governing

bodies. “Even though the Major is willing to promote persons with disabilities’ inclusion,

he has limited power to decide,” affirmed one interviewee. The conflict of competences

between the Major and the Commune Council may impede the decision-making process.

Because of the conflict, it was not yet possible to adopt the inclusive development plan of

the commune.

Interviewees raised the creation of appropriate structures for persons with

disabilities’ orientation, counselling, and placement at the community level. They

suggested adopting measures, such as taxes reduction, that would encourage private

companies to employ disabled workers. Other proposals emerged, such as the creation of

a “system of prime” for companies employing disabled workers, the “provision of

adaptive materials,” and the “allocation of grants” to companies.

The government was recognized as the first one responsible in defining and

implementing the legal texts pertaining to persons with disabilities’ rights. The ministry

in charge of the population was making efforts, although it cannot do much with the

limited budget. Recently, the ministry provided sporadic donation of assistive devices

and equipment, such as wheelchairs, crutches, or white canes to organizations of persons

with disabilities. Interviewees recognized, as well, the value of learning negotiation

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techniques and developing advocacy strategies to better influence the government. Table

8 shows the attributes of the government and its role.

Table 8 A

Attributes and Expected Government Role

Actor

Positive Attributes

Negative Attributes

Expected Role

Government

- Awareness raising

- Accessibility efforts

- legal framework

development

- Provision of

wheelchairs or

assistive devices

- Recruitment of

disabled civil

servants

- Slow attitudes change

- Lack of political will

- Neglect of disability

issues

- Non-effective

decentralization

- Competences conflicts

- Leadership role

- Encourage institutions

and companies

- Provide incentive

measures, tax relief

- Facilitate CRPD and

laws implementation

- Create counselling and

placement structures at

community level

NGOs’ involvement. To ensure effective transformative change, NGOs’ and

private companies’ initiatives should be aligned with national programs in support of

people with disabilities’ access to work (Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Interviewees

emphasized the importance of partnership development to widen the network and to gain

a greater reputation. Collaboration, cooperation, and solidarity appeared often in the

interview responses. DPOs’ leaders incited disabled workers to be involved in

associations that are meant to address common challenges and to strengthen advocacy.

Networking, however, requires disabled workers to sharpen their negotiation skills and

ability to dialog. “The development of inclusive groups for mutual help could contribute

to protect the persons with disabilities in their community,” asserted one interviewee.

Interviewees expressed their satisfaction of the partnership with INGOs that are

actively supporting projects on vocational inclusion of persons with disabilities in

Madagascar. “Thanks to our partners, we were able to distribute white cane; and adapted

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software for visually impaired workers,” shared one interviewee. Another interviewee

praised the cohesion of stakeholders in the disability area and suggested a better

coordination of their interventions. Interviewees were also keen to extend cooperation

with placement agencies and to strengthen networks with entities involved in the field of

disability. An interviewee shared information about the platform on trainings and

professional insertion meant to promote inclusion and disseminate job opportunities.

Table 9 shows participants’ perceptions of the NGOs’ and INGOs’ role.

Table 9 P NGOs and INGOs’ Role

Perceived NGOs and INGOs’ Role

Actor

Perceived Role

NGOs and DPOs

- Partnership development

- Widened network

- Collaboration, cooperation, and solidarity

- Disabled workers to involve in associations

- Strengthen advocacy.

- Sharpen advocacy and negotiation skills

- Develop inclusive groups for mutual help

INGOs

- Support disabled persons’ vocational inclusion

projects

- Coordination of Intervention

Note. NGOs: Non-governmental organizations; DPOs: Disabled persons’ organizations; INGOs:

International Non-governmental organizations

Managers’ attitudes and misperceptions. Managers bear the responsibility of

empowerment and transformational changes of workers with disabilities (Kleynhans &

Kotze, 2014; Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). The interviewees revealed that managers

in private companies lack knowledge about disability and about existing legal texts.

Company managers focused more on productivity, translating a business mindset. A

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number of misperceptions about disabled persons were evidenced. Interviewees were of

the view that managers prefer to choose a person without a disability than a person with a

disability, even with the same competences. “Managers in companies are reluctant to

accommodate persons with disabilities in the workplace,” stated an interviewee.

Scholars stressed misconceptions about the kind of job a disabled person could

perform, hence their unwillingness to hire such a person (Lee et al., 2016). Interviewees’

responses reflected these misperceptions. Few managers considered disabled workers as

having “less productivity because of their impairment and their health conditions.”

Interviewees from companies were persuaded that persons with disabilities “do not

master the work,” “are slower than the others,” or “are not competent.”

Managers showed reluctance and a lack of trust, as attested the interview

responses. An interviewee with some knowledge of disability was more concerned about

the “possible inter-personnel conflicts in case the ‘normal’ workers show impatience or

mockery.” Other interviewees assumed that “persons with disabilities are not skilled and

may cause problems or become a burden.” “Employers want to avoid difficulties, thus

they are not even willing to test the competence of a disabled worker,” said an

interviewee. Many interviewees were of the view that “persons with intellectual disability

are not employable.” One interviewee was persuaded that disabled persons cannot

understand high level discussions, because few have reached university levels.

Most of the interviewees used the term “normal” to qualify a person without a

disability, which was not appropriate, as it may induce that disabled persons are

abnormal. One interviewee stated, “normal persons have easier access to employment.” A

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manager from a private company advised to “raise the awareness of ‘normal’ people

about the ability of persons with disabilities.” Table 10 shows managers’ and leaders’

attributes.

Table 10

Managers’ and Leaders’ Attributes

Positive Attributes

Negative Attributes

Managers of

companies and

leaders of

organizations and

cooperatives

- Recognition of disabled workers’

positive attributes

- Efforts to hire disabled workers

- Efforts to accommodate disabled

workers

- Lack of knowledge about disability

- Benefit-driven

- Misperceptions about disabled

workers’ competences

- Reluctance and lack of trust

- Preference for nondisabled workers

- Fear of interpersonnel conflicts

Disabled workers’ positive attributes. Managers started acknowledging

disabled workers’ attributes and the importance to develop a diverse workforce. Despite

the misperceptions discussed earlier, managers consistently agreed that disabled workers

were hard-working and gave their best at work. Disabled workers were qualified by

interviewees as “agile, disciplined, reliable, punctual, conscientious, meticulous, and

regular at work”. “They were not volatile, unlike the other employers,” affirmed one

interviewee. Interviewees emphasized workers with disabilities’ strong willingness to

integrate the team, their availability and focus on the work, as well as their enthusiasm.

“They could have the same productivity as others,” stated one interviewee. Interviewees

also agreed that workers with disabilities were motivated and did not wait for a return.

“Employees with disabilities do not have competing mindset, meaning they do

not compete with other workers to get promoted,” asserted one interviewee. Working is

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essential for a person with a disability as attested by interviewees’ responses. “Disabled

people work with their heart, because when working, they feel valorized,” said one

interviewee. Another interviewee stressed that “persons with disabilities have no rights to

errors.” A manager was comfortable with disabled workers who were “easier to manage

and are used to obey.”

Interviewees also shared few success stories. “A blind person was graduated at

the University, worked for an international organization for some years, and is well

recognized for his strong advocacy at national and international level,” told an

interviewee. “A woman with disability is currently the administrator of an important

national institution,” stated another interviewee. One interviewee shared the story of a

deaf worker who received a promotion in a company and is now the supervisor of the

unit. Persons with disabilities who were successful stood as models to others. Managers

in some private companies expressed satisfaction with the work of their disabled workers.

“They make themselves busy with the work and do not delay the processes” and “they

are capable to respect the commands and the deadlines” were among the answers. One

interviewee praised blind persons as “being very bright and very good in communication,

because of the acuity of their other senses.”

Disabled workers’ negative attributes and weaknesses. Despite persons with

disabilities’ positive attributes, interviewees raised a number of negative characteristics.

They stressed the tendency of some disabled persons to exploit their disabilities for

pecuniary purposes. “Persons with disabilities often take the position of a victim to attract

charity,” pointed out one interviewee. Others revealed that often “disabled people

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families are using them to make money, begging in the streets.” According to

interviewees, some persons with disabilities were even regrouped in associations of

disabled beggars. One leader of association deplored that some persons with disabilities

served their individual interests, because “when they found a job, they do not stay in the

association anymore.” One interviewee deplored the character of some persons with

disabilities who often complained about their problems without trying to overcome them.

Few interviewees emphasized the distinctive characters of disabled persons. Deaf

persons were reputed as sly and often steeling. Physically impaired persons were reputed

as irritable and susceptible and having difficulty collaborating. Intellectually disabled

persons were, on their parts, easily influenced. One manager shared a concern about the

frequent conflict between two workers with trisomy. “I have to reprimand them, even

though they will be hearted, crying like children.” Persons with disabilities were

sometimes desperate, because of their difficulty to access livelihood. “I am already like

this, what could I do more?” reported one interviewee about the case of a blind person

who tended to self-underestimate his skills.

Among weaknesses, participants repeatedly flagged persons with disabilities’

limited education, as well as their intrinsic inhibition that prevented them from applying

for a formal job. Hashim and Wok (2014) evidenced that disabled persons’ negative self-

perception has caused their inhibition in the workplace. Disabled persons also lacked

assurance and initiatives. “We do not receive many applications from disabled persons

even though we do not have restrictions,” stated a manager in a large company. The lack

of ability to communicate easily was flagged. “The fluency in French is required when

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applying for a job,” said one interviewee. Persons with disabilities’ network and

relationship appeared limited as well. “We did not envisage the possibility for persons

with disabilities to work within big companies,” said a CBR responsible.

Another weakness was the limited knowledge of new technology, which was

essential to reach a competitive edge. Interviewees from cooperatives were concerned

about the difficulty of some disabled workers to maintain the quality of the production

and the deadlines. “The pace of production slows down when there is the launch of new

products,” affirmed an interviewee. “Persons with disabilities are often absent because of

health issues,” pointed out one interviewee.

According to one interviewee, despite their high motivation for work, disabled

employees could never provide 100% of return. Workers with intellectual or learning

disability have limited attention and performance. “They could only do three hours of

intensive work on average,” explained a manager. Interviewees advised to recognize

disabled workers’ limits and to never force them. “They are less resilient and could be

easily exhausted,” said one interviewee. An interviewee explained that “a blind person

always requires a support person to take the notes and to translate them in braille.” Table

11 shows the workers with disabilities’ attributes.

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Table 11 W with Disabilities’ Attributes

Workers with Disabilities’ Attributes

Actor

Positive Attributes

Negative Attributes

Workers with

disabilities

- Qualified as agile,

disciplined, reliable,

punctual, conscientious,

meticulous, regular

- Willingness to integrate

the team

- Focus on the work,

motivated

- No competing mindset

- Easier to manage

- Exploiting their disabilities for pecuniary purposes

- Position of a victim to attract charity

- Serve their individual interests

- Deaf reputed as sly; persons with Physical

impairment as susceptible; blind never

autonomous; Intellectually disabled persons’

limited attention and performance;

- Limited education and knowledge of new

technology

- Intrinsic inhibition, lack of assurance and initiative

- Limited network and relationship

- Lack of communication skills

- Less resilience because of health conditions

- Difficulty to meet deadlines

Existing and potential works. Interviewees were proficient when asked to cite

existing and potential works that may fit persons with disabilities. I found 77 references

about potential works in the interviewees’ responses. They preferred to categorize the

potential jobs and tasks, according to the persons’ impairment, convinced that the work

should suits the person with disability. “A blind person could better do a work that

involves oral skills and communication, such as speaker in a radio station, or a lawyer.”

They could also do work without rigorous precision and using hands.

Participants agreed that persons with hearing impairments could do work that

involves visual control. “Deaf could do any work, providing they could communicate

with others, using sign language or an interpreter,” said one interviewee. “Deaf persons

could not be doctors, because of their difficulty to communicate,” argued one

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interviewee. Interviewees were of the view that persons with intellectual disabilities were

better handling manual routine work that did not involve intellectual efforts. “Persons

with intellectual or learning impairment are good in repetitive tasks,” said one

interviewee.

Interviewees were convinced that persons with disabilities could do any task, any

job, depending on their disabilities. “Persons with disabilities could handle administrative

tasks if their reasonable accommodation is ensured,” stated one interviewee. Interviewees

agreed that self-employment was more suitable to persons with disabilities. Persons with

disabilities who received vocational trainings often opt for the self-employment. Finally,

interviewees acknowledged the musical talent of disabled persons. “They are good

musicians and could also work as ‘mpikabary’; or speakers in ceremonies and events.”

Table 12 displays existing and potential works that stem from interviewees’ responses.

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Table 12: I ’ Perceptions of Disabled Person ’ Potential Works

Interviewees’ Perceptions of Disabled Persons’ Potential Works

Impairment

Primary sector

Secondary sector

Tertiary sector

No match

Blindness

Metal work

Wood work

Waste management

Attorney

Radio station speaker

Communication agent

Sale agent

Call center operator

Secretary work

IT assistant

Technician

Teachers for blind

Sale of plastic bottles

All types of

work that use

vision

Deafness

Agriculture

Farming

Gardening

Iron work

Metallic work

Laundry and ironing

work

Dishes cleaning

Waitress

Sewing machinist

IT technicians

Engineer

Teachers for deaf

All types of

work that require

precision and

hearing

Physical

Farming

Worm farming

Plants nursery

Sewing

Handcraft

Embroidery

Basketry

Food processing

Woodwork

Teachers and trainers

Economist

Technician

IT and electronic

Social worker

Secretary

Desk officer

Post Agent

Cleaner

Machinist

Multiservice agent

Baker

Library agent

Consultant

Data operator

Warehouse work

Physical

education

teacher

Postman

Intellectual/

Learning

Gardening

Chalk production

worker

Food processing

agent

Iron work

Packing agent

Cooker

Caterer

Work that

requires

precisions

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Understanding Relevant Concepts

The following interview questions to participants fell under this theme:

Q11: How would you define disability identity and inclusion?

Q12: How would you define empowerment?

Q13: How would you define employability?

Disability identity. Scholars viewed disability identity as featuring persons with

disabilities’ experience of their own impairment and their behaviors within the society

(Dunn & Burcaw, 2013; Forber-Pratt et al., 2017; Santuzzi & Waltz, 2016). From the

participants’ responses, the lack of knowledge about disability and about disability

identity was noticed, although some of them were working with persons with disabilities.

Occupational identity is the most salient identity, because it enables persons with

disabilities to improve their self-determination, their life choice, and control (Kirsh et al.,

2009).

Participants agreed that decision makers often lack knowledge about disabled

workers’ skills and competencies. “Disability means that a gap needs to be filled,” argued

one interviewee. Interviewees were of the view that company managers were not

sufficiently sensitized about disabled persons’ skills and talents. Interviewees associated

managers’ difficulty to retain disabled workers with their “limited knowledge and their

lack of preparation.” Few interviewees warned about the prejudice to disabled workers.

“Disability is not to dissociate from its roots and causes,” stressed one interviewee.

Participants recommended that managers and nondisabled workers improve their

knowledge about the process of disability production. “They should learn how to behave

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with workers with impairment,” advised a manager with a visual impairment. One

interviewee argued that “it is important to learn about the orientation and mobility and the

white cane use techniques with a blind person.” “The receptionist in a company should

have a good notion of disability to enable them orient clients with disabilities,” suggested

another interviewee. Participants also advised managers to familiarize themselves with

persons with disabilities and to consider the work most adapted to each kind of

impairment.

Inclusion. Scholars defined inclusion as the full participation of a person in all

aspects of life, including the access to social and economic services, the recovery of a

status, and the limited effects of disability (Davey & Gordon, 2017). Interviewees made

reference to inclusion 17 times in their responses. For most participants, inclusion was

linked with equality of access, which was in compliance with scholars’ definitions.

Interviewees provided a number of meanings to inclusion, such as “integration,”

“equality of treatment,” or the “fit between disability and occupation.” Inclusion implied

that “disabled workers are well integrated within the team,” said one interviewee. One

interviewee outlined the attributes of inclusion, namely the access to information, the

acceptation by others, and the job security.

Managers confessed that they lacked knowledge about disability and inclusion.

They suggested focusing on the social, cultural, and economic aspects of inclusion.

“Disabled workers are judged on appearances and are excluded from the professional

environment,” stated one interviewee. Interviewees agreed that the inclusion of disabled

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workers in the workplace requires greater efforts from employers and from other

employees without disabilities.

Scholars agreed that effective inclusion can only occur when the persons with

disabilities feel safe, not rejected, and could participate in the community life (Owen et

al., 2015). Participants were more inclined to denounce persons with disabilities’

exclusion and discrimination. “Persons with disabilities are kept out of the community

life,” pointed out one interviewee. Interviewees deplored the absence of a plan about the

vocational inclusion of persons with disabilities. A manager was more concerned about

the disabled people’s attitudes that prevented them to be included in the society.

“Disabled persons should start from ‘invisibility’ to more exposure in the society,” said

the interviewee. Another interviewee advised to “open persons with disabilities minds,

for them to really integrate the society.”

Empowerment. Scholars evidenced that empowered disabled persons have a

greater chance for independent living, employment, and social inclusion (Shogren &

Shaw, 2016). When asked about their perception of the concept of empowerment,

participants provided a wide range of answers. They described managers’ empowering

role as “coaching and monitoring,” “enabling a disabled person to perform a task,” to

reach independence at work and achieve result. Interviewees also stressed that

empowerment entails “ensuring the person has a work every day,” and “is able to take in

charge and to take care for the family.” Patience and perseverance were cited as essential

behaviors. “The monitor is sometimes impatient and is doing himself the work to reach

performance,” said a participant.

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Interviewees qualified empowered disabled workers as “taking part into decision

making, expressing voices, being autonomous at work and well integrated in the society,

and taking care of his or her personal needs. One interviewee stated that “empowerment

is one of the organization targets.” Many interviewees understood that empowerment

starts with the individual and social autonomy before the autonomy at work. “Disabled

workers should first have sufficient life skills, such as the ability to feed, to dress, and to

get public transport.”

Scholars evidenced the correlation between empowerment, self-determination,

and autonomy of decision (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Shogren & Shaw, 2016).

Interviewees were, however, of the view that disabled workers could not reach autonomy.

The participants believed that they will always require others’ support, though at the

minimum possible. Interviewees agreed as well that empowerment depends on the type

of disability.

Employability. Employability is viewed as the process that facilitates the access

to employment, whereas employability skills relate to competencies and knowledge used

by the employee to succeed at work (Andrews & Russell, 2012; Ju et al., 2014; Rule,

2013). Participants had difficulties distinguishing the nuance between employability and

employment and between employability skills and employability as a process. When

asked about their understanding of the concept, interviewees provided a simplistic

definition of employability. The majority referred to the ability for a person “to be

employed,” “to work,” or “to access the job market.” Interviewees stressed that the work

had to fit with the disability. One interviewee considered the managers’ responsibility in

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fostering employability, namely in “making the worker fully operational and providing

added values to his or her skills.”

Interviewees talked about the degree and type of impairments’ influence on the

employability of disabled persons. “A person with a mild cerebral palsy is employable,

while a person with a severe impairment is not employable.” A physically impaired

person has no real problem to be employable, whereas an intellectually impaired person

could do routine work. A deaf person has better chance to be employable, providing the

communication barrier is addressed. “A blind person has more difficulty to get employed

and may encounter risks of accident,” said an interviewee. Interviewees agreed that

persons with disabilities’ employability should be studied case by case and should fit

with the type of impairment. According to one interviewee, “disabled workers could

better accomplish a task in which they are more talented.”

Scholars emphasized higher order thinking skills, such as creative thinking,

decision making, problem solving, and reasoning, as well as personal qualities, such as

responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, and integrity (Ju et al., 2014).

Participants in the study focused more on the basic skills, such as education; the

knowledge of the assigned work; and personal qualities, such as integrity and trust.

Participants recognized employability skills as the prerequisite for a person with

disability, namely education, certified professional training, life skills’ training, ability to

integrate a team, as well as accompaniment at the early stage of the work. A better

understanding of the employability skills of disabled people is needed to adapt the

training settings, modules and referential, jobs, and work structures.

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Management Strategies

The following interview questions to participants fell under this theme.

Q17: What management strategies do you use to provide reasonable

accommodation for disabled workers in the workplace?

Q18: What management strategies would you propose to retain disabled workers

in the workplace?

Quality management. According to Kiregu et al. (2016), the success of the

employee depends on the managers’ competence and communication skills and the

ability to redesign the assigned task and to adapt to the workplace, in accordance with the

needs of the disabled employee. A number of responses related to the shared aspiration

for a better governance within the organization. Participants suggested focusing on

“accountability,” which is a key factor of a responsible management and could also

guarantee the credibility of an organization. Other languages came out from the

responses, such as “transparency in financial operations,” that likely depicted the shared

aspiration to combat widespread corruptions in public institutions and organizations.

Interviewees viewed establishing “clear procedures and company internal rules,” as the

best way to tangible achievements for the company. Interviewees emphasized the

“diversification of the production,” which stands as essential feature of competitiveness.

Interviewees considered individual development as essential feature of workers

with disabilities’ performance management. A manager shared best practices in terms of

human resource performance management. Regular trainings, coaching, monitoring, and

evaluating of employees according to tangible performance indicators led to the sustained

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performance of the company. Participants agreed that supporting disabled persons’ small

livelihood initiatives could, in turn, provide work to other persons with disabilities. Few

interviewees viewed promoting “social entrepreneurship and appropriate legislation” and

“social marketing” as a way to boost the products sale. Participants found innovative

ways for salary payment, such as weekly payment, or the payment per individual working

in cooperative, with 40% at the command and the rest at the delivery of the product.

Participants discussed the need for managers to acknowledge conditions that

influence disabled workers’ performance at work. Ensuring the communication with deaf

workers was one of the conditions. “I started learning sign language and labial reading

for communication,” shared a manager. Learning to live with disabled workers is another

condition for creating a harmonious working environment, according to another manager.

“Ensuring the minimum security of workers with disabilities is also an essential

condition,” asserted one interviewee. Workers with disabilities have limited resiliencies,

in case of emergency situation, such as fire or flooding.

Participants advised creating structures meant to orient and to prepare disabled

persons for work in a private company and developing in-training supports within the

company. Interviewees shared the views that “tailoring the job to the competence of the

workers with disabilities is essential.” “We should think about the types of tasks most

appropriate to persons with disabilities, for them not to compete with nondisabled

candidates when there is a job advertisement.” Interviewees also advised assigning to

disabled workers tasks that fit their health conditions. “The work for physically impaired

people should not involve too much physical efforts,” stated one interviewee.

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Accompanying measures are crucial, including legislative and regulating texts and

financial and material supports. One interviewee suggested “using the depreciation on

real estate and furniture to generate funds to be used for social initiatives.” Managers

expressed diverse strategies, such as “establishing a national directory of workers with

disabilities,” “creating a showroom to exhibit products from the workshops,” or “a

touristic tour including the visit of a vocational training center.” Table 13 shows the

interviewees’ perceptions of management strategies.

Table 13

Interviewees’ Perceptions of Management Strategies

Keywords

Accountability

Transparency

Disability knowledge

Learning

Communication

Collaboration

Cooperation

Solidarity

Management strategies

Applying clear procedures and rules

Diversification of the production

Performance management

Support to small livelihood initiatives

Promote social entrepreneurship

Social marketing

Innovative ways for salary payment

Minimum workers’ security

Orientation structure

In-training support

Job tailored to disabled workers’ competences and

health conditions.

Partnership development

Accompanying measures

Development of inclusive groups for mutual help

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Reasonable accommodations. In line with the UN Convention for the rights of

persons with disabilities (United Nations, 2017b), reasonable accommodation in the

workplace consists of ensuring persons with disabilities’ rights, through appropriate

adjustments in the workplace without using disproportionate means. Participants in the

study corroborated the definition, because they mostly perceived reasonable

accommodation as the minimum accommodation that enables disabled workers to

produce equally as others. As a result of DPOs’ advocacy, some public institutions have

made significant efforts. Recently the department for persons with disability at the

Ministry in charge of Population has moved from the seventh floor to the ground floor.

The office of the region of Vakinankaratra and of the communes in Antsirabe and

Toamasina have built ramps and established units tasked with the orientation of persons

with disabilities. Persons with disabilities were also given badges to facilitate their access

to the services at the commune.

Interviewees shared their support to the construction of ramps for the accessibility

of the workplaces and churches in the city of Antsirabe, one of the few cities with the

charter of an accessible city. Two interviewees also informed me about the renovation

they have done in the workplace to make the workshops and sanitary blocks accessible.

One interviewee was more concerned about the accommodation of transport for disabled

workers and thought about the use of adapted rickshaws. Interviewees stressed, however,

the need to educate workers to respect the hygiene standard in the workplace.

Interviewees shared their efforts in terms of provision of assistive device and

special work equipment. “We provided orthopedic shoes to physical impaired workers,”

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stated one interviewee. “We provided a sewing machine and a raw material to a woman

who has no feet and therefore was constraints to work from her house,” explained one

responsible of a cooperative. Few managers devoted a special budget for the employees’

social protection and welfare.

A cooperative benefited from the support of an INGO for the adjustment of tables

and chairs and the provision of wheelchairs and assistive device to accommodate disabled

workers. “We also provide plastic shoes to disabled workers who are constraints to ramp

with their hands in the street and in the public transportation,” revealed one interviewee.

Three interviewed managers established flexible hours because of the nonfriendly public

transportation. To facilitate the communication with the deaf workers, some managers

trained workers on sign language or hired interpreters. One manager of a private

company shared about the training of four chiefs of units on sign language.

Capacity building and personal development. Participants were concerned

about disabled workers’ vocational skills and suggested focusing on substantive and

extensive capacity building. The keywords “training, coaching, and capacity building”

were cited 60 times in participants’ responses. Interviewees opined taking advantage of

mainstream and existing specialized and vocational training (VT) structures, such as the

Madagascar Enterprise Development, or the National Center for Persons with Disabilities

Vocational Training. The latter provides VT on woodwork, ironwork, electronic, IT,

cookery, sewing, and solar panel. A participant pointed out the difficulty for persons with

disabilities to access quality education and trainings.

Participants suggested a range of trainings, from sign language training, French

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language training, life skills’ training, finance and management, project writing, technical

skills training, religious education, and personal development meant to foster self-

confidence and self-esteem. Interviewees were of the view that persons with disabilities’

capacity building will lead to behaviors’ change. Participants also viewed coaching and

trust building as essential. “It is difficult to gain the trust of the manager, therefore more

time is required for training and trust building,” said an interviewee.

Interviewees cited, among training formats, self-training, one-by-one coaching,

accompaniment, induction, adapted training, continuous training, in site training, revival

training, and short- and long-term trainings. “The company should contribute to the

education of persons with disabilities they recruited,” said a HR manager. A manager in a

private company informed me about the 4-months training offered to disabled workers

prior to their work. The same manager shared with me about the project on sign language

training to facilitate the communication with deaf workers. The training will be realized

in the private university working with the company. “It will be an investment of 50 hours,

which is nothing in comparison with the 100 000 hours of trainings at the university,”

said the manager, likely to show that the sign language training was not an issue.

An interviewee suggested focusing on persons with mild disabilities who could be

operational, providing that they are well trained. According to an interviewee, “when

trained and coached, disabled workers could provide good result, and could be trusted.”

A manager of a company who facilitates the professional insertion of youth stated that

“persons with disability who receive VT could be better oriented and have higher chance

to get employment.” Trainings entail also familiarizing disabled workers with the tasks,

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the responsibilities, and the environment. A member of a CBR organization suggested

“investigating the job market needs, and aligning the training with the demand in the

market.”

Overall, managers were convinced that disabled workers’ vocational training was

essential, prior to starting a work. “Workers with disabilities should provide personal

efforts and be able to interact with others,” stressed one interviewee. Interviewees agreed

that wellbeing is at the core of personal development for disabled workers to strengthen

their self-confidence.

Enabling Leadership Styles

The following interview questions to participants fell under this theme.

Q13: How would you define transformational leadership?

Q15: How do you assess your leadership skills and their influence in the process

of empowering persons with disabilities?

Q16: What leadership skills do you think you should have to foster the

employability of persons with disabilities in Madagascar?

Understanding transformational leadership. Transformation constitutes a long-

term goal; yet, it starts with changing the individual mindset structure and that of the

society, through attitudinal shifts. These shifts are witnessed in behavior changes and in

the new interactions that emerge (Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Analyzing

interviewees’ perception of the concept of leadership provides knowledge about enabling

leadership styles a manager could use to foster the employability of disabled workers.

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Interviewees perceived transformational leadership as the ability to interact with

the employees and to instill transformative changes in them. Interviewees viewed

leadership as transforming disabled workers’ behaviors and spirit, as they acquire step-

by-step entrepreneurship skills and overcome the dependency and begging spirit. “They

do not wait anymore for others’ help,” said an interviewee. Others brought to light

examples of behaviors’ change and suggested “working closely with the disabled workers

and promoting the use of new technology”.

Interviewees were aware of the features of transformational leadership. They

often talked about “vision, motivation, compassion and personal development,

empowerment, or creativity and innovation.” Interviewees viewed “collaborative spirit,

culture change, and knowledge sharing” as essential features of transformational

leadership. Many agreed that a manager should “lead by example and by vision and

values”. One manager affirmed “I am keen to translate my vision about inclusion of

persons with disabilities to my collaborators.” Building trust was repeatedly mentioned:

“If well trained, workers with disabilities could be trusted and given responsibility,”

stressed an interviewee.

Some managers did not recognize their limited knowledge about transformational

leadership. “I do not expect to change my leadership approach, because I feel efficient in

managing this workshop,” responded one interviewee. “I am too perfectionist and keen to

control the quality of the work,” confessed one manager, adding that workers should

learn discipline. A manager, reputed for being soft with workers, said “I was not able to

change my style, using authority when needed, because it is not my character.”

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Participants overall expressed their aspiration for a leadership that enables facilitate

the inclusion of persons with disabilities. Scholars advised focusing on leadership that

could favor an environment of inclusion and alleviate disabled persons’ difficulties, while

promoting performance and positive outcomes (Theodorakopoulos & Budhwar, 2015).

Participants highlighted decision making, equality of treatment, compassion, creativity

and innovation, and motivation, which are essential features of an inclusive

transformational leadership.

Decision making. Participants referred 15 times to decision making in their

responses. They recognized the importance for workers with disabilities to be involved in

the decision making process. “Managers should ask more inputs from workers and

involve them in the decisions,” said one interviewee. According to Rule (2013), it is

disempowering to be excluded from decision making. Interviewees were aware of the

need for workers with disabilities to be empowered and autonomous before they could

take informed decisions.

Some interviewees advised “delegating the work and transferring competences”

and “privileging team work.” Others shared about the periodic team meeting they

organize to discuss achievements, listen to problems, and clarify issues. “I make sure that

when a problem arises, we discuss it,” explained a manager. Another interviewee flagged

the importance of informed decision and suggested conducting a wide consultation before

making decision. “After being well trained, the worker could be given trust and

responsibility,” stated one interviewee.

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Equality of treatment. The majority of participants highlighted the issue of equal

treatment for persons with and without disabilities. I found 44 references to equality or to

equal treatment in interviewees’ answers to the interview questions. Interviewees agreed

about “equal treatment” in terms of salary, health care, and other services within the

workplace. For managers, equal treatment implied equal obligations vis-à-vis the work. A

manager said that “workers are following the same schedule, 10 hours per day.” One

interviewee suggested starting the equal treatment between “nondisabled and disabled,

boy and girl, at home and from the childhood.”

Managers in a private company ensured that the recruitment was done without

assumptions. Interviewees stated that “the selection is impartial” and “someone without

competences has no chance to succeed” or “no discrimination exists at the recruitment

and candidates are chosen by merit.” According to a manager, there was no difference

between persons with and without disabilities’ access to employment. The difference was

on the capacities of the persons.

A number of concerns were, however, raised about the access to work, as

indicated earlier in the obstacles to employment section (p.121). Discriminatory practices

were still witnessed. “In theory, disabled and non-disabled persons have the same

treatment, but often non-disabled persons are recruited,” said an interviewee. One

interviewee noted that “a person without a disability will always have a greater chance

than a person with a disability, even under the same conditions.”

Interviewees raised the need for considerations for persons with disabilities.

“Even though workers with disabilities are treated equally as others, attention should be

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on their minimum needs,” one interviewee said. A manager informed me that disabled

workers receive accommodation fees in the company. Another interviewee advocated

privileging persons with disabilities at the recruitment because “they face double

difficulties to find job.” Interviewees proposed to discreetly provide treatment to disabled

workers, for them to feel no difference from others. Interviewees encouraged mutual

support among disabled and nondisabled workers. One interviewee was more concerned

about possible conflict within the workplace, because disabled workers may feel

disrespected. An interviewee stated that the ministry in charge of employment had set up

a program about equity funds for workers from vulnerable groups.

Compassion. Interviewees insisted on compassion and human treatment because

their mission entails humanitarian aspects. Interviewees were convinced that an altruistic

mindset is a must for those who are committed in the area of disability. Some managers,

however, recommended being cautious in managing the relation with workers. “If I am

too close and too familiar to workers, they may become disrespectful and I would lose

my authority,” asserted one interviewee. Interviewees were also conscious about the need

to manage their emotions and to accept criticisms.

Creativity and innovation. Participants mostly viewed creativity as a skill to

develop innovative measures meant to facilitate persons with disabilities’ access to

employment and to livelihood. An interviewee stated that “in an informal work, a person

with disability could be innovative and develop his or her research skills.” According to a

manager, the success of his art workshop was due to the passion, creativity, and day-to-

day research he was able to instill in workers, including those with disabilities.

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Participants agreed that managers should explore innovative ideas to address the

tricky problems linked to disability. Interviewees shared ideas, such as the identification

and exploitation of disabled people talents, the development of innovative referential for

VT, or the design of appropriate curricula for inclusive education. Interviewees suggested

“establishing a special fund for the purchase of assistive device.” One interviewee

advised to “set up special policies, such as a system of award to disabled workers.” For

blind workers, audio guidelines and adapted software to the context of Madagascar could

help improve their work performance.

Many participants were of the view that the knowledge of new technologies is

unavoidable in the modern society. Interviewees advised “taking advantage of ICTs and

promoting start-up businesses that could better fit persons with disabilities.” Managers

were sought to be creative and to promote new work sectors better adapted to the persons

with disabilities. One manager in a large knitting company shared a project about the

creation of a production line for 30 deaf workers.

Motivation. Scholars agreed that motivation is related with workers’ incentive

and sense of ownership (Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Caillier, 2014; Espiner, 2015).

Motivating followers is a feature of the manager transformational leadership (Grant,

2012). Participants perceived motivation as “a positive feedback when the worker

succeeds in a project.” Interviewees believed that motivation and confidence building

were essential. Interviewees underscored the importance to encourage disabled workers

to show willingness and determination. “They need appreciations and an understanding

of their health conditions,” said one interviewee.

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Managers used different means to motivate workers, such as the appreciation of

the work well achieved or a reward when they meet deadline and a quality standard for

their final product. Other incentives were the provision of transport fees, subsidized

canteen tickets, outings and study trips, summer camps, or sport activities. Working

sharpens disabled workers’ vocational identity, as they improve their work skills and

strive to reach goals, according to their interests (Scheepers & Elstob, 2016).

“Intellectually disabled workers should be given entertaining activities to compensate

their efforts during the work,” explained one interviewee. “They should feel the pleasure

to work.” Managers also encouraged disabled workers to participate in sport tournaments

or in scout movements, for them to feel valorized and responsible. “We strive to motivate

persons with disabilities and to let them know that they are the responsible,” said one

interviewee. Another interviewee shared about her “active listening approach and

positive stimulation.”

Social Returns

The following interview questions to participants fell under this theme.

Q20: What could be the social returns you gain in employing disabled workers?

Owen et al. (2015) defined social return as a means of determining the impacts of

the company investment in the quality-of-life of the employees and their families. When

asked about the social returns they may gain from employing disabled workers,

participants hesitated. From the range of responses, managers had no regret to contribute

to the access to work of disabled persons “who could take of their families” and “flourish

in the society.” Most of the interviewees expressed their sensitivity to the inclusion of

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persons with disabilities in the society, as well as their “satisfaction, pride, and

fulfillment.”

Diverse perceptions emerged. Certain participants viewed their endeavor as a kind

of “charity, a social entrepreneurship, a Christian mission, or an expression of the

Malagasy value of kinship.” Interviewees from private companies considered employing

persons with disabilities as a form of a societal responsibility. Others referred to the long-

term social change they were able to contribute to. “There is a mutual advantage,” stated

one manager. “I help the disabled persons who help me in turn.” “They give me a lot and

I learned much from them,” stressed another manager.

For interviewees, employing disabled workers is also a “testimony and an

example to others” and a means to change the mindset within the community.

Interviewees stressed the change of societal attitude. “I am proud when a blind person,

who was before a beggar, could work now,” said one manager. Having the opportunity to

change attitudes and values could help disabled workers face their daily challenges

(Scheepers & Elstob, 2016). One interviewee advocated for the “culture change in private

companies from the obligation of results to openness and resource management and

development.” “Unlike before, a person using a white cane is now reflecting a positive

image, thus attesting the change of behaviors within the society,” said one interviewee.

“Sellers in front of our office are offering to accompany blind persons when they see

them,” told another interviewee.

Other managers stressed the “visibility” and the “accountability” their company

gained from employing disabled workers. “The image and the credibility of the company

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increase, so as the trust of technical and financial partners, of the community, and of the

government,” said one interviewee. “The company is bearing a label; when they are

trusted, they could easier get the priority when there is a public offer,” stated another

interviewee.

Findings of the Study

In this section, I present the key findings that emerged from the thematic data

analysis in the previous section. I organize the key findings in two broad categories: (a)

hindering factors to persons with disabilities’ employability and inclusion and (b)

enabling management strategies and leadership styles. Significant findings contributed to

fill the gaps in the literature, as highlighted in the related section in Chapter 2 (p.64).

The following key findings relate to the factors hampering the employability and

inclusion of persons with disabilities:

Finding 1

Societal attitudes hindered persons with disabilities’ inclusion and access to work.

Societal attitudes included discrimination, unequal treatment, traditional beliefs,

stereotypes, and prejudgments as highlighted in Table 6 (p.124). Persons with disabilities

had to constantly face others’ eyes and inappropriate languages. Educating the population

requires time and innovative strategies and it was hard to convince the community that

disabled persons have potentials for work.

Finding 2

The government lacked engagement and resources to ensure the implementation

of the recommendations in the CRPD and to achieve SDG8. National legislations are

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outdated, weak, and not sufficiently implemented. They are not yet in conformity with

the CRPD. As per Table 8 (p.139), no incentive policies or programs exist, such as tax

relief that could encourage managers to hire persons with disabilities in Madagascar.

Participants acknowledged however government support to awareness raising,

accessibility, provision of wheelchairs or assistive devices, and recruitment of disabled

civil servants.

Finding 3

The employment rate was very low, with only 4.6% of workers with disabilities in

the targeted 28 entities. Disabled workers were mostly working in private companies and

in cooperatives as shown in Table 7 (p. 131). The scarce number of disabled workers

within companies translated to manager reluctance to hire persons with disabilities.

Workers with physical impairments were better represented, whereas, workers with other

types of impairment were less represented: Workers with visual impairment were the

most suffering to get employed.

Finding 4

Persons with disabilities had limited access to the job market because of the fierce

competition and inequality at the recruitment. As illustrated in Figure 11 (p.128),

companies’ excessive requirements and non-adapted job advertisement led to the

exclusion of potential candidates with disabilities. Partiality in the recruitment was still

common, with managers’ preference for candidates without disabilities.

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Finding 5

Unemployment in Madagascar affects disabled persons who have no choice than

informal work, as discussed in the related result section (p. 129). Disabled persons were

constrained to unpaid family work, because of societal attitudes and discrimination. The

context of poverty exacerbated the problem of unemployment.

Finding 6

Managers lack knowledge about disability and were not sufficiently sensitized

about disabled persons’ competences and skills, as indicated in the result section (p. 140),

hence their reluctance to hire disabled persons. Managers had little awareness of the

rights of persons with disabilities, and of national legislation pertaining to disability and

to work. As indicated in Table 10 (p.142), misconceptions exist about workers with

disabilities’ competences and productivity, and about the kind of job they could perform.

Finding 7

The limited accessibility within the workplace and the lack of reasonable

accommodations and assistive devices prevented managers from hiring disabled workers.

As emphasized in the result section (p.128), the environment in Madagascar itself is not

disability-friendly because of infrastructural barriers in many cities. Communication

accessibility was not sufficiently considered (e.g. deaf workers require sign language;

blind workers need specific software for computer works).

Finding 8

The negative attributes of disabled persons, such as intrinsic characters, lack of

confidence, or inhibition, often tarnish the image of persons with disabilities. Persons

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with disabilities were using their impairments as a means for charity. Weaknesses, such

as limited education, scarce knowledge of new technology, difficulty to meet deadlines,

lack of communication skills, and less resilience because of health conditions were

flagged in Table 11 (p. 146). Persons with disabilities often lack assurance and initiatives,

preventing them from applying for a formal job.

Finding 9

Managers did not sufficiently consider the extra costs, nor the possible

investments that could facilitate the employability of persons with disabilities, as

highlighted in the result section (p.135). The focus was mostly on physical accessibility,

not on other extra costs, such as the provision of assistive device, wheelchairs, and health

care that may improve disabled persons’ employability.

In terms of enabling management strategies and leadership styles, the following

key findings emerged:

Finding 10

A better awareness of disability and inclusion improved managers’ readiness to

hire persons with disabilities. The inclusion of persons with disabilities implied equality

of treatment, the fit between disability and occupation, job security, and the acceptation

by others. As per Table 10 (p. 142), the knowledge about persons with disabilities’ skills

and attributes helped managers define the tasks most appropriate to their impairment and

health conditions. The study highlighted potential works suitable to disabled workers and

sorted by the four types of impairment as per Table 11 (p.146).

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Finding 11

Managers had empowering role that instilled individual autonomy, occupational

identity, and social inclusion. Empowering disabled workers entailed coaching,

monitoring, and facilitating task performance and independence at work. As discussed in

the results section, persons with disabilities required capacity building focused on

personal development and creative skills development. As emphasized in Table 11 (p.

146), managers acknowledge disabled workers’ positive attributes, such as discipline,

reliability, punctuality, focus on the work, and no competing mindset.

Finding 12

Enabling management strategies included promoting quality management,

occupational fit, communication and minimum security, and reasonable accommodation.

As outlined in Table 12 (p.148), quality management featured transparency,

accountability and the performance management of workers. Promoting occupational fit

consisted of tailoring jobs to disabled workers’ competences and health conditions.

Learning to live with disabled workers, ensuring the communication with deaf workers,

and ensuring minimum security of workers with disabilities were essential conditions that

influence disabled workers’ performance at work.

Finding 13

The knowledge of transformational leadership styles contributed to ease the

interaction between the manager and disabled workers and instills behaviors’ change

within the workplace and the society. As discussed in the result section, managers’

transformational leadership enabled changes in behaviors in disabled workers who could

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overcome the dependency and begging spirit. As per Figure 9 (p.116), managers’

enabling transformational leadership skills include empowerment, capacity building,

motivation, compassion, creativity, equal treatment, and trust building. Managers

recognized the importance for workers with disabilities to be involved in the decision-

making process.

Finding 14

An inclusive transformational leadership style fostered the employability of

persons with disabilities, through increased coaching, in-training supports, compassion

and kinship, confidence building, human treatment and personal development. As

discussed in the result section (p. 162), an inclusive transformational leadership is

grounded on authentic leadership, empowering leadership, community-based leadership,

and social justice leadership. Managers recognized the importance of equal treatment,

compassion, and altruistic mindset. Developing creative skills and promoting innovation

were considered as means to facilitate employability.

Summary

The interviews of 28 participants revealed significant findings that fill the

knowledge gap on persons with disabilities’ employability in Madagascar. The

participants in the study were eager to share their concerns about the contextual factors

hindering persons with disabilities’ societal and vocational inclusion. From the

participants’ perceptions of the main obstacles to employment, of stakeholders’

responsibilities, and of relevant concepts, alternative management strategies and

leadership styles emerged. Managers could use the identified management strategies and

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enabling transformational leadership styles to empower persons with disabilities and

facilitate their employability in the workplace in Madagascar. In Chapter 5, I concentrate

on the interpretation of the main findings. I discuss how the main findings fill the

identified knowledge gaps and are in compliance with the defined conceptual framework.

The limitations of the study, the key recommendations, and the social change

implications are provided in Chapter 5.

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Chapter 5: Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations

Introduction

The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the management

strategies and leadership styles that managers could use to enhance the employability

skills of disabled people in Madagascar. The study was carried out in three regions of

Madagascar, with the participation of 28 managers in companies, cooperatives,

institutions, and organizations. The study was qualitative by nature because I wished to

elucidate a human and social problem through the meaning-making process, as suggested

by Maxwell (2013). A face-to-face interview was used for data collection, so that I could

expand the scope of the constructed knowledge, as suggested by Dowling et al. (2016).

In this study, I found participants’ perceptions of contextual factors and obstacles

to disabled persons’ societal and vocational inclusion. The participants also raised key

questions about stakeholders’ responsibilities and attributes, namely the government,

NGOs, managers, and disabled persons. The participants shared their understanding of

disability and inclusion, empowerment, and employability. The participants shared their

practices and perspectives about enabling management strategies and leadership styles to

foster disabled workers’ employability.

From the thorough thematic data analysis, 15 key findings emerged and were

presented at the end of Chapter 4, results section. They were organized in two broad

categories: (a) hindering factors to persons with disabilities’ employability and (b)

enabling management strategies and leadership styles. The key findings are interpreted in

this chapter. I summarize the findings in the following.

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In terms of hindering factors to persons with disabilities, nine key findings were

identified:

 Finding 1. Societal attitudes, including discrimination, unequal treatment,

traditional beliefs, stereotypes, and prejudgments hindered persons with

disabilities’ inclusion and access to work.

 Finding 2. The government lacked engagement and resources to ensure the

implementation of the recommendations in the CRPD and to achieve SDG8.

 Finding 3. The employment rate was very low, with only 4.6% of workers with

disabilities in the targeted 28 entities.

 Finding 4. Persons with disabilities had limited access to the job market because

of the fierce competition and inequality at the recruitment.

 Finding 5. Unemployment in Madagascar affects disabled persons who have no

choice than informal work.

 Finding 6. Managers lack knowledge about disability and were not sufficiently

sensitized about disabled persons’ competences and skills.

 Finding 7. The limited accessibility within the workplace and the lack of

reasonable accommodations and assistive devices prevented managers from hiring

disabled workers.

 Finding 8. The negative attributes of disabled persons, such as intrinsic characters,

limited education, and the use of disability as a means for charity, often tarnish

the image of persons with disabilities.

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 Finding 9. Managers did not sufficiently consider the extra costs, nor the possible

investments, that could facilitate the employability of persons with disabilities.

In terms of enabling management strategies and leadership styles, the following

five key findings emerged:

 Finding 10. A better awareness of disability and inclusion improved managers’

readiness to hire persons with disabilities.

 Finding 11. Managers had empowering roles that instilled individual autonomy,

occupational identity, and social inclusion.

 Finding 12. Enabling management strategies included promoting quality

management, occupational fit, communication and minimum security, and

reasonable accommodation.

 Finding 13. The knowledge of transformational leadership styles contributed to

ease the interaction between the manager and disabled workers and instills

behaviors’ change within the workplace and the society.

 Finding 14. An inclusive transformational leadership style could foster the

employability of persons with disabilities, through increased coaching, in-training

supports, compassion and kinship, confidence building, human treatment, and

personal development.

Interpretation of the Findings

In this section, I describe how the findings from the study confirm or disconfirm

the outcomes of studies outlined in the literature review. I discuss how they fill the

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identified knowledge gaps. I explain to which extent the findings contribute to the

knowledge of key concepts and theories, namely of management and transformational

leadership. I organized the interpretation in three sections: (a) gaps in literature against

study findings, (b) hindering factors to disabled persons’ employability, and (c) enabling

management strategies and leadership styles.

Hindering Factors to Employability

Finding 1. Societal attitudes hindered persons with disabilities’ inclusion and

access to work. I found factors that mitigated persons with disabilities’ employability in

Madagascar, such as societal attitudes that include discrimination, unequal treatment,

stereotypes, and prejudgments. These factors ranked high in the participants responses, as

indicated in Figure 7 (p.115) and align with the outcomes of a number of studies.

Scholars emphasized core challenges, such as stereotypes and biases, discrimination,

infrastructure accessibility, and communication barriers (Kleynhans & Kotze, 2014;

Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). Majiet and Africa (2015) pointed out cultural

stereotypes and gender imbalance as impeding factors to persons with disabilities’

inclusion.

The study finding filled the gap in knowledge about disability and employment in

Madagascar where scholarly studies on persons with disabilities’ employment are scarce.

My findings corroborated researchers’ claim about societal attitudes as the main barriers

to persons with disabilities’ social and economic inclusion in Madagascar (Boucher et al.,

2015; Khan et al., 2015). I revealed that inequality and discrimination against persons

with disabilities are still rife in the country, mainly because of traditional beliefs and

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families’ lack of responsibility. Future research should be on examining the sociocultural

dimension of societal attitudes vis-à-vis persons with disabilities in Madagascar.

Finding 2. Government lacked engagement and resources to ensure the

implementation of the recommendations in the CRPD and to achieve SDG8. I

revealed the government-limited engagement and political will as a hindering factor to

disabled persons’ employability. The finding filled the gap in knowledge about policies

and strategies that could accompany the implementation of internationally agreed upon

texts pertaining to persons with disabilities’ access to decent employment. No

government program provides tax reduction for companies employing workers with

disabilities in Madagascar. Madagascar gains to learn from other African countries’

achievements. In Rwanda, persons with disabilities benefit from the government

compensation program (Kiregu et al., 2016). In South Africa, the government adopted

legislations and guidelines and set up a Disability Grant program on labor supply

(Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts, 2016).

It is stipulated in the existing national legislation that incentive measures should

be developed, and the state should encourage the employment of disabled persons in the

private and public sectors (Boucher et al., 2015; Ministry of Population, Social Protection

and Protection of Women, 2016). The national legislation emphasized also the

responsibility of private companies, cooperatives, and rehabilitation organizations in

empowering disabled workers. Two decennia after the adoption of the national Act

97/044 in 1997, and 4 years after the ratification by Madagascar of the CRPD, no

tangible changes were registered in terms of the implementation of legal texts. The

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ministry in charge of population has set the groundwork to make national laws in

conformity with the CRPD, though the procedures of adoption are long.

Future research should be on assessing the implementation of the CRPD since its

ratification by Madagascar in 2014. Scholars could investigate policies and strategies that

may ensure the implementation of CRPD in Madagascar. Future research could also

focus on the achievements toward SDG 8 at the country level. Scholars could explore

strategies in favor of disabled workers’ productive employment and decent work.

Finding 3. The employment rate was very low, with only 4.6% of workers

with disabilities in the targeted 28 entities. The scarce number of disabled workers

within companies translated to managers’ reluctance to hire persons with disabilities.

Managers who had no experiences of working with disabled workers did not trust their

competences and productivity. Managers who had acquaintance with disabled workers

praised their positive attributes, such as discipline, reliability, hard-working, agility, or

concentration on the work. Disabled workers’ negative attributes, however, tarnished

their images, particularly the use of disability for pecuniary purposes.

Managers sometimes did not retain workers with disabilities because of their

limited performance or their weak resilience due to health conditions. A number of

researchers corroborated my study findings about the nonretention of disabled workers in

the workplace. Social attitudes and poor health are also linked with inadequate

recruitment and retention strategies (Cramm et al., 2014; Scheepers & Elstob, 2016).

According to Baumgärtner et al. (2015), corporate culture and flexibility are important to

disabled workers’ retention in the workplace. Sing (2012) suggested promoting decent

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jobs to facilitate the retention of disabled workers, while enhancing their accountability

and skills. Future studies should be on analyzing the results of the national household

census with a focus on employment of persons with disabilities in Madagascar. Future

research should also extend the findings in the present study and provide disaggregated

data by impairment and gender on the employment of persons with disabilities in

Madagascar.

Finding 4. Persons with disabilities had limited access to the job market

because of the fierce competition and inequality at the recruitment. I brought to light

managers’ preference for persons without disabilities in recruitment, even if they have the

same competences as persons with disabilities. Victor et al. (2017) pointed out

discriminating practices at recruitment and inadequate treatment in the workplace.

Flanagan (2016) also found that managers have preference for some types of disabilities

that would not require accommodations. Managers’ attitudes concurred with Echevin’s

(2013) affirmation that disabled persons are less attractive in the job market.

Companies’ excessive requirements, such as years of experiences, good physical

and health conditions, excluded disabled candidates from the start of the recruitment

process. The inaccessibility of job advertisements is another way to exclude candidates

with disabilities, such as blind persons who cannot read newspapers, or deaf persons who

cannot hear announcements on radio. Managers should consider job offers tailored to the

impairments of the persons, for them not to compete with other candidates without

disabilities. Future research should focus on examining the recruitment practices and

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procedures in view to define strategies most appropriate to persons with different types of

impairments.

Finding 5. Unemployment in Madagascar affects disabled persons who have

no choice than informal work. With more than 90% of workers in the informal sector,

Madagascar presents a disguised unemployment (International Labor Organization, 2015;

Lee et al., 2016; National Institute for Statistics, 2017) that affected persons with

disabilities. Persons with disabilities were constraints to informal work or self-

employment, because of their limited access to formal work. A number of studies

concentrated on how disability is intertwined with poverty in developing countries

(Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016). In Madagascar, the recurrent poverty and limited

resources prevent the government from providing adequate support to persons with

disabilities (Khan et al., 2015; World Health Organization, 2011). World leaders,

however, recognized the rights of persons with disabilities to decent work (United

Nations, 2017a, p. 7) and claimed to break the link between disability and poverty by

acknowledging the increased prevalence of disability. Scholars should examine the

recurrent problem of unemployment and focus on the nexus between disability, poverty,

and unemployment in Madagascar. Scholars should investigate further the issue of

disguised employment and how it affects youth with disabilities

Finding 6. Managers lack knowledge about disability and were not

sufficiently sensitized about disabled persons’ competences and skills, hence their

reluctance to hire disabled persons. Even if they were employing disabled workers,

managers had little knowledge about disability construct, the disability production cycle

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or about disability identity, and persons with disabilities’ rights. Managers should

understand the evolution of the discourse on disability from the biomedical disability

approach to the social constructionist perspective (Martin, 2012; Peña et al., 2016).

Forber-Pratt et al. (2017) asserted that knowledge of disability identity may help

managers provide appropriate rehabilitation and support to persons with disabilities. If

managers have adequate knowledge about the process of disability production, they could

also better manage workers with impairment.

The reluctance of managers to hire persons with disabilities was also because of

their limited knowledge of the rights of persons with disabilities. The unfit between the

work assigned to disabled workers and their impairment was repeatedly raised by

participants. Managers’ misconceptions exist about workers with disabilities’

competences and productivity, and about the kind of job they could perform. Participants

proposed to adapt the jobs to the impairment of the person, echoing previous researchers’

suggestions about appropriate job design, occupational fit, and setting adjustment

(Espiner, 2015; Hashim & Wok, 2014). Baumgärtner et al. (2015) suggested flexibility

and decentralized context to enhance disabled workers’ job satisfaction. Future research

should focus on further assessing managers in companies’ knowledge and on defining

strategies for their capacity building.

Finding 7. The limited accessibility within the workplaces and the lack of

reasonable accommodations prevented managers from hiring disabled workers.

Accessibility is an important concern for persons with physical disabilities in Madagascar

because of the non-disability-friendly environment in the country. Most public buildings

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are without elevators; roads in cities are inaccessible for wheelchairs, and the public

transportation system is of poor quality. Reasonable accommodation of disabled workers

is not a priority for managers because of the restricted budget and resources. Accessibility

and accommodation measures are recognized as full rights and are meant to combat

disability discrimination (Lorenzo & Van Rensburg, 2016; United Nations, 2017b).

Researchers called for solidarity to counteract infrastructure inaccessibility and the lack

of accommodations that limit the access to services of persons with disabilities in

Madagascar (CBM, 2016a; Khan et al., 2015; International Disability Alliance, 2016).

Future research should be on examining the accessibility challenges within workplaces

and on defining appropriate financing strategies.

Finding 8. The negative attributes of disabled persons, such as intrinsic

characters, lack of confidence, or inhibition, often tarnish the image of persons with

disabilities. The study elucidated the negative attributes of disabled persons that include

personal behaviors and intrinsic characters, as well as weaknesses that often tarnish their

images. The most noticeable negative attributes were disabled persons’ inherent

characters, such as irritability for persons with physical impairment, malignity for deaf

persons. Blind persons are reputed for their brightness, however, they are not

autonomous. Persons with intellectual disabilities have limited attention and

performance. In a context of poverty, families neglect the education of their children with

disabilities. The lack of education appeared therefore as one of the highest weaknesses of

persons with disabilities. Scholars established the tie between employability and

education of persons with disabilities who have limited chances to find a job, even with

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high level education (Kamal and Tomoo, 2014). The limited knowledge on ICT was also

an obstacle to the access to work because it has become a priority requirement of

company managers.

Another growing concern is the mendicancy of persons with disabilities who

considered begging on the street more lucrative than working. Families and the society

itself encourage charity for persons with disabilities due to their ignorance of disability

and inclusion. Groce, Loeb, and Murray (2014) pointed out the conditions of beggars

with disabilities who are among the poor and are invisible in countries policy agenda.

Disabled persons keep begging on the street in the absence of advocacy and policy efforts

to improve livelihood opportunities. Future research should further investigate persons

with disabilities’ education challenges and identify alternatives to persons with

disabilities mendicancy.

Finding 9. Managers did not sufficiently consider the extra costs of

employing disabled workers, nor the possible investments that could facilitate their

employability. I revealed the insufficient consideration of the extra costs that employing

disabled workers may cause. The participants focused mostly on the cost of physical

accessibility, and to a less extent on the cost of ensuring reasonable accommodation. The

reasonable accommodation requires a minimum budget to support the adjustments in the

workplace, the provision of assistive devices, and health care for disabled workers. Other

strategies may engender extra costs, such as grants’ initiatives, health schemes, or

transportation subsidies to disabled workers. Disabled workers’ slow productivity also

engendered extra costs. The lack of budget prevented managers from considering

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investment for disabled workers’ accommodation. Some managers prefer hiring persons

with mild impairment who do not necessitate high cost (Flanagan, 2016). The findings

extended the knowledge about the cost that employing disabled workers may generate.

Further studies are necessary to garner greater insights on the issue of extra-cost and on

investment required to ensure reasonable accommodations of persons with disabilities in

the workplace.

Enabling Management Strategies and Transformational Leadership

Finding 10. A better awareness of disability and inclusion improved

managers’ readiness to hire persons with disabilities. I outlined the awareness raising

and advocacy needs at different levels of the society that target managers, disabled and

nondisabled workers, parents and families, government, community leaders, and other

relevant stakeholders. Awareness about disability, inclusion, disabled persons’ rights, and

disabled persons’ vocational skills will contribute to changing societal attitude and

misconceptions. Despite the difficulty of changing the collective mindset inherited from

cultural beliefs and practices in Madagascar, extensive sensitization campaigns will help

to educate the population about disabled persons’ potentials for work.

The finding about disability awareness aligned with a number of researchers’

insights. Kleynhans and Koitze (2014) advocated for attitude-changing programs meant

to facilitate disabled workers’ integration into the work environment. Scheepers and

Elstob (2016) claimed that changing attitudes and values could help disabled workers to

overcome their daily challenges. Disability-inclusive development initiatives can be used

to facilitate the interaction among disability stakeholders and increase the awareness at

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the community and national levels (Ariefdien, 2016; Swarts, 2016). The finding filled the

gap of knowledge about the factors conducive to persons with disabilities’ access to

employment and social inclusion in Madagascar. Stakeholders should also consider

contextual and cultural aspects when designing attitude-changing strategies. Scholars

should examine and develop attitude-changing strategies, with a focus on contextual and

cultural aspects. Further research should be on deepening knowledge and implementation

of disability-inclusive development strategies.

Finding 11. Managers had empowering role that instilled individual

autonomy, occupational identity, and social inclusion. Managers empowerment

entailed coaching, monitoring, personal development, and in-training supports.

Participants recognized that empowerment started with the individual autonomy and

social participation. Managers’ empowering behaviors facilitated disabled workers’ tasks

performance and autonomy at work. When empowered disabled workers were able to

take part into decision making, to express their voices, to integrate in the society, and to

take care of their personal needs. Researchers agreed that empowered disabled persons

could easier access to employment and livelihood opportunities, and reach independent

leaving and inclusion in the community (Shogren & Shaw, 2016). Promoting creativity

and new technology, personal development, and in-training supports within the company

were proven instrumental for enhancing disabled workers’ employability skills.

Empowered disabled workers have increased self-esteem and self-determination

(Al-Zboon & Smadi, 2015; Shogren & Shaw, 2016). Managers started also to

acknowledge disabled workers positive attributes. Disabled workers strove to provide the

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best they could at work, because working forge their identity, more than being a source of

incomes or livelihood. Occupational identity is the most salient identity that enables

persons with disabilities to improve their self-determination, life choice, and control

(Kirsh et al., 2009). The employability of a person with disability depended on the type

and degree of impairment. A person with a mild impairment, a physically impaired

person, and a deaf person had no real problem to be employable, providing the

accessibility and communication barriers were addressed. A blind person had more

difficulty to get employed because of his or her lack of autonomy. In further research,

scholars should focus on how the empowerment of persons with disabilities could

promote their occupational identity, employability, and societal inclusion. Future research

should focus on examining other factors to employability (environmental, social, gender,

cultural, political, or economic factors).

Finding 12. Enabling management strategies included promoting quality

management, occupational fit, communication and minimum security, and

reasonable accommodation. Participants claimed that governance, accountability, and

performance management were key factors of a responsible management and guarantee

the credibility of an organization. Individual development was seen as essential feature of

workers with disabilities’ performance management. Scholars suggested promoting

person-centered planning, occupational fit, and learnership programs that were proven

successful (Espiner, 2015; Metzinger & Berg, 2015; Sing, 2012).

Managers were incited to assign tasks or works that fit disabled workers’

competences and health conditions. Learning to live with disabled workers enabled

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managers to understand specific needs and competences of persons with different types

of impairment. Managers could easier understand how to adapt the work to the ability of

the person with impairment. Ensuring good communication, such as the use of sign

language with deaf workers or the use of adapted software by blind persons, was an

essential condition to increase disabled workers’ performance. Guaranteeing the

minimum security of persons with disabilities increased their resiliencies to emergency

situation.

Ensuring reasonable accommodations for disabled workers is a key

recommendation of the CRDP (United Nations, 2017b) and consists of providing

appropriate adjustments in the workplace without using disproportionate means. Few

managers made efforts to hire disabled workers and to accommodate them in the

workplace with the construction of ramps and accessible sanitary blocks. Some managers

set up orientation units for persons with disabilities, or provided of badges to facilitate

access to services. Researchers suggested investing more in accessibility and reasonable

accommodation of disabled workers. Ensuring an attractive workplace environment,

appropriate job design, and fair recruitment will facilitate the retention of disabled

workers (Baumgärtner et al., 2015; Sing, 2012).

I also highlighted the importance of partnership development and network, as well

as persons with disabilities’ consortiums in cooperatives or self-help groups. Inclusive

cooperatives and self-help groups were proven successful in generating income strategies

(Rule, 2013). Self-help groups are voluntarily raising funds from the members for their

economic empowerment and other mutual interests (Setia, Tandon, & Brijpal, 2017).

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Rule (2013) also identified social movements at community levels as enabling factors of

empowerment. Owen et al. (2015) defined models of employment, such as cooperatives

of persons with disabilities or social microenterprises. Future research should focus on

assessing the wide range of management strategies’ efficiency and impact on disabled

workers’ competitiveness and attractiveness.

Finding 13. The knowledge of transformational leadership styles contributed

to ease the interaction between the manager and disabled workers and instills

behaviors’ change within the workplace and the society. With a strengthened

knowledge of transformational leadership, managers contributed to facilitate the

employability of disabled workers. Close interaction has yielded transformative changes

in workers with disabilities who increasingly acquired entrepreneurship skills and started

to overcome the dependency and begging spirit. Managers increasingly internalized

transformational leadership skills, such as aspirational vision, motivation, compassion

and human treatment, and empowerment. Managers’ leadership skills also include

encouraging disabled employees to participate in decision-making process, coaching and

personal development, in-training supports within the company, and partnership

development. Grant (2012) asserted that motivating followers is an essential feature of

manager transformational leadership.

The finding contributed to the knowledge on transformational leadership in the

area of employment and disability in Madagascar. Kensbock and Boehm (2016) stated

that transformational leadership fits to the needs of disabled people. Transformational

leaders yield organizational change and sustained results because they instill motivation,

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trust, and commitment in followers (Mwambazambi & Banza, 2014). Transformational

leaders could influence persons with disabilities’ self-determination and job performance.

Scholars also encouraged the access of persons with disabilities to leadership positions

because their differences may hide qualities that are desired in leadership position, such

as human sensibility and perseverance (Eagly & Chin, 2010). Shogren and Shaw (2016)

evidenced that a disability group has a better relationship with autonomy, employment,

social relationships and independent living. Scholars should examine the transferability

of the study finding about transformational leadership styles to other countries in the

Southern African region. Future research should also focus on leadership development in

the field of disability and inclusion.

Finding 14. An inclusive transformational leadership style could foster the

employability of persons with disabilities, through increased coaching, in-training

supports, compassion and kinship, confidence building, human treatment and

personal development. I highlighted managers’ leadership skills that aligned with

emergent transformational leadership styles, as discussed in the literature review.

Managers were sought to espouse altruistic mindset, which is in line with the authentic

leadership features. Scheepers and Elstob (2016) indicated altruism and self-awareness,

as well as respect of values, as relevant features of authentic leadership. Authentic leaders

instill citizenship behavior, commitment, and work performance (Avolio et al., 2009).

The study findings aligned also with empowering leadership, meant to promote the

participation in decision making, coaching, and personal attention (Lee et al., 2017).

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Byun et al. (2016) viewed task visibility, motivation, and creativity as features of

empowering leadership.

Community-based leadership better fits the African context, where the social

structure is based on community norms (Haruna, 2009). A community-based leadership

may succeed in the context of employment for persons with disabilities in Madagascar,

because it is consistent with the local sociocultural value systems in the country. A social

justice leadership could also be used to explore the occurrence of oppression and human

rights issues (Rule, 2013). It entails communication and learning skills, emotional

awareness, and ability to make decisions and to sustain relationships (De Matthews &

Mawhinney, 2014). A social justice leader may address disabled employees’

discriminatory treatments.

The aforementioned emergent leadership styles lay the ground to a

transformational leadership style that has, at its core, the concept of inclusion. The

characteristics of an inclusive leadership style are autonomy, creativity, commitment,

kinship, the sense of calling, altruistic care, concern and appreciation, self-awareness,

equality, and citizenship behaviors. The concept builds upon the theory developed by

Eagly and Chin (2010) about an inclusive leadership focused on individual

transformational changes grounded on individual values, identities, and ethical principles.

Managers could use an inclusive leadership style to address inclusive development

challenges in the area of employment for persons with disabilities. An inclusive leader is

cognizant of diversity and multicultural perspectives and is respectful of individual

differences. The inclusive leader recognizes cultural values and competences of

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individuals from nonconformist group. Future research should focus on deepening the

knowledge of inclusive leadership and on how to mainstream it in the area of disability

and employment. Future research should focus on the transferability of the study findings

about inclusive leadership to other countries in the Southern African region.

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited to the geographic context of Madagascar. Its scope was

limited to three regions of the country and to companies, institutions, cooperatives,

organizations from which the 28 participants were recruited. The sample size was

sufficient for in-depth qualitative analysis. Yet, the limited number of participants and

targeted areas, as well as the limited time and resources for the study, may impact the

transferability of the findings from the study. To counteract the likelihood of biases, I

used reflexivity in the study, making sure of the accuracy and the quality of the

participant selection, the data collection, and the data analysis. I used triangulation to

cross-check the findings with other sources, rival explanation, prolonged engagement,

and thick description.

The purposeful sampling used for the recruitment of participants restricted the

representativeness of the participants in the study. The identification of institutions,

companies, cooperatives, and organizations from where the participants were recruited

was done with the help of partner organizations. In the face-to-face interviews, I targeted

only managers or leaders from defined entities, not the employees with disabilities, thus

limiting the data collected to only perceptions of managers and leaders on the issue of

persons with disabilities’ employability. The difficulty encountered with the use of the

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tape recorder might have an impact on the quality of the transcript, although I benefited

from the help of a volunteer note taker. The risk of my background knowledge influence

on the definition of codes, categories, and themes in the data analysis was minimized by

the use of NVivo 12 software that helped ensuring the data accuracy.

Recommendations

In this section, I summarized the recommendations that stem from the study key

findings and the knowledge gaps identified in the literature. I also recommended areas for

further investigations, based on the outcomes and the limitations of the current study. The

recommendations were grounded on the conceptual framework that illuminates the

overall inquiry.

Recommendation 1. In line with Finding 1 relating to societal attitudes, DPOs

and disability stakeholders should increase awareness raising activities at all levels of the

society and within the workplace. I recommend focusing on societal attitudes,

discrimination and inequality that hamper the vocational and societal inclusion of persons

with disabilities. Innovative strategies, such as open doors, “living together” events, and

disabled workers’ testimonies within companies, and story-telling could facilitate the

change of the collective mindset. I also recommended disseminating best practices and

using the media as a means to educate the community. Nonworking disabled persons

should also learn from the experiences of disabled workers.

 Future research should be on thoroughly examining the socio-cultural

dimension of societal attitudes vis-à-vis persons with disabilities in

Madagascar.

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Recommendation 2. In line with Finding 2, I recommend the government to

assume its responsibility in developing and implementing the national legislation relating

to persons with disabilities rights to work, in line with CRPD and SDG8. The government

should promote incentive measures (tax alleviation, credit facilities, government

subsidies, compensations, awards and grants) that encourage managers to hire disabled

workers and to exert their corporate social responsibilities. At the community level, the

government should promote counselling and placement structures. At national level, the

government is sought to promote an inclusive system, by integrating into national

policies and sectorial programmes inclusive measures that could facilitate the access of

disabled persons to work and livelihood opportunities

 Future research should be on assessing the implementation of the CRPD since

its ratification by Madagascar in 2014. Scholars should investigate strategies

that may help decision-makers in the design of appropriate policies and

programs aligned with the CRPD.

 Future research could also focus on assessing the achievements toward SDG 8

at the country level. Scholars could explore strategies in favor of disabled

workers’ productive employment and decent work.

Recommendation 3. In line with Finding 3 on the rate of employment, I

recommend the development of database at community, regional, and national levels on

persons with disabilities’ socioeconomic situation, particularly on employment in

Madagascar. The government should strengthen the national institute for statistics to be

able to provide updated and disaggregated statistical data in relevant development areas,

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including the areas of employment and disability. I also recommend DPOs and disability

stakeholders to develop their own database in their specific areas of work and to

exchange information within their network.

 Future research could be on interpreting the disaggregated data that stem from

the ongoing national household census.

 Future research should extend the findings in the present study and provide

disaggregated data by impairment and gender on the employment of persons

with disabilities in Madagascar.

Recommendation 4. In line with Finding 4 relating to access to the job market, I

recommend managers to remain impartial at the recruitment, while being attentive to the

specific needs of persons with disabilities. Managers should consider job offers tailored

to the disabilities of the persons, for them not to compete with other candidates without

disabilities. Managers should also consider the accessibility of the job advertisement to

candidates with sensorial impairments. Hiring persons with disabilities could also be seen

as corporate social responsibility that provides a social return, in terms of increased

companies’ visibility, fulfillment, and contribution to positive social change.

 Future research should focus on examining the recruitment practices and

procedures in view to define strategies most appropriate to persons with

different types of impairments.

Recommendation 5. In line with finding 5 on unemployment, I recommend the

government and disability stakeholders to address the recurrent issue of unemployment

that affect most persons, especially youth with disabilities. The focus should be on

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identifying holistic and systemic strategies that address the problem in a sustained way.

The government and disability stakeholders should also consider the root causes of both

disability and poverty challenges in developing countries. The priority should also be on

addressing the mismatch between vocational skills and job supply for disabled workers.

 Scholars should examine the recurrent problem of unemployment and focus

on the nexus between disability, poverty, and unemployment in Madagascar.

Scholars should investigate further the issue of disguised employment and

how it affects youth with disabilities

Recommendation 6. In line with Finding 6 pertaining to the lack of managers’

knowledge, I strongly recommend managers to improve their knowledge of disability

construct, disability identity, disability production cycle, and of persons with disabilities’

rights. A greater acquaintance with disabled workers will contribute to change the

mindset of managers and other workers without disabilities. A greater knowledge of

disability and of the attribute of persons with disabilities will help managers overcome

their reluctance. Managers could provide appropriate rehabilitation and support to

disabled workers and learn how to behave with them. Managers should also better

understand their role in empowering and in fostering the self-esteem and self-

determination of persons with disabilities.

 Future research should focus on further assessing managers in companies’

knowledge and on defining strategies for their capacity building.

Recommendation 7. In line with Finding 7 on accessibility, managers should

improve their knowledge of accessibility standard and should invest in both infrastructure

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and communication accessibility. Disability stakeholders, including DPOs, should join

their efforts and advocate for a disability-friendly environment in the country. The

government should adopt regulations that assign designers of new building to follow the

accessibility norms. The government is also sought to reform the transportation system to

facilitate the transport of persons with reduced mobility. Managers are encouraged to

consider reasonable accommodations as a means to improve workers with disabilities’

performance and productivity.

 Future research should be on examining the accessibility challenges within

workplaces and on defining appropriate financing strategies.

Recommendation 8. In line with Finding 8 relating to disabled persons’ negative

attributes, DPOs and NGOs should strengthen their support to persons with disabilities, in

terms of awareness raising and empowerment. Persons with disabilities should also

understand and learn to overcome their weaknesses, through trainings on personal

development, on communication, and on the use of new technology. Managers should

invest more in coaching and capacity building of disabled workers. To counteract the

recurrent issue of disabled beggars on the street, a systemic approach should be adopted,

targeting the government and all disability stakeholders at community and national levels.

 Future research should further investigate persons with disabilities’ education

challenges and identify alternatives to persons with disabilities mendicancy.

Recommendation 9. In line with Finding 9 on extra costs, managers should

understand the extra costs of employing disabled workers and consider the investments

needed to facilitate the retention of disabled workers in the workplace. Managers should

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not neglect the cost of ensuring reasonable accommodation that requires a minimum

budget to support the adjustments in the workplace, the provision of assistive devices,

and health care for disabled workers.

 Further studies are necessary to garner greater insights on the issue of extra-

cost and on investment required to ensure reasonable accommodations of

persons with disabilities in the workplace.

Recommendation 10. In line with Finding 10 on awareness raising, I recommend

DPOs and disability stakeholders to develop awareness raising strategies that could

effectively lead to positive attitudes change of managers, disabled and nondisabled

workers, parents and families, government, community leaders at community, regional

and national levels. Changing cultural practices cannot occur over night and require a

systemic approach that entails educating the population and integrating disability

inclusive strategies within national policies and programs. DPOs and disability

stakeholders should influence decision-makers at community level to develop their

inclusive community development plan. I also recommend considering disability in the

discussion about the quality of life.

 Scholars should examine and develop attitude-changing strategies, with a

focus on contextual and cultural aspects.

 Further research should be on deepening knowledge and implementation of

disability-inclusive development strategies.

Recommendation 11. In line with Finding 11 relating to empowerment, I

recommend managers to be particularly mindful of the nature and diversity of

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impairments that may influence empowerment strategies of disabled people. Managers

should improve knowledge of empowerment strategies and sharpen their empowering

skills. When empowered, disabled persons could better access to employment and

livelihood opportunities, and be included in the community. Managers are also

encouraged to instill creativity in disabled workers and to promote new technology.

Managers should also recognize persons with disabilities’ positive attributes and enable

disabled workers increase their self-esteem and reach self-determination and occupational

identity.

 In further research, scholars should focus on how the empowerment of

persons with disabilities could promote their occupational identity,

employability, and societal inclusion.

Future research should focus on examining other factors to employability

(environmental, social, gender, cultural, political, or economic factors).

Recommendation 12. In line with Finding 12 relating to management strategies,

I recommend managers to develop and implement strategies that enhance persons with

disabilities’ employability. Personal planning, in-training supports, attitude-changing

programs were proven efficient in enhancing persons with disabilities’ performance at

work. Particular attention should be on the job design, occupational fit, and on

accessibility and reasonable accommodations. Managers should consider the wide range

of potential works that disabled workers could perform. A better understanding of the

employability skills of disabled people is needed to adapt the training settings, modules

and referential, jobs, and work structures.

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Managers are encouraged to create structures meant to orient and to prepare

disabled persons for work in a private company, and to develop in-training supports

within the company. Managers should promote start-up businesses that better fit persons

with disabilities’ competences and health conditions. Supporting disabled persons’ small

livelihood initiatives could also provide work to other persons with disabilities.

Promoting social entrepreneurship, facilitating the access to credit, developing inclusive

cooperatives and self-help groups were proven successful.

 Future research should focus on assessing the wide range of management

strategies’ efficiency and impact on disabled workers’ competitiveness and

attractiveness.

Recommendation 13. In line with Finding 13 relating to transformational

leadership, I recommend managers in Madagascar to extend their knowledge on

transformational leadership and to focus on leadership development in their areas of

interest. I also recommend managers to familiarize with transformational leadership

styles that could enhance the employability of disabled people. With increased

transformational leadership skills, managers could instill transformational changes in

disabled workers. I recommend managers to sharpen disabled workers’ motivation skills

and to encourage disabled workers’ self-esteem and self-confidence. Managers should

also show altruistic mindset, compassion, and humane treatment to disabled workers. As

transformational leaders, managers instill motivation, trust, and commitment in followers,

and could influence disabled workers’ job performance.

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 Scholars should examine the transferability of the study finding about

transformational leadership styles to other countries in the Southern African

region.

 Future research should also focus on leadership development in the field of

disability and inclusion.

Recommendation 14. In line with Finding 14 pertaining to inclusive

transformational leadership, I recommend managers to increase their knowledge of

emergent leadership styles, namely authentic leadership, empowering leadership,

community-based leadership, and social justice leadership that lay the ground to an

inclusive transformational leadership style. As inclusive leaders, managers could exert

kinship, the sense of calling, altruistic care, concern and appreciation, equal treatment,

and instill in persons with disabilities self-awareness, autonomy, creativity, commitment,

and citizenship behaviors. Thanks to an inclusive leadership style, the managers could

respect individual differences and yield effective transformational changes. Managers

could better influence decision makers to address inclusive development challenges in the

area of employment for persons with disabilities.

 Future research should focus on deepening the knowledge of inclusive

leadership and on how to mainstream it in the area of disability and

employment.

 Future research should focus on the transferability of the study findings about

inclusive leadership to other countries in the Southern African region.

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Implications

The qualitative case study on employing persons with disabilities in Madagascar

has implications for positive social changes at different levels. At individual level, I

revealed management strategies and leadership styles that managers in companies, in

institutions, in cooperatives, and organizations could use to enhance the employability of

persons with disabilities. From their increased knowledge of disability-related matters

and persons with disabilities’ employability skills, managers could better attend to

disabled workers’ vocational needs. Managers could change their attitude and better

understand how to behave with disabled workers. Managers’ increased awareness about

disabled workers’ positive and negative attributes will facilitate their interactions and

trust building. A continued acquaintance with disabled persons will lessen managers’

reluctance and increase their compassion and altruistic mindset. Managers could also gain

fulfillment from their contribution to the wellbeing of persons with disabilities.

The study is of relevance to one of the most vulnerable and neglected groups: the

disabled persons’ entity. Persons with disabilities will benefit from managers’ appropriate

management strategies and transformational leadership skills. When empowered,

disabled persons have a better chance of reaching self-determination and attaining

vocational and societal inclusion. With their improved employability skills, persons with

disabilities will gain more assurance to access the job market. They could exert their

rights to employment and contribute to the social and economic development of the

country. More important, they could build upon their occupational identity and operate as

true agents of positive changes in the society.

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At the organizational level, managers’ knowledge about disability and

transformational leadership will improve their sensibility and awareness of the social

returns their organizations may gain from investing in persons with disabilities.

Employing persons with disabilities could be seen as a form of corporate societal

responsibility and a way to change the mindset within the workplace and the community.

It should also be seen as a good practice to replicate in other settings and as a testimony

and example for others.

At the community and societal levels, stakeholders could use the study findings in

their advocacy about societal attitude and national policies’ changes. An increased

awareness of decision makers’ responsibilities could facilitate the development and

implementation of inclusive policies. The study could also influence resource

mobilization and partnership development in support of persons with disabilities. The

study emphasis on disability-inclusive development will pave the way to an inclusive

society in which disabled people could evolve equally as others.

The study contributed to filling the literature gap in the area of disability,

employment, and leadership in the context of Madagascar. The study will be of benefit to

researchers who have an interest in social and management research in Madagascar,

because it added to the knowledge of meaningful concepts, such as employability,

disability identity, empowerment, and self-determination.

Conclusion

The qualitative study on employing persons with disabilities was the first of its

kind in Madagascar. I used an in-depth examination of 28 participants’ perceptions of the

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research problem revealed the hindering factors to persons with disabilities’

employability. Contextual and structural challenges are still predominant and include the

societal attitudes and misperceptions, exacerbated by the context of poverty,

unemployment, and weak inclusive policies in Madagascar. The study was instructive

about multifaceted obstacles to disabled persons’ employment, particularly the inequality

of access to the job market, accessibility and reasonable accommodation issues,

insufficient knowledge of disability, and the extra cost of hiring disabled workers.

The study provided insights about government responsibilities in terms of

developing and implementing appropriate policies and programs. I revealed the deficit of

measures for the retention of disabled workers in the workplace and managers’ persisting

reluctance, despite disabled workers’ positive attributes. Managers were more concerned

by disabled workers’ negative attributes and weaknesses. I, however, enlightened

potential works in congruence with disabled workers’ competences. In-depth

understanding of relevant concepts of disability identity, inclusion, empowerment, and

employability stem from the study and will help managers to better understand the social

return they main gain from employing disabled workers.

I examined meaningful management strategies and leadership styles that

managers could use to instill long-term changes in disabled workers’ employability.

Personal planning, attitude-changing programs, and resource mobilization were proven as

appropriate management strategies. Incentive measures, such as tax relief, subsidies, or

grants from the government, will encourage company managers to hire persons with

disabilities and to exert their corporate social responsibilities.

206

Accompanying measures include financial and material supports to disabled

workers and a greater focus on accessibility and reasonable accommodation in the

workplace. Promoting social entrepreneurship will also facilitate disabled persons’ access

to credit and the development of inclusive cooperatives and self-help groups.

Accountability in finance and administrative procedures, diversification of the

production, and performance management of workers were seen as conducive to

successful organizations’ management.

I provided an understanding of managers’ transformational leadership skills that

could instill long-term transformative changes in disabled workers. Participants were

cognizant of aspirational vision, motivation, compassion, and empowerment as core

attributes of a transformational leader. Managers were sought to involve disabled workers

in the decision-making process and to ensure their capacity building and personal

development. Managers were also called to provide equal treatment between disabled and

nondisabled workers, while ensuring disabled workers’ needs. Innovation and creativity

were considered as a means to foster disabled persons’ employability. Managers are also

incited to promote new technologies and start-up businesses that fit persons with

disabilities’ competences and health conditions. Emergent leadership styles, namely

authentic leadership, empowering leadership, community-based leadership, and social

justice leadership, were revealed as most appropriate to disabled persons’ empowerment

and vocational inclusion. The proposed inclusive leadership style combines key features

of the aforementioned leadership styles.

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This study had some limitations. I targeted 28 participants recruited from

companies, institutions, cooperatives, and organizations in three regions of Madagascar.

The sample size was sufficient for in-depth qualitative analysis; yet, it may limit the

transferability of the study findings. Reflexivity, triangulation, rival explanation,

prolonged engagement, and thick description were used in the study to counteract

possible biases and to ensure the accuracy and the quality of the participant selection, the

data collection, and the data analysis. The use of NVivo 12 software helped in ensuring

the data accuracy and minimized my influence in the data analysis process.

Recommendations for further research include in depth examination of policies

and strategies that could ensure the implementation of CRPD in Madagascar and the

analysis of the data that stem from the ongoing national household census. Scholars are

recommended to also focus on the environmental, social, cultural, political, or economic

dimensions of employability and on the nexus among disability identity, empowerment,

and employability. Future research should also pertain to the phenomenon of disguised

unemployment and to the continuum of disability poverty to elucidate the root causes of

hindrances to disabled persons’ employability.

Scholars are recommended to focus on disability-inclusive development research

to ensure persons with disabilities’ sustainable vocational and societal inclusion. Future

investigations could extend the knowledge on management strategies and programs

meant to foster disabled workers’ competitiveness and attractiveness. Researchers are

called to deepen the knowledge on transformational leadership in the field of employment

and disability in Madagascar and in other Southern African countries. More theoretical

208

works should be on mainstreaming relevant emergent leadership styles in broader

contexts. Transformational leadership development may include the conceptualization of

inclusive leadership, through further field inquiries in different country settings.

The qualitative case study on employing persons with disabilities in Madagascar

has implications to positive social changes at the individual, organizational, and societal

levels. Persons with disabilities will have a better chance to access to the job market and

to be included in the society with their improved employability skills. They could build

upon their occupational identity and become agents of social and economic development

in the country. When using appropriate transformational leadership styles, managers

could better attend to disabled workers’ vocational needs. Thanks to their acquaintance

with disabled workers, managers will increase their awareness of the social returns their

organizations may gain from investing in persons with disabilities. Managers will gain

fulfillment in contributing to the wellbeing of the most neglected group in the society.

Employing persons with disabilities could be seen as a form of corporate societal

responsibility and a way to change the mindset within the workplace and the community.

The study may influence social attitude changes, legal policy implementation, resource

mobilization, partnership development, and capacity development in support of persons

with disabilities. The study could pave the way to an inclusive society in which disabled

people could enjoy their full rights. With increased awareness, policy-makers could

integrate disability-related strategies into national policies and strategies.

209

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