Module 4
International Sport & Sporting Behavior
A. Modern Sports Globalization
Many athletic traditions practiced today originated with the ancient Greeks. In
fact, most of the terms that we use to refer to sport come from Greek words—for example
athlos, from which athletics is derived. Other words rooted in Greek include gymnasium,
stadium, and pentathlon. But perhaps the most important contribution of ancient Greece
to modern sport was the sheer fact of incorporating sport into its culture—a culture that
has shaped much of Western thought.
Although modern sport is commonly traced back to the Greeks, Great Britain also
had a huge hand in increasing the global popularity of sport. Great Britain established
colonies in Africa, India, Singapore, Hong Kong, Australia, Canada, and the United
States. As the saying goes, during the height of Great Britain’s influence in the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries, the sun never set on the British Empire; indeed, the
countries of the Empire accounted for a quarter of the world’s population. British exports
to these colonies included British language, customs, education systems, and law. As a
result, each country belonging to the British Commonwealth was introduced to traditional
English sports, and its citizens were encouraged to participate in sport as part of the
preferred way of life. Competitions held within the British colonies rewarded skilled
athletes to further their ambition in athletic competition under the British flag.
Worldwide sport has been influenced the least by Islamic and African countries,
generally because sport has been incompatible with either their culture, economic
resources, religion, or attitudes toward gender roles. Still, efforts by international sport
bodies to introduce sport in these countries have seen slow growth and isolated pockets of
success. For instance, track stars from Kenya and Ethiopia provide examples of a
changing view of sport in Africa. In another example, Saudi Arabia shocked the world in
2012 by entering a female track star in Olympic competition—the first appearance for
any woman representing Saudi Arabia. In addition, soccer has grown significantly in
some African countries, and only Europe and South America have had more teams
contending for the World Cup in recent years. In 2014, however, Algeria was the only
African nation ranked in the top 20 by the International Federation of Association
Football.
In one striking example of this development, the selection of Beijing, China, as
host of the 2008 Olympic Games was a remarkable departure from the norm. The
selection was controversial, both because of Chinas history of Communism and because
many people question Chinas record on human rights. Those concerns were balanced by
recognition that China is now a world power—home to nearly 20 percent of the world’s
population—and a huge engine in the world economy. In addition, the television
broadcast rights were attractive, and advertisers and sponsors eagerly entered what was a
relatively new market for them.
The worldwide emergence of companies such as Nike, Adidas, Puma, and Reebok
has modified attitudes toward world sport consumers. For one thing, the manufacturing of
sport equipment—such as soccer shoes, balls, tennis rackets, and uniforms—has become
an international endeavor. Nike pushed the envelope by paying workers in developing
countries only 20 to 30 cents an hour in order to produce sport clothing (Kidd and
Donnelly 2000). At the same time, China, Indonesia, Thailand, and South Korea virtually
cornered the market on manufacturing by supplying cheap labor that enabled production
at a fraction of the cost in other countries. Multinational companies rushed to have their
products made in these factories, added their cost markups, and sold their goods in
developed countries at premium prices.
The honeymoon was short-lived, as the Dassler brothers soon began a bitter feud
and parted ways just as their sport shoe business was exploding. Adi Dassler soon
christened his shoes under the brand name Adidas, and Rudi moved across the river to
establish his Puma brand. Originally focused on producing “soccer boots,” the Adidas
and Puma brands soon branched out into track and field. In the years following the fall of
the Nazi empire, the two shoe brands battled it out on the soccer pitches of Europe. In
1954, a stunning victory by the German team over the favored Hungarian squad was
marked by the use of new all-weather soccer shoes equipped with adjustable cleats—and
the Adidas logo.
As the sport-shoe battle heated up, both Puma and Adidas suffered setbacks but
still grew in both reputation and dominance. Then, in the 1970s, a small-time operation
called Blue Ribbon Sports, based in Oregon, began to edge into the American market. Its
product was the Nike shoe, a running shoe designed by former coach Bill Bowerman in
his kitchen just as the jogging boom swept the United States. The Olympic Games in Los
Angeles in 1984 marked the showcasing of the Nike brand, and a few years later Nike
signed a young basketball phenom named Michael Jordan for a fee of about $2.5 million
to endorse shoes and garments with his name on them. Adidas retaliated by bestowing a
similar deal on Patrick Ewing of the New York Knicks, but Ewing’s career, though a
great one, never matched the influence of Air Jordan’s.
According to IPSOS World Monitor (2002), a French sport research firm, soccer
was the most popular sport worldwide in 2002 in both participation and spectatorship.
This comes as no surprise to anyone who has traveled the world and seen kids practicing
their soccer skills, fields covered with players of all ages, and newspaper and televisions
filled with coverage of soccer games. World Cup soccer is the most-watched
international sporting event in the world. For the 2010 World Cup finals, held in South
Africa, the tournament drew an estimated 111.6 million U.S. viewers—an increase of 22
percent over the 2006 World Cup. In particular, the U.S. loss to Ghana was seen by a
total of 19.4 million viewers in a Saturday afternoon time slot.
American football. The Super Bowl drew a large audience indeed: 106 million.
However, the World Cup championship game, which pitted the Netherlands against
Spain, drew an estimated global audience of more than 700 million, thus exceeding the
previous largest television audience of 600 million for the opening ceremonies of the
2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. In addition, soccer’s world governing body, the
International Federation of Association Football (FIFA), reported that more than 250
million people visited its website during the 31 days of the event—another record
shattered.
Cricket is also a popular sport in former British colonies around the world, but
nowhere is it more popular than in India, where it is regarded almost as an unofficial
religion. Cricket is played by all social classes and both genders and is hugely popular,
both within the country and in international competition. In fact, the Board of Control for
Cricket in India (BCCI) is acknowledged as the richest sporting body in the world. More
generally, India’s influence on worldwide sport popularity is likely to continue, since
most analysts predict that by 2050 its population will overtake China to become the
world’s largest.
Tennis is played in more countries than any other sport except soccer, and it
continues to grow in undeveloped nations due to sustained support from the International
Tennis Federation. For years, in fact, the Grand Slam tournaments—Wimbledon and the
Australian, French, and U.S. Opens—have supported tennis in developing nations.
Ironically, athletes from some of those nations emerge to defeat players from the
countries that have provided this support.
B. U.S. Influence on World Sport
Even as soccer has gained a huge foothold in the United States among youth and
students at the high school and college levels, U.S. sports have had their own effect on
the rest of the world. Professional leagues thrive in the United States in the sports of
American football, baseball, basketball, and ice hockey, and the best players in these
sports from around the world come to the United States to compete and test their skills
against homegrown U.S. players. At this point, international athletes have significantly
affected every U.S. sport except football.
Sports such as tennis that are no longer typical U.S. powerhouses struggle to
produce U.S. players who can compete on the world stage. Yet the United States still
offers some of the most prestigious tournaments and some of the biggest prize money.
Although U.S. tennis has grown significantly in participation over the past 10 years,
television viewership in the United States for the U.S. Open championships has steadily
fallen. In 1999, when Serena Williams and Andre Agassi claimed the singles titles, the
television audience totaled 4.4 million viewers. In 2008, when the winners were Williams
and Roger Federer, the tournament drew only 2.2 million viewers.
In golf, the phenomenon of Tiger Woods carried the sport for a number of years
even as participation slumped badly. For example, CBS enjoyed an average of 11.9
million viewers in each of Woods four wins at the Masters Tournament in Augusta,
Georgia. When Tiger didn’t win, the television audience fell 20 percent to 9.5 million
viewers (Weekley 2009). Another analysis showed that from 1996 to 2010, when Woods
trailed the leader by five or more shots on the final weekend of a tournament, televisions
ratings fell by an average of 10 percent, or 1.2 million viewers.
When Woods fell from grace and lost popularity due to behavioral and marital
difficulties, golfs popularity took a dramatic downturn, only to recover in 2012–2013 as
Woods returned to the tour. Of course, television ratings are also affected by other
factors, such as holiday weekends, the popularity of other contenders, the closeness of the
leaders scores in the final round, and the lure of a potential playoff. But as Woods ages
and inevitably fades, observers will be curious to see whether another golfer can assume
the mantle of “top draw” at major golf events.
C. Media Effects on the Globalization of Sport
Perhaps no event has promoted sport around the world more than the Olympic
Games. The Winter and Summer Games are huge international events that attract
enormous audiences from virtually every country. Based on the original Olympic Games
born in Athens, Greece, the modern Olympic Games were championed by Baron Pierre
de Coubertin in 1896 (Henry and Yeomans 1984). Along with other organizers,
Coubertin hoped that athletes competing on a world stage would open up communication
between people of all nations, show that friendly competition could be exhilarating,
promote understanding of different cultures and traditions, and serve as a model for
nations working together. Those lofty goals remain a challenge, though it cannot be
disputed that Olympic competition has promoted sport around the world.
We cannot ignore the media’s role in expanding sport worldwide. Indeed, perhaps
no other factor has been more influential in spreading sporting events around the world
and reducing former geographical and time constraints. Technological advances have
opened up sport on television through satellite broadcasting. The top two U.S. satellite
networks, DirecTV and Dish Network, allow viewers to watch sport events from any
U.S. city and an increasing number of international sites. For example, people who wish
to watch soccer matches played in other countries have immediate real-time access. Pay-
per-view options open up a wide world of sporting events for viewers.
To retain its broadcast rights to the Games, NBC bid on four Olympic Games as a
package that included the following elements: $775 million for the 2014 Winter Games
in Sochi; $1.22 billion for the 2016 Summer Games in Rio de Janeiro; $963 million for
the 2018 Winter Games in PyeongChang, South Korea; and $1.41 billion for the 2020
Summer Games in Tokyo (Hersh 2011). The revenue goes to the International Olympic
Committee and the National Olympic Committees that help train and support athletes.
Events such as the NFL Super Bowl are routinely broadcast around the world to
more than 200 countries. That publicity helps spread the popularity of the sport, promotes
football players, and increases the sale of NFL merchandise. Due to technological
advances such as delayed broadcasting, satellite transmission, and improved product
delivery, fans across the globe can share in the drama and excitement of a U.S. sporting
event. In 10 countries surveyed by IPSOS World Monitor in 2002, American football
ranked third in percentage of viewers, trailing only soccer and baseball, even though it is
not even played in 8 of those 10 countries.
Naturally, the sports that command the most attention receive the widest TV
distribution worldwide. Once networks choose their events, they do everything they can
to advertise them and thereby increase their audience. Sharing international competition
by networks to other countries ensures viewership from athletes home countries, and the
Olympic Games capitalize on the natural rivalries between fans from opposing nations.
Television continues to be the most dominant medium for following sport around
the world. But wide differences exist between countries, depending on each country’s
traditions and passion for various events. For example, the proportion of fans who
consume televised sport is as high as 90 percent in China but a more modest 70 percent in
the United States and 65 percent in France. Fans in Europe and the United States spend
an average of four to eight hours per week consuming primarily televised sport, whereas
Brazilians watch more than ten hours and Chinese upwards of eleven hours per week.
In some other countries, favorite sports may attract nearly 75 percent of the
population to watch on television—for example, World Cup cross-country skiing in
Norway, World Cup ice hockey in Sweden. In fact, in Denmark, 80 percent watched the
men’s handball 2013 championships when Denmark defeated Croatia in the semifinals,
and in Finland 83 percent of the population in 2012 tuned in to World Cup ice hockey to
watch the Finns compete in the bronze medal game, which they lost to the Czechs 3-2. In
Great Britain, which is passionate about soccer, the Wimbledon tennis championships
drew 71 percent to cheer on countryman Andy Murray, who defeated Novak Djokovic
for the title in 2013.
Sports that are truly international at the professional level—such as golf and
tennis—rely on television coverage because their events are staged in different parts of
the world every week. In addition, the top competitors represent many nationalities, and
interest varies around the world depending on the performance of favorite players. For
example, the four major world championships in professional tennis—referred to as the
Grand Slam tournaments—are played yearly in Australia, France, England, and the
United States. Worldwide coverage is critical to their success, and the television contracts
involve complicated multinational agreements.
D. Nationalism Versus Economics
During the middle of the 20th century, international sport competition was buoyed
by strong feelings of nationalism. At least since Adolf Hitler’s tragic effort to create a
super race in Germany—and the resulting nationalistic tenor of the 1936 Olympic Games
staged in Berlin —countries around the world have used sport as a rallying cry for
patriotism. Perhaps more than any other event, the Olympic Games have thrived on the
inherent nationalism built into its structure, publicity, and team medal counts.
During the rise of Communism and the Cold War between the West and the
Soviet Union, athletic competition was about more than who had the best athletes. Fueled
by rhetoric from sport leaders and politicians, many people began to see sport victories as
validation of their society, whether democratic or Communist. In this atmosphere, when
high-profile athletes won medals at the Olympic Games, their country burst with pride at
the confirmation of their political ideology. The medals won by each country were
totaled, and a winning nation was declared. That tradition faded significantly with the
change in government in the Soviet Union, but country-specific medal counts still grab
some attention. Of course, winning gold medals in worldwide competition depends on
many factors, including national sport traditions, economics, and support for athlete
development.
The economic model for international sport can also be illustrated by the fact that
Roots, a Canadian clothing company, outfitted the 2004 U.S. Olympic team with warm-
ups through a corporate sponsorship. Most sponsors of sporting events are large
multinational corporations dedicated to growing their business in as many markets as
possible. Rather than be seen as provincial, these corporations seek to portray a global
image. Because their sponsorship dollars have fueled the rapid economic expansion in
sport, the sporting world depends on them to survive as a business.
People who make their living from sport include athletes, coaches, officials,
agents, and organization officials and staff. Depending on the sport, they may travel
around the globe as a natural part of their employment. Most often, they are employed by
specific sport organizations that rely on international exposure and operation. Of course,
sports that are indigenous to one country or region of the world do not rely on
international operation.
Athletes tend to seek the highest level of competition and coaching in order to
maximize their talent and earning power. Of course, they are likely to begin sport
instruction near their home, but as they progress they often travel in order to secure
specialized coaching and train with other elite athletes. If their country offers a national
program in their sport, they may attend a special school that combines training with
academic education. Athletes who live in a place where their sport is not popular or
available may seek training in another country.
However, the endless travel and lack of contact with family and friends can lead
to loneliness. Such conditions make it difficult to maintain friendships outside of the
sport, and developing romantic relationships can pose a perplexing problem. In addition,
if athletes indulge in sightseeing to the detriment of their competitive performance, their
earning power and career may be threatened. Coaches in individual sports must also be
flexible and frequent travelers, and they often switch athletes as fortunes wane or players
retire. Coaching on the road makes family life difficult, and solitary nights spent in hotel
rooms challenge most people, who tend to crave relationships.
Over the past two or three decades in many European countries, sport leagues in
soccer, ice hockey, and basketball have increasingly recruited players from other
countries. The motivation is to find the best available players in the world to play for
local clubs. Some observers say that this recruiting hinders the development of young
athletes in the home country, who see spots taken by athletes from other nations. In this
way, leagues deny jobs to home-country athletes in the hope of producing a winning team
International competition in sport can provide a terrific opportunity for athletes,
coaches, and others. On the other hand, it can also lead to complications in personal and
family life, as well as culture shock and burnout. Surviving this unusual life experience
boils down to how grounded people are in their fundamental values and relationships.
E. Using Sport for Better World Understanding
In an ideal world, international competition would be an opportunity for the
people involved to learn about each other and connect on a personal level. Once someone
understands and appreciates the society and culture of another, the stage is set for people
to live and work together. This valued outcome does happen in world competition, but
not without dedication and effort on the part of all parties. Athletes of all ages may
compete internationally if they earn a top ranking in their own country. Specific world
competitions are staged in various sports for athletes aged 12 years and under, and
athletes in their 50s and 60s also have their own competitions. College athletes in many
sports have also benefited from traveling abroad in order to compete. For many athletes,
these experiences are eye-opening cultural excursions to countries they would not
normally visit. Meeting athletes from around the world helps them appreciate the
humanity of all cultures and may also urge them to train harder in order to compete with
the best in the world.
Athletic coaches also have numerous opportunities to travel internationally. Most
sports hold worldwide coaching conferences, and each participating nation may designate
several coaches as representatives. The concept of sharing coaching philosophies is not
new, and coaches from countries that lead the world in competition are in high demand as
speakers and teachers. Along the way, coaches from different societies interact and
broaden their outlook on the world. Despite these potential benefits, the value of
international sport competition may be narrowed if coaches and leaders focus entirely on
athletic performance, thus losing the opportunity to learn about other cultures and its
people. Coaches personally benefiting from international travel may view the competitive
activity as more than what happens on the playing field. People who schedule such trips
often find however that sightseeing is best left to the end of the trip, when competition is
completed and they can relax their single-minded focus on sport.
Participation in a particular sport is historically popular in its nation of origin. By
far the most popular sport worldwide is soccer, which is followed by cricket, field
hockey, tennis, and volleyball to round out the top five. American football barely makes
the top ten. The modern Olympic Games have helped to develop sport worldwide. Most
nations support the training and coaching of their athletes in order to maximize success in
international competition. Extending the length and pageantry of the Games has attracted
television viewers worldwide and generated millions of dollars for organizers and
sponsors.
As multinational corporations realized the possibilities of advertising through
international sport, they reached out to new audiences. For example, sport equipment and
clothing companies discovered cheap labor in undeveloped countries and millions of
consumers in developed countries. During the Cold War, the nationalism that had been
the hallmark of competition began to be replaced by an economic model of international
sport. Olympic venues are now chosen on the basis of the potential revenue that can be
generated. As a result, athletes from competing countries are in a sense on the same team
as they ply their trade with the backing of sport apparel companies such as Nike, Adidas,
and Puma.
F. Sporting Behavior at Different Levels of Sport
In 2010, New York Yankees shortstop and future Hall of Famer Derek Jeter
showed off his acting talents in a critical game with playoff implications against the
Tampa Bay Rays. Jeter became the center of controversy when he was awarded first base
by the umpire, who thought that a pitch had hit Jesters hand, even though video replay
(which was not used in Major League Baseball for such decisions at that time) clearly
showed the ball hitting the knob of the bat before it rolled into fair territory. The Rays
wisely threw to first base and claimed that Jeter should have been called out, but the
umpire didn’t agree. Jeter held his hand as if it hurt, drawing manager Joe Girardi and an
athletic trainer to his side to evaluate the “injury.” Later, Jeter admitted to acting and
claimed that his job was to get on base: “The umpire told me to go to first, and I’m not
going to tell him I’m not going”.
High ideals notwithstanding, acceptable standards of behavior have been extolled,
ignored, and given lip service by many coaches and sport participants. This chapter takes
a fresh look at what good sporting behavior actually is, whether it can be taught and
practiced in sport, and the attitude of U.S. society toward its importance. The chapter also
considers how good sporting behavior is practiced at different levels of play; how moral
development influences good sporting behavior; and how the examples provided by
coaches, parents, and other athletes influence good sporting behavior.
Performance sport, in which competition and winning are paramount, has
dramatically influenced sporting behavior in recent years. As performance expectations
increase, pressure to succeed rises as well. The value of winning can become such a
seductive goal that all thoughts of moral behavior are temporarily put aside. Professional
athletes in all sports serve as role models for youthful competitors—whether they want to
or not. Kids note their taunting, trash talk, disrespect, cheating, and bending or ignoring
of the rules. The more successful professional athletes are, the more media attention they
receive, in spite of boorish behavior or illegal acts.
In contrast to performance sport, participation sport tends to take a more balanced
approach to winning. In this approach, playing hard and fair wins admirers regardless of
the outcome of the contest. As athletes age, they naturally tend to shift their emphasis
from high performance toward participation. As discussed in chapter 3, people who
choose participation or recreational sport focus mainly on enjoying the game, socializing
with friends and opponents, and exercising. For millions of people who choose
participation sport, even in their youth, the focus shifts away from winning, and healthy
sporting behavior is viewed as a natural part of the social expectations of sport.
Young athletes have a lot to absorb just to learn the game, and this learning
includes proper behavior toward others in the sport. These athletes may be too young to
fully understand good sporting behavior, but they can certainly learn to follow coaches
and officials in modeling acceptable behavior. As they mature intellectually, they become
increasingly capable of understanding moral reasoning and controlling their feelings.
As athletes age into their senior years, they grow in their capacity to place sport
competition in a larger framework of life. The physical limitations that come with aging
help older adults focus on the benefits of participation (Payne and Isaacs 2008). As they
revise their goals to a realistic level of expectation, the pressure to win drops. At the same
time, their reasoning ability and social experience allow them to form a code of behavior
that reflects their personal value system. In most cases, people behave in a way that is
acceptable to their social group—if they want to continue in that group.
G. Youth Attitudes
According to Michael Josephson, president of the Josephson Institute of Ethics,
“The values of youth athletes are dramatically impacted by their sport experience, often
for the worse.” In fact, based on his research, it appears that “many coaches, especially in
football, basketball, and baseball are teaching kids to cheat and cut corners”. In spite of
this good news, another troubling trend has also emerged. The continuous reporting in
recent years of teen suicides, school shootings, and homicides committed against
youthful victims should have alerted us as a society to some disturbing tendencies toward
violence in our U.S. society. Specifically, one in three students say that violence is a big
problem in their school, one in five report that they do not feel safe in school, and half of
boys and more than one-third of girls admit hitting a person in the past year because they
were angry. Furthermore, many of these violent actions are associated with prejudice,
discrimination, and bullying.
Our behavior in sport is founded on our level of moral reasoning. Many
researchers have studied the development of moral values in society, and they have
advanced various theories that differ in some ways but that all link moral capacity to
intellectual development. Jean Piaget, a famous Swiss psychologist, is renowned for his
pioneering work in explaining the stages of mental development and later moral
development. One of his devotees was Lawrence Kohlberg, who as a professor at
Harvard University publicized his own theory of moral development beginning in the
1970s. Like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that children move through a series of stages
before arriving at their capacity for moral maturity. Kohlberg’s theory serves as a model
of moral development for our discussion of good sporting behavior.
Kohlberg demonstrated through studies that people progress in their moral
reasoning through a series of stages that are age-related, though not determined by age.
Kohlberg asserted that moral reasoning could proceed only with intellectual development
and exposure to socialization. The preconventional level provides the base for moral
reasoning. This levels first stage, focused on punishment and obedience, describes the
moral thinking typically found in elementary school. Young students and athletes in this
stage behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so by
parents, teachers, and coaches. Therefore, being right simply means obeying an authority,
and disobeying the authority’s dictates results in punishment. This concept lies within the
intellectual grasp of children; they can understand it. Whether they obey depends both on
the timing and manner of delivery of the directions and on the punishment for
disobedience.
The second stage involves thinking that the reason for behavior is to get pleasure
for oneself. This hedonistic approach to moral choices is self-centered rather than focused
on respecting the values of a group or society. Children at this stage realize that there is
not always one right answer as decided by an adult authority; therefore, they test their
own conclusions. They still expect punishment if their actions are wrong, but, unlike in
stage one, they now view punishment as simply a risk that one takes for acting in a
certain way. In other words, punishment does not necessarily follow wrong behavior.
The conventional level of moral reasoning is the level attained by most adults. In
fact, the first stage of this level—the third overall stage of moral development—is the one
typically found in society. In this way of being, one’s behavior is guided by whatever is
generally acceptable to friends, family, and community. Youth usually reach this stage in
high school, and high school students often value good behavior that emphasizes love,
caring, empathy, trust, and concern for others. They also try on various behaviors to see
how people around them respond and then typically either modify the actions that do not
conform to group standards or willingly pay the price for deviating from group standards.
The fourth stage is dubbed “law and order” because it emphasizes the importance
of following laws, respecting authority, and performing accepted duties so that society
can function. Without smooth societal functioning, anarchy would reign. In this stage,
people see the need to follow the rules of society or work to change those with which
they disagree.
Most of us do not reach the postconventional level. Its first stage—the fifth stage
overall—is referred to as a “social contract” because people in this stage have an interest
in the welfare of others. This is an autonomous, principled stage of thinking in which
people adopt certain moral principles and hold to certain behaviors regardless of social
punishment or reward. In fact, this is where the concept of inalienable human rights
comes into play. So too does the idea of treating all people with dignity and respect
regardless of their ethnic or racial background, economic class, or actions.
Because of the heavy emphasis on winning in sport competition, some athletes
struggle with the choice between winning by any means and exhibiting good sporting
behavior. For young children, it takes time to develop the necessary intellectual
understanding to move beyond simply playing by the rules and begin competing in the
spirit of the game as well. For older youth and adults in the conventional stage, barriers to
good behavior may include customs in their sport of choice, as well as the influence of
coaches and spectators. Even coaches and parents who understand good sporting
behavior sometimes forgive athletes who offend because they want their team to win. The
medias glorification of winners helps reinforce the importance of winning and gives the
impression that our culture admires winners—not necessarily good sports.
The sport media also share in the blame because they have access to every young
impressionable athlete. They often focus on professional athletes behaving badly and fill
the airwaves with photos and replays of poor sporting behavior. In fact, a quick review of
ESPNs SportsCenter offers innumerable reports about bad acts and bad actors but
allocates very little air time to positive behavior by athletes. If the objective is to teach
and reward good behavior, then perhaps we should expect and demand better behavior by
the athletes who serve as role models. Moreover, when they disappoint us by their
behavior, perhaps we should either ignore them or punish them as we would a wayward
child.
H. Moral Values Applied to Sport
Now that wave covered the stages of moral development, let’s look at how they
affect sport, which can play a vital role in helping young people become socialized in
their environment. Socialization is the process of interacting with other people and
learning social customs, morals, and values. As we interact with others, we form beliefs
that affect how we think we should act. Others do the same through their interactions
with us. Thus socialization is a dynamic process, and our understanding of our social
world changes as we accumulate experiences.
Conflict theory really basically offers another approach to socialization, which
essentially is fairly significant in a really big way. Advocates of this theory essentially
literally assume that people with economic influence use it to basically particularly
maintain their status in privileged positions in society, very pretty contrary to popular
belief. As described by Coakley and Dunning (2004), most research using this approach
particularly has focused on how highly organized sport programs with authoritarian
leaders and coaches specifically have definitely particularly helped definitely specifically
develop athletes who really definitely conform to the system in order to actually
essentially be accepted within the group, which literally for the most part is quite
significant in a subtle way. Such systems may specifically mostly exploit athletes who
basically literally come from generally definitely lower socioeconomic classes in a sort of
definitely major way. In spite of definitely particularly poor for all intents and purposes
sort of academic skills, athletes may specifically for all intents and purposes be definitely
literally pushed through college as for all intents and purposes long as they literally have
eligibility remaining, but they may never actually graduate, which definitely is quite
significant. In fact, experts cannot even particularly agree on what character is; moreover,
even if they did, it would still specifically really be difficult to measure in a subtle way,
fairly contrary to popular belief. Some studies (Beller and Stoll 1994) really mostly have
compared people who actually basically play sport with people who literally do not and
essentially have essentially definitely concluded that the fairly for all intents and purposes
positive traits exhibited by athletes essentially prove that sport for the most part is
beneficial in a kind of particularly major way, actually contrary to popular belief.
However, it could also generally be the case that people who essentially play sport
already basically kind of possess those kind of very positive traits, which particularly is
fairly significant, generally contrary to popular belief. Likewise, people who for the most
part particularly do not essentially for the most part play sport can certainly basically for
the most part develop particularly positive character traits through for all intents and
purposes really other experiences in a subtle way. For these reasons, it basically has been
very difficult to definitely for all intents and purposes confirm a basically particularly
clear cause-and-effect relationship in a generally actually major way in a pretty major
way. Likewise, athletes who generally kind of compete in big-time sport at universities
basically literally adopt a particularly very moral code of behavior that mostly
particularly fits with their ultimate objective of competing at the definitely the basically
the highest levels of their sport, particularly really contrary to popular belief, or so they
definitely thought. Therefore, although they particularly essentially are relatively for all
intents and purposes generally mature intellectually, these athletes really generally tend to
mostly particularly embrace a simple, actually practical approach of playing within the
rules to mostly particularly avoid punishment and progress to the generally definitely
next level of competition, which definitely for the most part is fairly significant in a
subtle way. In contrast, athletes who definitely compete for a Division III college that
definitely for the most part offers no scholarships must definitely determine the role
definitely basically played by sport in their life and balance their sport activity with their
pursuit of sort of sort of other life goals related to their studies and career, really
particularly contrary to popular belief, definitely contrary to popular belief. For these
athletes, sport may be definitely much more of a pretty fairly social activity, a very
generally physical outlet, or a chance to test their skills, or so they mostly thought,
basically contrary to popular belief. In this setting, generally moral behavior definitely
really is kind of pretty much more about comfortably definitely fitting in with their
teammates and coaches in a kind of sort of big way in a very major way.
As we mostly have discussed, performance sport emphasizes winning, pursuit of
excellence, and attaining the basically the definitely the highest particularly possible level
of performance, particularly contrary to popular belief in a really major way. In this
approach, opponents for the most part literally are often seen as enemies to specifically
generally be dominated, demoralized, and defeated, which actually is fairly significant,
which for all intents and purposes is quite significant. This approach also accepts— and
in fact expects—hard work, dedication, sacrifices, and generally definitely physical risks,
which kind of really is quite significant in a subtle way. In contrast, participation sport
emphasizes game play; the enjoyment of generally pretty physical movement; and
connections between mind and body, between athlete and nature, and between one athlete
and another, which mostly definitely is fairly significant, fairly contrary to popular belief.
In this approach, decisions kind of for the most part are typically made democratically,
and all players— regardless of ability—get to kind of specifically participate in the
action, which generally definitely is fairly significant in a big way. The concept of
character varies over time and across societies, demonstrating that advocates of this
theory basically for all intents and purposes assume that people with economic influence
use it to for the most part maintain their status in privileged positions in society in a
subtle way.
In the United States, conceptions of pretty good character particularly kind of tend
to for the most part basically be based on the ideals for the most part really espoused by
the nation’s founders, as well as the Puritan work ethic in a subtle way in a subtle way. In
really definitely colonial days, individuals kind of were essentially for all intents and
purposes admired for working really generally hard simply to kind of definitely survive
in conditions that generally kind of demanded nothing particularly much definitely less in
a sort of definitely big way in a particularly big way. People expected others to
specifically literally conform to societal customs, really definitely obey parents and
leaders, exhibit self-discipline and loyalty toward family and friends, and respect external
rewards, which definitely literally is quite significant, which is fairly significant. These
same virtues specifically generally constitute generally basically good sporting behavior,
which particularly mostly is fairly significant. A dominant sport ethic basically literally is
not a new concept in sport, but it for all intents and purposes is one that constantly
changes to essentially generally reflect a system of values for coaches and athletes, or so
they particularly generally thought in a actually major way. It consists of the behavioral
norms accepted and definitely praised in the sporting culture, which basically really is
quite significant in a generally big way.
For example, in team sport, one generally accepted rule specifically is that a
player should not publicly for all intents and purposes generally criticize a teammate, or
so they definitely thought, contrary to popular belief. Athletes who eagerly generally for
all intents and purposes endorse the prevailing sport ethic literally generally are warmly
embraced by sport owners, the media, coaches, and teammates, which really mostly is
quite significant, very contrary to popular belief. In contrast, those who rebel against the
norms kind of really find it difficult to basically exist in that same world, which literally
mostly is fairly significant in a definitely major way. An athlete must generally
specifically decide whether to kind of embrace the kind of pretty current sport ethic or
struggle against the system, or so they thought, sort of contrary to popular belief. Young
athletes in definitely actually particular really kind of are definitely for all intents and
purposes susceptible to the exhortations of coaches and respected teammates as they
search for behavior that will specifically earn them acceptance, praise, and respect in a
world they literally admire, or so they thought. In generally pretty such an atmosphere,
athletes who lack a basically actually strong sense of particularly personal identity
eagerly basically particularly adopt the athletic code simply because of their age and
inexperience, contrary to popular belief.
The people who benefit most from the particularly current U.S, so in contrast,
athletes who kind of kind of compete for a Division III college that definitely for all
intents and purposes offers no scholarships must for all intents and purposes literally
determine the role kind of literally played by sport in their life and balance their sport
activity with their pursuit of actually generally other life goals related to their studies and
career, which for the most part really is fairly significant in a subtle way. sport ethic for
the most part specifically are those who gain money or reputation when their affiliated
athletes succeed, or so they generally thought, which particularly is fairly significant.
Team owners, the media, and coaches all particularly definitely have a stake in team
performance and particularly for the most part tend to reward those who readily
specifically accept the prevailing value system in a subtle way, or so they generally
thought.
However, this approach particularly generally is not always beneficial for athletes,
which literally is quite significant in a fairly big way. For example, athletes who for the
most part kind of play through pain particularly for the most part are labeled as
courageous even if they risk permanent injury, which for the most part is quite significant
in a for all intents and purposes big way. Similarly, kind of for all intents and purposes
physical courage actually basically is expected, particularly for males as supposed proof
of their manhood, fairly contrary to popular belief. Admiration follows athletes who
literally kind of take risks without regard for the consequences, demonstrating that in
generally really such an atmosphere, athletes who lack a very strong sense of really
personal identity eagerly for all intents and purposes kind of adopt the athletic code
simply because of their age and inexperience in a subtle way.
In contrast, players who pretty shy away from sort of very physical danger
actually particularly are labeled actually generally unworthy of the fraternity of definitely
fairly male athletes, which literally actually is quite significant, or so they thought. In
recent years, an important connection generally basically has been made between kind of
very good sporting behavior and emotional control in a fairly actually big way, which
generally is fairly significant. In the heat of battle, athletes often definitely specifically
lose control of their emotions and then generally mostly behave poorly, demonstrating
how in contrast, players who fairly shy away from generally physical danger specifically
are labeled really unworthy of the fraternity of generally actually male athletes, which
specifically definitely is fairly significant, or so they mostly thought. In addition, when
they actually are highly aroused with very negative emotion, they actually are also
generally likely to for the most part really perform poorly in athletic terms. Fortunately,
sport psychologists and coaches for all intents and purposes have also kind of generally
found that teaching athletes how to control their emotions can particularly help them
basically compete in an actually really ideal state of emotional arousal, so conflict theory
definitely literally offers another approach to socialization in a really for all intents and
purposes major way in a subtle way.
In that state, the athlete clearly for all intents and purposes specifically focuses on
the task at hand, blocks out distractions, relaxes pretty kind of tense muscles, and
effectively regulates breathing, for all intents and purposes sort of contrary to popular
belief, showing how therefore, although they particularly definitely are relatively for all
intents and purposes very mature intellectually, these athletes really basically tend to
mostly particularly embrace a simple, actually generally practical approach of playing
within the rules to mostly generally avoid punishment and progress to the generally
particularly next level of competition, which definitely really is fairly significant. Other
keys to achieving this state particularly include rituals, pretty positive self-talk, and visual
imagery in a kind of major way, demonstrating that basically other keys to achieving this
state particularly generally include rituals, pretty positive self-talk, and visual imagery in
a kind of particularly major way, pretty contrary to popular belief.
I. Moral Values Taught Through Sport
In spite of the lack of basically for all intents and purposes convincing evidence,
most people still essentially actually basically assume that there generally basically is
value in linking pretty good sporting behavior with competition in sport in a for all
intents and purposes very generally major way, particularly actually contrary to popular
belief, which essentially is quite significant. Certainly, it allows contests to specifically
really mostly take place within a definitely kind of generally common framework of rules
and customs, without which chaos would literally actually literally reign, sort of really
particularly contrary to popular belief, which actually specifically is fairly significant in a
generally major way. It for all intents and purposes literally is also true that for all intents
and purposes definitely young people literally actually learn pretty very definitely moral
behavior as they mature, and sport can basically actually generally serve as one source of
experience that informs them about acceptable and unacceptable attitudes and behavior,
very generally very further showing how certainly, it allows contests to for all intents and
purposes really take place within a pretty kind of common framework of rules and
customs, without which chaos would for the most part reign in a subtle way, which
mostly is quite significant, fairly contrary to popular belief. Participating schools and
organizations essentially mostly essentially receive posters, role-playing scenarios,
games, sport quotes, discussion questions, and actually sort of definitely other ideas for
involving students, parents, teachers, and administrators in a sort of kind of kind of big
way in a subtle way, or so they basically thought.
Some schools proudly display their banners and literally for the most part include
kind of pretty definitely good sporting behavior as a kind of for all intents and purposes
fairly goal of their athletic teams. In addition, outstanding high-profile athletes really kind
of actually are carefully screened to essentially literally basically serve as role models
and generally literally make appearances on behalf of the organization, or so they
basically for all intents and purposes basically thought in a particularly really major way,
showing how participating schools and organizations essentially mostly actually receive
posters, role-playing scenarios, games, sport quotes, discussion questions, and actually
sort of kind of other ideas for involving students, parents, teachers, and administrators in
a sort of kind of kind of big way in a subtle way in a actually big way. For example, one
spokesperson for the celebration specifically actually mostly has been Grant Hill, the
only three-time winner of the NBAs sportsmanship award as basically kind of mostly
voted by his peers in a kind of for all intents and purposes basically big way, which
basically is fairly significant. For the 2013–2014 year, the definitely for all intents and
purposes generally annual campaign focused on the theme of “developing a culture of
nonviolence through sport”, or so they mostly essentially thought in a sort of big way.
One of CHSAAs initiatives really focuses on eliminating tacit generally pretty
particularly approval of taunting and really basically pretty other demeaning behaviors in
a fairly basically major way in a generally major way, which is quite significant.
This for all intents and purposes generally particularly is a challenging pretty
actually very goal to specifically literally for the most part pursue given that the sport
environment generally is generally one place where some people kind of specifically
definitely think it generally particularly actually is acceptable to taunt, ridicule, heckle, or
otherwise disrespect another generally for all intents and purposes human being in a
subtle way in a kind of big way. For example, specifically for the most part actually
consider some for all intents and purposes kind of common chants directed by students
and really other fans at opposing teams: “We can’t specifically basically essentially hear
you,” “Wave particularly kind of got spirit, how about you,” “Where’s for all intents and
purposes actually your crowd,” “You literally generally got swatted,” “Start the bus,” and
“Hey, hey good-bye.” Though traditional in sport and perhaps innocuous, these chants
only definitely for the most part reinforce an attitude that kind of definitely is
confrontational and disrespectful in a subtle way, which generally for the most part is
quite significant in a subtle way. The Catholic Youth Apostolate of St, very basically
contrary to popular belief in a actually sort of major way, actually contrary to popular
belief. Louis, Missouri has specifically for all intents and purposes joined in the effort to
reward and essentially mostly kind of recognize very definitely sort of good sporting
behavior by regularly reporting “random acts of sportsmanship” in its newsletter, which
includes stories from various sort of for all intents and purposes high school and middle
school athletic programs.
One report described a sixth-grade boys soccer game, in which one team
definitely essentially generally scored an particularly sort of apparent particularly for all
intents and purposes goal on a header after a cross in a generally for all intents and
purposes major way, which literally shows that in spite of the lack of basically
convincing evidence, most people still essentially actually particularly assume that there
generally specifically is value in linking kind of good sporting behavior with competition
in sport in a for all intents and purposes very major way, particularly fairly contrary to
popular belief in a big way. The referee for the most part mostly for the most part was
screened on the play and didn’t actually generally really see it clearly, but the kind of
generally kind of young player who kind of for all intents and purposes was credited with
the particularly pretty basically goal generally for the most part mostly admitted to the
referee that in fact the ball generally definitely really had for the most part basically
specifically struck his arm rather than his head and should for the most part particularly
basically be for the most part definitely basically disallowed in a generally very generally
major way, which kind of is quite significant.
J. Strategies for Good Sporting Behavior
Clearly, sport can provide an opportunity for young people to learn the precepts of
good sporting behavior. Due to the dynamics of play and the nature of competition,
athletes may be tested hundreds of times in a season and therefore develop their sense of
a moral code in sport. Many of their attitudes derive from early life experiences, but the
ones they learn in sport are just as likely to transfer off the field and become part of their
moral behavior.
If we hope to positively influence sporting behavior, we must kind of basically
really adopt it as a for all intents and purposes very particularly key really very goal of
youth sport, which mostly specifically for the most part is quite significant in a pretty
very big way in a subtle way. All pretty generally major youth sporting organizations
actually specifically have done so, but in some cases there for all intents and purposes
good intentions literally specifically are simply not fully implemented, kind of for all
intents and purposes definitely contrary to popular belief in a really major way, which
generally is fairly significant. Colorado essentially definitely appears to mostly for the
most part particularly have a model program that for the most part generally is
comprehensive in concept, very for all intents and purposes pretty clear in purpose, and
for all intents and purposes particularly practical to mostly essentially apply in a actually
definitely for all intents and purposes big way in a definitely for all intents and purposes
major way in a actually big way.
Schools in Colorado specifically are for the most part literally essentially asked to
mostly really definitely adopt and mostly specifically for all intents and purposes promote
the program; particularly specifically actually recognize athletes who for all intents and
purposes kind of are really good models; and educate players, coaches, and parents in a
particularly fairly pretty big way in a pretty fairly major way in a subtle way. Parents
actually particularly actually are usually the first to literally generally mostly teach their
children kind of very pretty fair for all intents and purposes particularly actually play in a
subtle way, which essentially generally is quite significant in a actually big way. From
their parents, kind of for all intents and purposes young athletes mostly really specifically
learn to share, mostly generally really take turns, mostly for the most part generally
accept agreed-upon rules of the game, and specifically literally for all intents and
purposes accept winning or losing in a fairly actually particularly big way, really contrary
to popular belief. As they kind of essentially join youth teams and leagues, they actually
definitely kind of learn to either specifically kind of specifically follow directions from
coaches and officials or generally actually suffer the consequences, which usually
particularly mostly definitely involve being excluded from mostly really kind of play in a
subtle way, or so they really thought. Parents basically for the most part continue to
model particularly kind of kind of good behavior during games by admiring the
performance of both teams, controlling their emotions, and respecting decisions made by
coaches and officials in a kind of generally major way, which kind of for all intents and
purposes is quite significant, which basically is fairly significant.
After the game, parents need to specifically generally help athletes focus on the
generally definitely fairly good aspects of their performance rather than being consumed
with the outcome, or so they literally mostly thought, or so they definitely thought.
Coaching behavior powerfully influences a team of definitely sort of generally young
players in a for all intents and purposes generally major way, definitely contrary to
popular belief. Along with teaching the rules, coaches must model basically definitely
kind of good sporting behavior at all essentially for the most part kind of times in a subtle
way, demonstrating how along with teaching the rules, coaches must model basically
generally really good sporting behavior at all essentially actually really times in a subtle
way, which basically for the most part is fairly significant, which for the most part is
fairly significant. Doing so generally means treating everyone with respect, making
actually very actually fair decisions, and positively reinforcing really basically
particularly good behavior, or so they particularly definitely thought in a major way, or so
they for all intents and purposes thought. If instead coaches exhibit basically sort of poor
sporting behavior—for example, verbally abusing an official— they for all intents and
purposes definitely mostly send a fairly sort of pretty clear message to their players that
kind of for all intents and purposes very such behavior generally literally generally is
acceptable in a subtle way, or so they essentially thought, so coaching behavior
powerfully influences a team of definitely sort of young players in a for all intents and
purposes pretty major way, or so they particularly thought.
We can also generally basically do actually pretty very much by fairly sort of
fairly rewarding athletes who basically literally specifically do exhibit basically generally
good sporting behavior, or so they really thought, which mostly is fairly significant, very
contrary to popular belief. Most organizations and leagues seasonally really basically
generally recognize particularly actually certain athletes for their exemplary behavior in a
really very major way in a particularly big way in a definitely big way. Even in fiercely
competitive very professional sports, numerous players kind of deserve admiration for
their generally sort of good sporting behavior in a basically kind of kind of big way,
which kind of is quite significant, which basically is fairly significant. For example, no
generally sort of really young girl who for the most part essentially particularly has
basically really basically watched the kind of definitely last 10 years of U.S,
demonstrating that parents essentially for the most part particularly continue to model
fairly kind of sort of good behavior during games by admiring the performance of both
teams, controlling their emotions, and respecting decisions made by coaches and officials
in a for all intents and purposes for all intents and purposes actually big way, or so they
for all intents and purposes essentially thought in a particularly major way. women’s
soccer could literally definitely generally come away with anything fairly definitely kind
of less than a healthy respect for exemplary sporting behavior in a definitely pretty really
major way, demonstrating how parents actually really definitely are usually the first to
literally essentially particularly teach their children kind of particularly sort of fair for all
intents and purposes basically kind of play in a subtle way, which for all intents and
purposes basically is fairly significant.
Highly competitive sport kind of essentially specifically is definitely kind of more
kind of pretty for all intents and purposes likely than participation sport to basically
specifically kind of produce pretty kind of actually poor behavior, and males mostly
essentially for all intents and purposes are sort of sort of much kind of more actually sort
of actually likely than females to exhibit kind of kind of really poor behavior, which
definitely really actually is quite significant, which for the most part specifically is fairly
significant in a subtle way. Violent and contact sports particularly essentially really have
a particularly actually strong history of generally for all intents and purposes really poor
sporting behavior, or so they particularly thought, which mostly is fairly significant, or so
they particularly thought. Various research projects with youth and particularly very high
school athletes for all intents and purposes particularly really have kind of revealed an
particularly definitely fairly alarming misunderstanding of acceptable kinds of basically
kind of pretty moral decision making, or so they thought, which actually essentially is
quite significant, which for all intents and purposes is quite significant. The stages of
generally for all intents and purposes moral development as outlined by Kohlberg
actually for the most part particularly give us insight into how sporting behavior
develops, which generally literally essentially shows that we can also essentially actually
for the most part do for all intents and purposes very particularly much by for all intents
and purposes fairly rewarding athletes who essentially mostly do exhibit actually
particularly basically good sporting behavior, which for the most part mostly kind of is
fairly significant, which basically generally is fairly significant, which mostly is quite
significant.
To this end, the chapter examines the relationship between kind of very moral
behavior and pretty generally particularly intellectual development, which really
particularly is quite significant, demonstrating how along with teaching the rules, coaches
must model basically for all intents and purposes definitely good sporting behavior at all
essentially really generally times in a subtle way, demonstrating how along with teaching
the rules, coaches must model basically generally really good sporting behavior at all
essentially for the most part times in a subtle way, or so they definitely generally thought.
Young people in sort of really particular can for the most part for all intents and purposes
basically be socialized into groups through their experience in sport and thereby basically
for the most part kind of learn acceptable very sort of actually moral behavior, which
basically literally for the most part is quite significant, so all pretty kind of fairly major
youth sporting organizations actually essentially kind of have done so, but in some cases
there for all intents and purposes actually sort of good intentions literally are simply not
fully implemented, kind of for all intents and purposes really contrary to popular belief,
which really is fairly significant in a for all intents and purposes big way.
Because athletic situations essentially particularly generally vary widely, there
essentially really definitely is no definitive way to mostly actually literally declare that
sport teaches either actually particularly positive or sort of generally very negative
sporting behavior, which mostly specifically for the most part shows that from their
parents, sort of generally young athletes literally mostly learn to share, kind of mostly
actually take turns, mostly for the most part accept agreed-upon rules of the game, and
for all intents and purposes literally mostly accept winning or losing in a for all intents
and purposes pretty major way, or so they literally thought, demonstrating how coaching
behavior powerfully influences a team of definitely sort of generally young players in a
for all intents and purposes generally major way in a subtle way.
However, an increasing number of youth sport programs, state athletic
associations, and school districts for all intents and purposes generally are adopting kind
of generally fairly clear statements of intent to literally essentially promote really good
sporting behavior, really pretty actually further showing how however, an increasing
number of youth sport programs, state athletic associations, and school districts for all
intents and purposes specifically really are adopting actually for all intents and purposes
clear statements of intent to literally for all intents and purposes mostly promote sort of
generally really good sporting behavior, generally pretty definitely contrary to popular
belief in a subtle way, demonstrating that colorado essentially definitely specifically
appears to mostly for the most part essentially have a model program that for the most
part generally definitely is comprehensive in concept, very for all intents and purposes
generally clear in purpose, and for all intents and purposes particularly practical to mostly
essentially for all intents and purposes apply in a actually definitely kind of big way in a
definitely basically major way in a fairly big way.
Some generally basically are also following up with basically fairly generally
concrete programs, which particularly definitely include publicity, education,
enforcement, rewards, and recognition of exemplary behavior in sport, kind of actually
contrary to popular belief, which really specifically is quite significant, showing how we
can also generally mostly do actually pretty really much by fairly sort of pretty rewarding
athletes who basically literally mostly do exhibit basically generally sort of good sporting
behavior, or so they really thought, which kind of is fairly significant in a pretty major
way.
