FORGIVENESS 2
Bassett, R. L., Breault, J., Buettner, K., Vitale, J., Hochheimer, M., & Moore, S. (2018).
Forgiveness may be less about right and wrong and more about you and me. Journal of
Psychology and Christianity, 37(2), 99–111.
In the article, the researchers sought to determine whether an individual’s moral position
can dictate if they may seek or grant forgiveness. 138 students from a Christian liberal
arts college completed a questionnaire divided into three sections. The first section
contained the Moral Foundations Sacredness Scale which examines how an individual
emphasizes five moral foundations. The second section contained the Revised
Fundamentalism Scale which depicts fundamentalism across various religions. The last
section used the Heartland Forgiveness Scale to measure an individual’s tendencies
across various types of forgiveness. The results from the study showed no correlation
between an individual’s moral position and their tendency to seek or grant forgiveness
Behrens, C., Kliem, S., & Kröger, C. (2023). Doctrine-shaped trait forgiveness and relationship
satisfaction in people who identify as Christians — a multiple mediation analysis.
International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41042-
023-00113-6
In the article, the researchers sought to find a deeper understanding of how a doctrine-
shaped trait of forgiveness correlates with relationship satisfaction and whether the
association is conciliated by forgiveness benevolence and resentment. Doctrine-shaped
trait forgiveness is defined as a desire to forgive that is committed to the Bible. Before
conducting the study, the researchers hypothesised 3 conclusions; Doctrine-shaped trait
forgiveness is correlated to relationship satisfaction, benevolent motivation does affect
doctrine-shaped trait forgiveness’s correlation to relationship satisfaction, and resentful
FORGIVENESS 3
motivation does affect doctrine-shaped trait forgiveness’s correlation to relationship
satisfaction. The study consisted of 980 participants, all of whom stated that they were
connected to the church. To measure doctrine-shaped trait forgiveness, participants were
instructed to rate statements on a 6-point Likert scale. To evaluate benevolent in addition
to resentful-avoidant motivations, the Marital Offense-Specific Forgiveness Scale was
introduced. The MOFS consists of 10 items on a 6-point Likert scale. To assess the
individual’s level of relationship satisfaction, the participants were instructed to fill out a
5-point Likert scale questionnaire about Quarrelling, Tenderness, and Communication.
The results of the study failed to reject the null hypothesis for hypothesis one but rejected
the null hypothesis for hypotheses two and three.
Fox, A., & Thomas, T. (2008). Impact of religious affiliation and religiosity on forgiveness.
Australian Psychologist, 43(3), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/00050060701687710
The researchers of the study sought to find how forgiveness among Abrahamic and
secular individuals differs due to their religiosity. The article defines religiosity as the
degree to which an individual can be considered religious. The study consisted of 475
participants with an average age of 37.42. To evaluate the correlation, they chose seven
different scales which were used to measure several aspects within the research question.
The measured topics included Attitudinal forgiveness, Behavioural forgiveness,
Projective forgiveness, Faith and interpretation, Prayer and attendance, Affiliation type,
and Social desirability. The results of the study found that Abrahamic individuals hold a
higher level of forgiveness compared to secular individuals. However, they additionally
observed that Muslims were less likely to display an attitude of forgiveness compared to
Christians.
FORGIVENESS 4
Frise, N. R., & McMinn, M. R. (2010). Forgiveness and reconciliation: The differing
perspectives of psychologists and Christian theologians. Journal of Psychology and
Theology, 38(2), 83–90.
In this article, the researchers conducted two qualitative and quantitative surveys
to find how forgiveness and reconciliation differ between Christians and
Psychologists. The first study comprised 83 individuals (31 females and 52
males). For the study, the participants were asked to rate four statements on a
Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Upon the
conclusion of the scale, they were asked to rate how important religion is in their
lives. To conclude the study, the participants were asked to explain whether
reconciliation played a role in forgiveness. The second study consisted of 33
participants (9 females and 24 males) who were scholars who specifically studied
the topic of forgiveness. They were asked questions that were identical to those in
the first study. The results of the study concluded that Christians and
Psychologists agree that reconciliation is an expectation of forgiveness
Gordon, K. C., Frousakis, N. N., Dixon, L. J., Willett, J. M., Christman, J. A., Furr, R. E., &
Hellmuth, J. C. (2008). Intrinsic/extrinsic religious orientation, forgiveness, and the role
of social pressure. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 27(4), 311–319.
In the article, the researchers sought to find whether an individual’s religious
orientation determines their actions towards an act of betrayal. The two religious
orientations brought into question were intrinsic and extrinsic. An individual was
intrinsic religious orientation use religion as a guide for everything they do in life.
An individual was extrinsic religious orientation use religion as a sense of comfort
FORGIVENESS 5
for their own needs and to satisfy social standards. The study consisted of 113
participants from the Knoxville, Tennessee area. The study used three different
scales to measure several topics in the research topic. To measure religious
orientation, the researchers selected Age Universal Religious Orientation Scale
which is a 20-item five-point Likert scale. The Transgression-Related
Interpersonal Motivations Inventory measured an individual’s forgiveness
motivations. The scale is an 18-item questionnaire that is self-reported. Lastly, to
measure how much pressure an individual feels to forgive another person, the
participants were instructed to fill out a six-item Likert scale questionnaire. The
results of the study found individuals, who were found to have intrinsic religious
orientation, were more likely to forgive an individual who wronged them.
However, the results also showed that social pressures play a role in whether an
extrinsic individual forgives wrongdoing.
Griffin, B. J., Worthington, E. L., Jr., Davis, D. E., Hook, J. N., & Maguen, S. (2018).
Development of the Self-Forgiveness Dual-Process Scale. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 65(6), 715–726. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000293
In this article, the researchers conducted a study exploring the topic of self-
forgiveness and the validity of the Self-Forgiveness Dual-Process Scale. Upon the
initial research of the topic, the researchers found the need to address four
roadblocks. First, integration of the general idea of self-forgiveness within
psychological theory. Second, creating a process to measure self-forgiveness
accurately. Third, understanding the impact that self-forgiveness has on the
FORGIVENESS 6
mental well-being of an individual. Lastly, the medical implications of self-
forgiveness.
The research consisted of three studies that looked into multiple aspects of
forgiveness. The first study tested value reorientation and personal esteem
restoration after an offense to another individual. The second study examined the
construct validity of the first study by testing value reorientation and esteem
restoration with measures of self-punishment, self-forgiveness, and self-
exoneration. The third study looked specifically at increasing the predictive
ability by using a new measurement of study. Between the three studies, 356
individuals participated in the research. The results of the study found the Self-
Forgiveness Dual-Process Scale’s level of validity was high.
Haikola, A. (2023). “I felt like I wanted to hug the whole world”: Forgiveness as an
embodied emotional narrative process. Human Arenas.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42087-023-00390-2
In this article, the researchers use a qualitative design to explore the topic of forgiveness
in an individual’s emotional process. Forgiveness can be defined as an adjustment for
some individuals to deter anxiety feelings from a stressful situation. During past studies,
connections have been found between an individual’s physical health and forgiveness.
However, there is still a lack of knowledge of how forgiveness affects the body and its
processes. This study looks to approach the problem by looking at how forgiveness
affects emotions which can result in change towards the body. The participants of the
study consisted of 22 individuals who were found online. Each participants were given an
option to complete an interview over the phone or email. In the interview, the participants
FORGIVENESS 7
were asked to write a story about a forgiveness process that they recently experienced.
The process was data-driven with empowerment and pain as themes that were found. The
analysis of the answers resulted in a deeper understanding of the emotional process that
an individual experiences when forgiveness is present.
Kim, J. J., & Enright, R. D. (2014). Differing views on forgiveness within Christianity:
Do graduate-level theology students perceive divine and human forgiveness
differently? Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 1(3), 191–202.
https://doi.org/10.1037/scp0000027
In this article, the researchers dived into the theology students'
divine forgiveness and human forgiveness differently. The study defined divine
forgiveness as a gift from God for our sins. As a result of God’s forgiveness,
Christians can continue to have a relationship with Him. Human forgiveness is the
action of letting go of ill feelings toward another individual. The study consisted
of 276 graduate-level theology students from nine institutions. The researchers
created a Likert scale survey to measure four aspects of forgiveness. The study
results concluded that the theology students did find a distinction between human
and divine forgiveness. The study's final analysis found that the difference
between the topics is found in the aspects of why one forgives and who forgives.
Nedeljković, B., Dinić, B., & Tucaković, L. (2023). The dark triad and forgiveness: The
mediating role of anger rumination. Personality and Individual Differences, 215, 1–6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2023.112362
In the article, the researchers sought to whether anger ruminations influence the Dark
Triad's relationship with forgiveness. The Dark Triad is the combination of three
FORGIVENESS 8
psychological traits which are Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and Psychopathy. The
study consisted of 629 participants whose ages ranged from 18 to 73 years old. The
participants 3 different surveys to measure the Dark Triad, Anger Rumination, and
Forgiveness. To accurately assess the Dark Triad, the researchers used the Short Dark
Triad Scale. To evaluate Anger Rumination, the participants had to answer 19 statements
on a four-point Anger Rumination Scale. To rate the individual’s forgiveness, they had to
respond to the 15-item Forgiveness Scale. The results of the study showed that
Machiavellianism and psychopathy were positively associated with anger ruminations,
but were not related to forgiveness. Interestingly, narcissism did not show any correlation
to anger ruminations.
Upenieks, L., Ellison, C. G., & Krause, N. M. (2023). “to err is human, to forgive, divine”:
Religious doubt, psychological well-being and the moderating role of divine forgiveness.
Journal of Religion, Spirituality & Aging.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15528030.2023.2262406
The researchers in the article sought to determine whether divine forgiveness played a
role in an individual’s mental health and physical well-being. Before conducting the
study, the researchers decided on three hypotheses. The first hypothesis was that higher
religious doubt would be related to higher depressive symptoms and lower life
satisfaction. The second hypothesis is the correlation between religious doubt and lower
well-being will worsen among older adults who endorse greater divine forgiveness. The
third hypothesis is the connection between religious doubt and lower well-being will be
buffered among older adults who endorse greater divine forgiveness. The study consisted
of 1,500 adults who were at least 66 years old. To measure the dependent variables in the
FORGIVENESS 9
study, the researchers used the Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale and Neugarten
Life Satisfaction Scale. To evaluate the multiple independent variables, the researchers
created their surveys for the participants which were all Likert-based. The study results
indicated that all three null hypotheses were rejected and supported the researcher's
projections.
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