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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
Impact of Mother’s Emotional and Mental Health on Neurological Development of the
Unborn Baby
Patricia Ann Carsten
School of Psychology, Liberty University
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
Abstract
There are differing opinions as to where attachment difficulties originate. Some believe it begins
in the womb before birth and some believe it stems from experiences after birth takes place. It
can be a combination of prenatal rejection and confirmation of those feelings via neglect and
further rejection, or it can begin from rejection and neglect after delivery of the baby. This author
conducted a literature review of 23 articles investigating the etiology of diagnosis like Reactive
Attachment Disorder (RAD), Disinhibited Attachment Disorder (DAD), and Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder (PTSD). Some of the included articles overlapped on their focus: Eleven articles
investigation of the mother’s mental health during pregnancy. Six articles explored the physical
similarities between physical and mental pain. Nine articles included maternal attachment style.
A 20-question questionnaire was used to obtain parental answers as to mother’s view of
attachment with the baby along with observations obtained by parents’ participation in “Strange
Situation” study for each participant. Answers to the child’s experience of emotional pain were
given by the mothers whose children who were older than 6 years old and based on their
observations.
Keywords: anxiety, attachment, depression, diagnosis, maternal, pre-born, rejection,
unwanted pregnancy.
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
Exploring Impact of Mother’s Emotions on Developing Unborn Baby
The purpose of this study is to investigate if children who are rejected by the
biological mother in the womb who struggle with connecting to others once they are delivered.
The rise in awareness of attachment issues and other mental health struggles begs the question as
to the etiology of attachment issues. Scientists have studied the impact of depression, anxiety,
and other mental health struggles on the emotional and developmental state of newborn babies
and infants (Lazinski et al., 2008). Many of the same stressors impacting the emotional health of
the mother who just gave birth affect her prior to delivery can have an impact on the
development of the unborn child.
It is known that drugs and alcohol can influence the psychological growth of the fetus
prior to birth (Goldstein et al., 2021). This gives reason for an investigation to be performed to
evaluate the chemical effects of emotional stages on the developing child within the womb (Rice,
et al., 2009). When people experience emotional pain, it causes a release of opioids, revealing a
justification for investigation of the impact of those chemicals on the unborn child’s
development (Roberts, 2015). Weir (2012) and Roberts (2015) report that the physiological
experiences of physical pain are identical to the pain felt when injured emotionally, the body
reacting to releasing a natural chemical called mu-opioid. The amygdala processes the strength
of the pain and the pregenual cingulate cortex guides the change of mood determined by the
originating event (Roberts, 2015).
Thus, the emotional state of the mother during pregnancy could impact the
neurological development of the infant within the womb later in life (Semeia et al.,2023, Rice, et
al., 2009, Weir, 2012). In addition, the developing child may sense rejection, which can manifest
in an experiential and behavioral way after birth (Kinsella & Monk, 2009). Studying children
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
who were unwanted and comparing them to those who were wanted at the time of conception
through the gestational cycle could assist in development of a resiliency training to support the
child in development of healthy self-esteem despite external demonstrations of acceptance or
rejection after the child is born (Gillath, et al., 2019).
The level of withdrawal in relation to attachment problems can be measured by
manifested behaviors such as isolation from others, withdrawal from physical and emotional
connections with caregivers, eating patterns, or over eagerness to make inappropriately open
connection to others. These can be measured by Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure
(SS) and Cranley’s Maternal Fetal Attachment Scale (MFA) (Archer et al., 2015). In the present
examination, those with negative attachment styles will be defined using the participants’ scores
from attachment styles assessments and the mother’s fetal attachment scale.
Variables
The independent variable for the proposed investigation is operationally defined using
surveys of mothers who admit struggling to feel maternal connection and affection for their
unborn child. The comparison group is participants who report feeling excited about and
connected to their unborn child.
The dependent variable to be measured in the research is the attachment style
demonstrated by the infants after birth to include secure, anxious, avoidant, and disorganized
which is believed to be influenced by the neurotransmitters in the brain that occur with various
emotional responses to external and internal stimuli (Kinsella & Monk, 2009).
The Control Group will comprise participants who do not have avoidant, resistant, or
disorganized attachment style and no associated formal psychiatric diagnosis. The Treatment
Group will comprise participants with a formal diagnosis of Reactive Attachment Disorder
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
(RAD), Disinhibited Engagement Disorder, or other Attachment Disorders. The dependent
variables, which are attachment styles, will be measured by the use of the Ainsworth Strange
Situation (SS) measurement tool, will examine: 1) the reaction of the child when mother is
present 2) the observed behavior of child as child is encouraged to explore the room and
environment. 3) Observation of behavior and emotional responses when a stranger enters the
room and attempts to interact with the child while mother is present. 4) Child’s reaction when the
mother leaves the child alone with the stranger in the room. 5) Mother entering as stranger leaves
and the reaction by the child. 6)Mother leaves the child alone in the room. 7) Original stranger
returns while the mother remains absent from the room. 8) Mother returns and interacts with the
child (Ainsworth, 2009). The independent variable is the presence of rejection of the child by the
mother during gestation (Roder, 2020).
Rationale
The emotional connection a mother has toward her unborn child can lead to various
negative attachment styles in the infant, which can be reaffirmed after birth by parenting styles
demonstrated by the mother (Ohara et al., 2017; Rohder et al., 2020). Many factors can influence
attachment styles but influences from conception and during gestation can prove to be harder to
overcome because it is presented during the foundational growth period of the child (Schreffler
et al., 2021).
The proposed research study extends the existing research by filling a gap in current
investigations of the cause of avoidant, resistant, and disorganized attachment styles in previous
research combining results from the Cranley’s Maternal Fetal Attachment Scale (MFA) and the
SS measurement assessment. Individuals struggling with rejection often mention feeling outside
of established societal groups, as if they don’t belong (McFarland, et al., 2011). Ierard , et al.,
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
(2022) suggest besides initial rejection of the pregnancy itself, ongoing lack of social support is a
contributing factor to the mother rejecting the pregnancy.D
Research Design and Hypothesis
An observational experiment will be conducted utilizing the Mary Ainsworth Strange
Situational measure and the Cranley’s Maternal Fetal Attachment Scale (MFA). It is predicted
that those who experience rejection by the mother as a fetus are more prone to hypersensitivity of
rejection in general than those who were wanted and celebrated by the mother during gestation.
Participants diagnosed Attachment Disorders demonstrate heightened reactions to real or
perceived rejection and react with elevated emotions compared to participants who have not
experienced rejection during gestation and can react and respond with a regulated emotional base
line. Physical and emotional pain have the same neurological response when investigated under
brain scans (Kross, 2011).
It is predicted that unborn babies who are unwanted by the biological mother in whose
body they are being formed are born with a heightened sensitivity to rejection and an awareness
of emotional dismissal from those around them than those who were wanted and celebrated
during gestation that can last for decades. The emotional pain of the rejection in children who
have a lower level of resilience can impact future generations and create a generational pattern of
dysfunction (Roberts, 2015; Weir, 2012). Mothers diagnosed with Depression prior to pregnancy
demonstrate a higher struggle in bonding with the unborn child (Kinsella & Monk, 2009). The
effects of women’s emotional state have an impact on up to 13% of unborn children’s fetal
development (Kinsella & Monk, 2009).
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
Method
Participants
The study will consist of a minimum of 120 women. They will include mothers who have
given birth, regardless of age, and are willing to report their feelings toward the unborn child
prior to delivery. These mothers include all levels of education, any ethnicity or race, and any
Socio-Economic Status. Age range was from 15-57. Ethnicity and socio-economic status were
accounted for and divided into categories for tracking purposes. The study includes mothers who
accepted or rejected the pregnancy, (whether planned or unplanned) regardless of if they were
planning to keep the baby or give the baby up for adoption, with the hope of gathering equal
samples of accepting and rejecting mothers for an equivalent representation for each of these
variables. The questionnaire included questions related to relationships, personality, and family
of origin.
Sampling procedures
Anonymous questionnaires are to be sent out to members of parenting groups via
Facebook, local in-person mother’s groups, Parenting class groups, and local church parenting
gatherings to assemble a convenience sample of volunteers. Those who indicate excitement with
pregnancy will be placed in the category of “wanted”. Those unhappy with pregnancy will be
placed in the category of “unwanted”. The intended sample size is 120 participants to maximize
statistical power.
Apparatus
A MacBook Pro with Apple M@ chip and 16 GB of memory and macOS Sonoma
version 14.4.1 (23E224) utilizing survey applications to calculate the reported information and
place it into the correct category are to be utilized to minimize human error. The survey
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
application will be Survey Monkey. SPSS version 29.0.0.0 (241) License IBM SPSS Statistics
2022 is to be used to calculate statistical data.
Materials
Information from Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure (SS) (Ainsworth, 2009)
and Cranley’s Maternal Fetal Attachment Scale (MFA) (Archer et al., 2015) will be used to
create the questionnaire to create a 10-item survey to measure participants’ mentality during the
pregnancy.
Procedure
Researcher is to send out 500 ten-item questionnaires to various parenting groups across
Facebook groups and in-person parenting help groups to obtain a minimum of 120 participants
for an experimental study of how the thoughts and feelings of pregnant mothers impact the
emotions and behaviors of the babies following delivery. Each participant is to be directed to
answer each question on the anonymous survey as truthfully and with as much detail as possible.
Mothers will detail the behavioral demonstrations of attachment and assumed closeness felt by
the child based on that attachment demonstration through written descriptions to maintain
anonymity. Anonymity will be emphasized throughout the survey to assist in gathering accurate
information.
Results
It was found that the higher quality of the time spent thinking about the fetus the greater
the attachment relationship between the developing fetus and the mother (Ierard, et al., 2022).
Information between current studies and etiologies of an absence in the maternal/child emotional
bond and an understanding of the role of the mental health of the mother can be explained by
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
exploring the MFA, depression inventories, and the mother’s experienced stress and anxiety
(Semeia et al., 2023).
High MFA has been shown to be associated to health practices that are positive and
indicate secure attachment styles in the mother and result in higher incidence of secure
attachment styles in the child (RØhder et al., 2020). The maternal emotional state is shown to be
a predictive factor to the level of emotional attachment mother has with unborn child (Bianciardi
et al., 2023). Stronger mental health in the mother reveals greater ability to navigate stress and
deeper emotional bond with unborn child (Lubetzky, 2020; Shreffler et al., 2021).
Physical and chemical responses to pain can be measured under brain scans. The physical
pain experienced has the same effect on the fetus as other harmful things introduced, such as
cocaine (Kross, 2011.) The emotional state of the mother can have the same ability to effect
cognitive development on the fetus as drugs and alcohol (Saul, 2013). This in turn causes the
fetus to be born with neurological development associated with the pain of rejection (Woo,
2014). Knowing that ostracized individuals can present with aggressive and violent behaviors
and can have the same activation of brain regions, displaying physiological and neurological
impacts as physical pain (like a broken bone), fMRI scans were set up to test experiences of
being excluded and compared to areas of the brain activated during physical pain. Increased
activity in the dorsal anterior cingulate and the anterior insula were present, which is comparable
to physical pain, revealing a broken emotional state is similar to a broken bone.
Exposure to maternal emotions can create changes in normal brain development and have
long-term impact on physical and mental health (Kinsella & Monk, 2009; Lubetzky, 2020).
Mothers who struggle excessively with emotional well-being during pregnancy can negatively
impact the bonding relationship with the unborn child and create long-term struggles in the fetus
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
(Mcfarland et al., 2011; Ohara et al., 2017; Rice et al., 2009). Fetus’ can hear and sense what is
going on in the world outside the womb and form behaviors based on the feelings of the mother
(Ohara et al., 2017; Rice et al., 2009). Fetus’ who can sense an unavailability in the mother can
demonstrate an inability to attach to mother after birth. Infants with difficulty in attaching to
caregivers can struggle to form attachments later in life with significant others.
In summary, while there likely are several etiological factors that contribute to the
development and continuation of attachment-based behaviors, evidence suggests that there can
be ways to assist in the prevention of the development or in the reversal of these manifested
behaviors.
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
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Appendix I
Cramley’s Maternal Fetal Attachment Scale
1 I talk to my unborn baby
2 I feel all the trouble of being pregnant is worth it
3 3 I picture myself feeding the baby
4 I am really looking forward to seeing what the baby looks like
5 I wonder if the baby feels cramped in there
6 I refer to my baby by a nickname
7 I imagine myself taking care of the baby
8 I can almost guess what my baby’s personality will be from the way he moves around
9 I do things to try to stay healthy that I would not do if I was not pregnant
10 I wonder if the baby can hear inside of me
11 I have decided on a name for the baby
12 I wonder if the baby thinks and feels “things” inside of me
13 I eat meat and vegetables to be sure my baby gets a good diet
14 It seems my baby kicks and moves to tell me it is eating time
15 I poke my baby to get him to poke me back
16 I can hardly wait to hold the baby
17 I try to picture what the baby will look like
18 I stroke my tummy to quiet the baby when there is too much kicking
19 I can tell that the baby has hiccups
20 I give up doing certain things because I want to help my baby
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EMOTIONS AND NEUROLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF FETUSES
Appendix II
Mary Ainsworth Strange Situation Experiment
Episode 1:DMother and baby are introduced to the room
Episode 2:DMother and baby are alone, and the child explores
Episode 3:DStranger enters the room, talks with the mother, and approaches the child
Episode 4:DStranger remains in the room and interacts with the child when needed
Episode 5:DMother re-enters and greets the child in the doorway, and stranger exits.
The participants are observed for about 20 minutes and includes controlled observation using a
two-way mirror and moving through all 5 episodes.DThe experiment is designed to observe
increased need for a child’s desire for the caregiver or parent.DThere are three attachment styles
in this investigation: secure, insecure, and disorganized.DAmbivalent attachment is characterized
by caregivers responding to the child inconsistently.
