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Aggression
Tiffany Wilson
School of Behavioral Sciences, Liberty University
Author Note
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to .
Email:
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Introduction
Everyday aggression is responsible for a multitude of violent acts and hostility
towards others around the world. Aggression can be looked at as a spectrum with extreme
violence on one end and smaller acts on the other. From mass shootings to children being bullied,
it is evident that the effect of aggression affects our lives in one way or another. This summary
discusses aggression and its origins, societal and demographic differences, media influences, and
ways to reduce aggression.
Aggression and its Origins
Aggression can be defined in numerous ways, but the most current definition is that it is
action meant to hurt another person. Aggressive actions can take various forms, including verbal
and physical. Extreme acts of aggression are called violence, while emotions and attitudes play a
role in aggression. Initiative-taking aggression involves harming someone for personal gain,
attention, or self-defense, while reactive aggression is emotional aggression. (Kassin et al., 2021)
There are various viewpoints on the genesis of aggression, such as the nature vs nurture
perspective, which contends that while humans are born with an underlying tendency toward
aggression, this trait is learnt via experience. The origins and current manifestations of human
violence are both understood through evolutionary psychology theories of aggression. Smith
contends that to pass on their survival strategies to their progeny, our predecessors had to engage
in combat to compete for resources. Low levels of serotonin are connected to aggression, and
researchers also contend that testosterone may play a role in the possibility of violence being
inherited. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Learning has a significant impact on aggressive behavior in addition to genetic and
biological factors. Aggression will be used more frequently tomorrow because of today's
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incentives, which come in two varieties: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.
Punishment is frequently advocated to stop aggressive behavior, but this is unlikely to happen
when the punishment comes right after the aggressive behavior, is severe enough to dissuade the
aggressor, is applied consistently, and is viewed by the aggressor as fair and legal. (Kassin et al.,
2021)
According to Albert Bandura's social learning theory, we gain knowledge through
observation of others' behavior as well as own experience with incentives and penalties. Models
that affect helpful, kind conduct also affect violent, hostile behavior. In a study with dissatisfied
children, Bandura's theory illustrates that people learn via observation and imitation. Extending
the social learning theory, we might assume that individuals internalize their surroundings by
thinking that others see them as well. In this case, responses turn into social constructions that
function as triggers for others to create social reality. (Chadee, 2022)
According to Kassin (2021), people learn more from aggressive role models than only
specific violent behaviors; they also gain more optimistic attitudes and views about
aggressiveness in general and create aggressive "scripts" that act as instructions for how to act
and deal with social issues. These scripts can be instantly activated in a variety of circumstances,
resulting in fast, frequently thoughtless, aggressive reactions that stick to the scripts they have
learnt.
One explanation for the positive link between individuals' subsequent aggressiveness as
teenagers and adults and their observation of their parents acting aggressively or violently during
arguments is the learning of these scripts from their parents. Since its groundbreaking early
experiments in the early 1960s, Bandura's social learning theory has been a key social
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psychology approach to the study of human violence. Its simplicity should not overshadow the
fact that it can explain a lot of human behavior. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Culture and Gender Differences
Cultures differ significantly in their members' levels of hostility and violence,
which can be linked to elements like poverty, drug use, access to firearms, and political
upheaval. The murder rate is higher in nations with unequal income distribution than it is in
countries with equal income distribution. Internationally, there are differences in attitudes about
aggression and violence. Individualistic or collectivist societies are typically more aggressive,
with men supporting overt aggressive responses in the United States as opposed to women in
China. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Culture to culture, attitudes about aggressiveness differ. Students from thirty-six
institutions from nineteen nations participated in a survey that revealed wide disparities in how
acceptable they viewed various behaviors, such as husbands slapping spouses. Bullying is a
frequent type of aggressiveness that involves peers abusing one another physically, sexually, or
emotionally. Bullying can cause extreme suffering, such as panic attacks, worry, and distractions
at school, recurrent thoughts of abuse, sadness, anxiety, and even suicide. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Gender
In practically every culture studied around the world, men are more violent than women.
Men continue to commit and be victims of most killings, indicating that this gender disparity is
constant over time and space. However, internationally, women account for most intimate
relationship deaths. In relational or indirect aggression, research also demonstrates that boys are
more aggressive than girls, with girls occasionally being more aggressive than boys. Acts like
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lying to bring someone into trouble or excluding someone from desired activities are examples of
indirect hostility. Relational aggression, which includes making threats to break up friendships,
spreading rumors, and attempting to make people dislike the target, is directed towards a person's
connections and social standing. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Individual Traits
Aggression-related personality traits include high neuroticism, low openness, and low
agreeableness. Emotional receptivity, Type A personality, impulsivity, and low agreeableness are
attributes that are more likely to predict aggressiveness when provoked. The Dark Triad qualities
are linked to higher levels of violence globally and across several types of hostility. The degree
of this link can change based on the child's upbringing, but childhood aggressiveness is a
predictor of aggression in adolescence and adulthood. (Kassin et al., 2021)
One of the Dark Triad characteristics, narcissism, involves an exaggerated feeling of self-
worth, little empathy for others, and a singular focus on oneself. It is frequently and favorably
associated with aggression in the face of provocation, especially if the provocation is in public.
The Dark Triad's attribute psychopathy includes a lack of self-control. Self-control is one aspect
that clearly and consistently has a relationship with violence. Strong impulse control enables
people to control their behavior and conform to their own and society's expectations of proper
conduct. Poor self-control is one of the strongest predictors of crime, cyberbullying, and violence
toward strangers and romantic partners. Children with inadequate self-control tend to be more
violent than young adults. (Kassin et al., 2021)
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Situational and Media Influences
Aggression is influenced by various situational circumstances, including displacement,
catharsis, and the frustration-aggression theory. The frustration-aggression theory suggests that
aggression is a result of frustration, while catharsis and displacement reduce motivation to
aggress. However, most researchers have concluded that the frustration-aggression theory is
unfounded, and that aggressive action can sometimes decrease the likelihood of immediate
aggression. Frustration can, however, trigger aggressive behavior by causing unfavorable
emotions, such as noise, crowding, physical discomfort, endangered self-esteem, jealousy, social
rejection, unpleasant odors, air pollution, losing one's favorite team, and being provoked or
insulted by others. (Kassin et al., 2021)
The weapons effect, which increases the likelihood of aggression by the presence of
weapons, has been found to induce more aggressive thoughts and more aggressive behavior
among children. However, individuals may differ in their associations with various weapons.
Automatic associations can also affect aggression, but more deliberate, higher-order information
processing also has a significant impact on whether and how people will act aggressively. People
who feel that aggressiveness is unacceptable in each circumstance or have moral principles
calling for nonviolent behavior may recognize that there are more effective alternatives to
hostility. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Anger and aggression can be prolonged by using angry rumination to prolong the effects
of a tiny situational component that would otherwise have vanished within a short amount of
time. Rumination is linked to both direct and displacement aggressiveness, arousal, increased
blood pressure, negative affect, and aggressive cognitions. Certain conditions make it more
challenging to use higher-order thinking skills and self-control to restrain aggressive urges. High
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arousal makes it harder to concentrate on other things or be as rational as normal, hindering the
cognitive control of violence. Alcohol is a well-known deterrent to self-control but can also boost
aggression by reducing inhibitions and weakening executive function and emotional regulation.
Aggression is subsequently increased by both executive dysfunction and poor emotion
management. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Media
American youngsters use media on average for seven hours a day, and a sizable portion
of this exposure involves violent acts. This has made media violence a big problem for decades.
However, nobody can demonstrate that a particular fictional portrayal was the main reason for a
certain act of violence. Numerous meta-analyses have found a strong correlation between actual
aggressive thoughts and behaviors and violent media, proving that media violence increases the
chance of aggressive behavior. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Not everyone who is exposed to media violence will inevitably become more violent,
according to researchers. Media violence is neither a necessary nor sufficient source of
aggression and violence in real life. As with the risk variables for alcohol consumption, frequent
exposure to violent media should be considered a significant risk factor for actual aggression.
(Kassin et al., 2021)
Reducing Aggression
Improvements in education, moral reasoning, empathy, and social competence can lead to
more pro-social and less antisocial behaviors. Empathy is likely to improve with improved
education and moral reasoning. Programs and interventions designed to teach empathy include
aggression replacement training, social competence training, and aggression control. Successful
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interventions for reducing reactive aggression include self-control, cognitive reappraisal,
cognitive control, and mindfulness. (Kassin et al., 2021)
Self-control programs teach individuals to control impulses, while cognitive reappraisal
trains them to interpret provocations in neutral, less emotional terms. Interventions for cognitive
control put a strong emphasis on emotion control in response to emotionally charged stimuli.
Finally, mindfulness instruction teaches people to accept their emotional and physical states.
Serious issues with aggression, lack of empathy, social skills, and self-control may necessitate
longer-term therapy and treatment. Serotonin levels can be balanced via medication, behavior
modification therapies, and learning concepts that promote nonaggressive behavior. (Kassin et
al., 2021)
Based on the relative deprivation theory, Greitemeyer and Sagioglou (2016) conducted
seven studies to examine the connection between socioeconomic level (SES) and violence. The
findings consistently supported the relative deprivation model's prediction that those with low
SES tended to be more aggressive. Aggression-stoking frustration can be lessened by better
economic situations, healthier living conditions, and social support. According to social
psychological studies, promoting collaboration and common objectives amongst groups might
help lessen violence and hostility between them. (Kassin et al., 2021)
The tendency to engage in bullying and other aggressive behaviors can be reduced by
socialization techniques that promote prosocial conduct. To effectively treat violent adolescent
offenders, multisystemic therapy (MST) addresses issues at many distinct levels, including those
in the family, peer group, school, and neighborhood. Bullying incidence has been reduced by
comprehensive programs that function on several levels. The most effective anti-bullying
initiatives include long-lasting and intense interventions, such as parent conferences, disciplinary
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measures, improved playground supervision, school conferences, classroom management, and
individualized work with bullied students.
In a meta-analysis study on the risk of becoming a victim or bully due to parenting styles,
Lereya et al. (2012) found that negative parenting behavior is associated with a small to
moderate increase in risk for becoming a bully/victim and small to moderate effects on victim
status at school to help develop intervention programs. Programs for intervening against bullying
should start before children attend school and focus on groups outside of schools, such as
families. It is crucial to understand that there are numerous actions that can be taken to lessen
hostility. Since there are many factors that contribute to aggression, only a variety of approaches
will allow us to achieve this objective.
Conclusion
There are many varied reasons that might contribute to an aggressive inclination, which
can all take different shapes. Aggressive conduct, according to social psychologists, is influenced
by culture, gender, personality traits, environmental circumstances, and the media. However,
according to experts, behavioral models and therapies intended to lessen aggressive behavior are
promising.
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References
Chadee, D. (2022). Theories in social psychology (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN:
9781119627883.
Greitemeyer, T., & Sagioglou, C. (2016). Subjective socioeconomic status causes aggression:
A test of the theory of social deprivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
111(2), 178–194. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspi0000058
Kassin, S., Fein, S., & Markus, H. R. (2021). Social psychology (11th ed). Cengage Learning.
ISBN: 9780357122846
Lereya, S. T., Samara, M., & Wolke, D. (2013). Parenting behavior and the risk of becoming a
victim and a bully/victim: A meta-analysis study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37(12), 1091-
1108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.03.001
