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Lee – SMGT 611 Outdoor Adventure Philosophy
Cheryl Lee
Outdoor Adventure Philosophy Project
Final Paper
SMGT 611-B01
Liberty University
June 29, 2022
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Lee – SMGT 611 Outdoor Adventure Philosophy
Abstract
God created the heavens, earth, and all creatures that inhabit the planet. Man created
industrialization, often exploiting nature under the guise of progress. Urbanization and
industriousness are often seen as positive attributes in the modern world. Humans continue to
become less connected to nature every day. Facebook or Meta is currently pushing a virtual
world of activities where individuals never have to leave their homes but can engage in virtual
worlds isolated and alone. The rise of virtual reality is a path toward destroying the human race.
People are not meant to be inside ninety percent of their lives. People, like plants, need sunlight
and oxygen to thrive. Nature is necessary for the survival of the human race. Those who manage
wild spaces and wilderness areas are stewards of not only the lands but of humanity. Nature must
be protected from those who seek to do her harm. Land managers must manage visitor numbers
to ensure the delicate ecosystems of outdoor regions are not destroyed. Studies have proven that
nature reduces stress, alleviates anxiety, and provides humanity with substantial health and
wellness benefits. A biblical worldview teaches us not to harm, which means not to harm any of
God's creations, essentially preserving the beauty of nature that God created by acting as
custodians of the earth.
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Lee – SMGT 611 Outdoor Adventure Philosophy
Introduction
Nature, wildlands, or the wilderness, whatever the definition, are vital to all species'
survival. We are all ecologically connected to the earth. According to Genesis, God put humans
in the Garden of Eden. Thus, the calming effect nature has on individuals should not be
surprising. It is biologically hardwired through genetics and evolution. Dustin et al. 2018
discussed biomimicry, systems modeled on biological entities and processes, or living in
harmony with nature utilizing designs and systems that mimic nature. Findings included that
parks have more than just aesthetic value. They have profound health and wellness benefits for
the inhabitants of the communities. Outdoor spaces provide benefits that go beyond physical
fitness, including psychological well-being. Natural and protected areas have a profound value to
society and ecological systems for both human and planetary health and wellness.
Wild spaces must be protected by those who can allow for the earthly integrity of the
ecological systems. One does not have power over the other. They must live together holistically
for the survival of both. Humans must be stewards of the land to ensure alleged progress by
building roads and cities does not encroach into wildlands. Wilderness areas must remain wild
because natural spaces have significant value for humanity.
A Brief History of Outdoor Recreation Philosophy
Organized outdoor recreational activities have existed since the beginning of time.
According to Gothein (1928 as cited by Plummer 2009), parks originated in Egypt in
approximately 2340 BC. Greeks enjoyed leisure time, but the Romans took the lead in
emphasizing the importance of free time. As the world industrialized, the concept of leisure
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became more vital to humans. The leisure class emerged during this time as factory workers
spent over sixteen hours working the line and had little time for leisure or recreational pursuits.
Thus, leisure time was a foreign concept to them. However, as defined class structures emerged
during the industrial revolution, so did the idea of leisure time. The wealthy engaged in golf and
tennis as recreational opportunities.
In contemporary society today, leisure or recreation is still viewed as a commodity for
those with more time and money in their lives. Natural environments are where much recreation
takes place and how people perceive nature is the key to how they treat it. The current western
world view allegedly views the world as a commodity for man to exploit or use, according to
Tuan 1971 (cited by Plummer 2009). The term conservation rose in the 1900s, with Muir,
Leopold, Pinchot, and Mather paving the way for the movement. Sustainable development is still
a way to enjoy and use forest resources more ecologically. An ecological worldview tends to
view the earth and its inhabitants as interconnected rather than distinct from one another. God
made the earth and placed each species upon the earth with the intent to live in harmony. The
classification of national parks and wilderness areas came about because humans wanted to
protect natural and wild spaces from disappearing. If progress and urbanization were left
unchecked, they might have spread far into wild areas and erased the vast wildernesses of the
earth. Thus, the need for conservation and stewardship. We only have one earth and limited
natural spaces. Therefore, those lands created by God must be protected from development and
destruction. Sadly, man often interferes with natural processes such as fire management, which
then alters the delicate ecosystems of forests. Fire is needed for the Giant Sequoias cones to
release seeds and grow future forests. When wolves were removed from Yellowstone National
Park, other animal populations then overpopulated and starved. God had a plan when he created
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Lee – SMGT 611 Outdoor Adventure Philosophy
the earth, man, and all the species, but when humans interfere, it can upset the delicate balance
between them. Thus, a sound ecological steward must protect the world's natural and wild spaces
without too much interference and allow nature to be wild. Humans need wild spaces for
wellness. Thus, humans must ensure wilderness areas survive.
Nature’s role in Human Wellness
Significant studies have shown how time spent in nature can alleviate human ailments,
from high blood pressure to stress-related conditions. Bratman et al. 2012 discussed Wilson and
Kellert's prior work with biophilia regarding humans' innate connection to nature due to genetics
and evolution. Their study also indicated that typical Americans spend ninety percent of their
time indoors, away from natural settings. Depression, obesity, and anxiety are at all times high in
our current society, perhaps due to the rapid disconnect from nature. Bratman et al. set out to
research the impact of nature on human cognitive and mental health. They used attention
restoration and stress reduction theories and found that time spent in nature reduced stress
through unconscious response to nature immersion. Schultz et al. 2016 set out to link public
health with access to green spaces or public parks in urban areas. The research was limited but
provided vital data to continue more research that shows a link between health and green spaces.
Tidball 2012 studied human nature interactions during disasters, both at times of war and
natural disasters, such as hurricanes. He found that humans sought out nature to calm them and
based his findings on the fact that humans are part of the ecosystem, not separate from nature.
Nature built resiliency during times of upheaval. Shellman and Hill 2017 studied college students
enrolled in a thirteen-day outdoor education program to measure resilience and mental health.
Findings were consistent with previous studies and indicated the positive effect of outdoor
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programs on resilience, mental health, and overall well-being. Nature can reset the human soul
and induce feelings of wellness. Daniel et al., 2019 topophilia study on the impact of natural
landscapes on imagination found their study added to the literature on how humans experience
natural landscapes and how those experiences inspire them emotionally, intellectually, and
spiritually. Their research was conducted in some of America's most beautiful national parks,
Yosemite, Zion, the Grand Tetons, and Yellowstone. Thus, the results are not surprising. Each
park is breathtaking and awe-inspiring.
Shinrin-Yoku, or forest-bathing, is a well-known method of stress reduction through
nature immersion. Hansen et al. 2017 utilized research from 2007 to 2017 to support their
hypotheses that forest-bathing or Shinrin-Yoku has significant health benefits. As a health-
promotion method and potential universal health model, nature therapy is implicated in reducing
reported modern-day "stress-state" and "technostress." There have been multiple nature studies
involving PTSD and veterans. Duvall and Kaplan 2014 utilized a current study on the value of
nature-based recreation and veterans. Four organizations with twelve different programs were
included in the study. Ninety-eight veterans were recruited and surveyed a week before, a week
after, and approximately a month after participating in these group-based outdoor experiences.
Findings suggested that nature-based veteran group outings significantly positively affected
veterans with serious health issues. Research supports the hypothesis that time spent in nature
has immense health and wellness benefits for humans.
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Stewardship is the Key
Protecting wilderness areas is vital for all inhabitants of the earth. Research has proven
that those who spend time in nature are healthier and happier. The management of public lands
must be integrated with public health as we all coexist on one planet. Limiting access to wild
areas and national parks is one method in the preservation and protection process. Sadly, many
visitors to parks are intent on getting the best selfie for their social media accounts and have little
interest in the area's historical or ecological value. Because of overcrowding, many national
parks are adopting permit lotteries for areas in high demand. Reigner et al. 2012 explored the
success of adaptive management on Half Dome at Yosemite National Park. Utilizing research
gathered from 2008 to 2012 about user information on Half Dome, they could quantify visitor
trends. The researchers used the data to create the permit system currently used at Yosemite to
access Half Dome. Findings indicated that adaptive management could work at high-traffic
destinations in national parks. Zion National Park started a permit system for Angel's Landing
trail this past spring due to overcrowding at the summit. Land and park managers must
proactively prevent overcrowding and resource degradation by ensuring natural spaces remain
wild.
In Dustin et al. 2011 one chapter discusses the grand Sequoia tree General Sherman, who
has lived 2,500 years but must have the soil at its base frequently replenished due to the
abundance of human traffic around its base as the roots are shallow. Thousands of photo
opportunities erode the soil that allows the tree to continue to live. Therein lies the dilemma
faced by park professionals. Should access be limited in order to preserve natural spaces? Garret
Hardin (1968, as cited by Dustin et al. 2011) in the Tragedy of Commons discusses problems
associated with increased demands on limited resources: natural spaces: parks, and wilderness
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areas. Hardin supports coercive measures to save natural spaces by suggesting that human nature
does not value the environment. His critics disagree and believe education can fix the issue—
another critical issue in section one is how the park and recreational planners help hurt the
environment by building more facilities in primitive areas. Clark et al. (1971, as cited by Dustin
et al. 2011) discuss the problems associated when traditional primitive campers move further into
the wild in "Values, Behavior, and Conflict in Modern Camping Culture." Planners react by
building facilities for those who are not primitive campers and thus adversely impact the
environment, forcing the primitive and solitude-seeking naturalists to go deeper into the wild. It
becomes a vicious circle negatively impacting nature. Coercive measures such as permits and
lotteries for overcrowded areas can have positive results for both guests and the land. Reducing
overcrowding enhances the guest experience, lessens issues around guest hostility due to
overcrowding, and lessens the impact on the land.
Alternate transportation systems can be utilized to lessen vehicle traffic in parks. Taff et
al. 2013 R set out to understand national park visitors' perspectives on Alternative Transportation
Systems (ATS). Paper surveys were distributed at specific sites in Yosemite National Park in
2007 and Rocky Mountain National Park in 2008. Twenty-one variables were explored regarding
automated transportation in the parks. Findings confirmed that ease of use and freedom were
important when accessing ATS within the park. However, Yosemite still is struggling with park
overcrowding and has no feasible method for ATS except for a shuttle from Fresno or Merced to
the park. A shuttle up to the Mariposa Grove and personal vehicle traffic is prohibited. Because
of the size of Yosemite, a shuttle bus service like Zion National Park utilizes is not possible, and
the ongoing overcrowded parking lots continue. Another issue for park managers is finding a
method to accurately count the number of visitors who enter the parks each year. Ziesler and
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Pettebone 2018 reviewed how national parks collect visitor use data. The objectives of visitor use
data are to provide statistically valid, reliable, uniform methods of collecting and reporting
visitor use data. Although data has been collected since the early 1900s, the authors point out that
it is unreliable because not all parks have entry points. Thus, accurate numbers are unknown.
Recommendations are for further studies with the hope that new visitor detection technologies
under development by researchers worldwide may provide the NPS with opportunities to
improve visit counts and estimations in the future. An accurate visitor count is crucial for
managers to plan for future preservation and park overcrowding.
The Role of Wilderness in My Life
Nature has always been my happy place. I grew up in nature, hiking, fishing, and
camping with my family. It is where I go when I am stressed or want to escape society. I was
lucky to spend three months on a camping trip through Utah, California, Nevada, Arizona, Idaho,
and Washington. I camped in primitive areas, deeply immersed in nature, living a simple
existence hiking up to twenty miles a day in the great outdoors alone. It was the single best
experience of my life. I share many of my adventures on social media. However, I purposely
never share locations that are remote or primitive because I do not want their pristine nature
disturbed. I am a steward of wild spaces, a fierce protector who believes in coercive limitations
to protect the beautiful natural wonders God created. Sadly, coercive measures, permits, and
limiting the number of visitors to destinations are needed because not everyone values wild
spaces the same. Recently, Yosemite National Park was damaged by graffiti on a popular trail,
and law enforcement is still looking for the perpetrators. I cannot comprehend what inspires an
individual to spray paint rocks on a trail in a national park. What would compel someone to want
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to destroy nature? Throughout my travels, I sadly have witnessed much damage and disregard
for natural spaces.
My love of wild spaces is why I am in this program, not so much for outdoor sports but to
be a steward of outdoor spaces in the land in a management capacity, perhaps as a national park
superintendent someday or to help others through nature immersion programs. I cannot imagine
a world without a vast wilderness area to roam. Primitive spaces are sacred spaces. My personal
outdoor adventure philosophy is to leave nature wild and to be a steward or custodian of God's
creation. To protect primitive areas from becoming extinct due to either overuse or eradication
for other purposes. Nothing makes me happier than hiking a new trail and finding new natural
wonders that inspire awe within me. I am currently struggling to be back in society and yearn to
be in a tent in the middle of Death Valley. Nature has that much of a pull on me. Even though I
am currently on the Big Island of Hawaii, I have not had time to enjoy nature, and it actually is
very stressful for me. As others need oxygen to live, I need nature to feel whole.
Conclusion
Outdoor Adventure Professionals must be Stewards of the Wilderness
Outdoor adventure professionals must be stewards of the land. To live and play in the
wild is a privilege. God gave the world the majestic mountains, valleys, deserts, lakes, and
oceans to enjoy and share with all living creatures. Plummer 2009 concludes Outdoor Recreation
with a line about the magical feeling that the outdoors gives to those who participate in outdoor
recreation. It stands to reason those who love nature and pursue a career in outdoor recreation
will protect nature, but is it naive to think this? Some outdoor adventures cross ethical and moral
boundaries when adventures become commodities or publicity stunts. The 1996 Mount Everest
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disaster was in part caused by greed. Guides allowed individuals to climb the mountain who
were not physically or mentally conditioned to attempt such a feat. It is widely believed they did
so for monetary gain, charging as much as $65,000 per guest just for guide services. Sadly, even
though this event happened twenty-five years ago, it is still an issue on Everest. Sherpas believe
the mountain deserves respect, and respect is in decline due to the commercialization of Everest.
Respect is in decline in many wild and or primitive areas. Why would someone drive
hours to Yosemite National Park to hike up a trail and spray paint rocks? What motivates these
despicable humans? Park managers need to add "see something, say something" signage to trails
to encourage vigilance and stop this violent behavior toward nature. This is why outdoor
recreation professionals must pave the way for programs that get kids out into nature at a young
age. Programs that immerse the citizens of the world in nature and allow humans to feel the
magic of nature. It is incomprehensible to me why anyone would "tag" or graffiti anything in a
national park. Who hates nature?? Sadly, many do, as over half the eight thousand wildfires in
California in 2021 were started by humans. Thus, sadly maybe not everyone feels the soothing
touch of nature. Perhaps, spending ninety percent of their lives indoors has done irreparable
damage to cognitive function, which leads to evil acts. Ecclesiasticus 7:1, do no evil, so no harm
will come to you. Therefore, it is the responsibility of outdoor recreation professionals to be the
custodians of nature. It is their duty to protect the land, and the fragile ecosystems, to teach
generations to come about the profound beauty of nature and the benefits it provides to all living
things.
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References
The Holy Bible, New International Version (2011). Zondervan. (Original work published 1978)
Bratman, G. N., Hamilton, J. P., & Daily, G. C. (2012). The impacts of nature experience on
human cognitive function and mental health. Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 1249(1), 118-136.
Daniel, B., Shores, J., & Faircloth, B. (2019). The Impact of Natural Landscapes on Inspiration:
A Topophilic Study. Journal of Outdoor Recreation, Education & Leadership, 11(3), 248-
250.
Dustin, D.L. (2011). Stewards of Access / Custodians of Choice (4th Edition). Sagamore
Publishing LLC.
Dustin, D., Zajchowski, C., Gatti, E., Bricker, K., Brownlee, M. T. J., & Schwab, K. (2018).
Greening Health: The Role of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism in Health Promotion. Journal
of Park & Recreation Administration, 36(1), 113-122.
Duvall, J., & Kaplan, R. (2014). Enhancing the well-being of veterans using extended group-
based nature recreation experiences. Journal of Rehabilitation Research and
Development, 51(5), 685-696.
Hansen, M. M., Jones, R., & Tocchini, K. (2017). Shinrin-Yoku (Forest Bathing) and Nature
Therapy: A State-of-the-Art Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 14(8), 851.
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Pettebone, D., Newman, P., & Lawson, S. R. (2010). Estimating visitor use at attraction sites and
trailheads in Yosemite National Park using automated visitor counters. Landscape & Urban
Planning, 97(4), 229-238. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.06.006
Plummer, R. (2009). Outdoor recreation: An introduction. Routledge.
Reigner, N., Lawson, S., Meldrum, B., Pettebone, D., Newman, P., Gibson, A., & Kiser, B.
(2012). Adaptive Management of Visitor Use on Half Dome, An Example of
Effectiveness. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 30(3), 64-78.
Schultz, C. L., Layton, R., Edwards, M. B., Bocarro, J. N., Moore, R. L., Tepperberg, S., Bality,
A., & Floyd, M. F. (2016). Potential Measures for Linking Park and Trail Systems to Public
Health. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 34(1), 4-23.
Shellman, A., & Hill, E. (2017). Flourishing through Resilience: The Impact of a College
Outdoor Education Program. Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 35(4), 59-68.
Taff, D., Newman, P., Pettebone, D., White, D. D., Lawson, S. R., Monz, C., & Vagias, W. M.
(2013). Dimensions of alternative transportation experience in Yosemite and Rocky
Mountain National Parks. Journal of Transport Geography, 30, 37-46.
Tidball, K. G. (2012). Urgent Biophilia; Human-Nature Interactions and Biological Attractions in
Disaster Resilience. Ecology and Society, 17(2)
Ziesler, P. S., & Pettebone, D. (2018). Counting on Visitors: A Review of Methods and
Applications for the National Park Service's Visitor Use Statistics Program. Journal of Park
& Recreation Administration, 36(1), 39-5
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