Behaviorism- chapter 9
•Has the largest impact of all theories
oOrigins go back to early 1900’s
•John Watson (founder)
Definitions
•Classical Condition (CC)
•Unconditional Stimuli
Understanding Phobias
•John B. Watson was the first person to study human emotions systematically
•Because of his and subsequent research, we now recognize that most of our
emotional reactions learned and they are learned mainly through classical
conditioning
•Watson & Raynor began their research by testing a number of infants to see
their reactions to situations
Treating Phobias
•Mary Cover Jones- Watsons student
oShe was the first to show that classical conditioning could help people
overcome fears as well as acquire them
oJones’ most famous subject was Peter, a toddler with a fear of rabbits
oShe use counterconditioning
•Systematic desensitization (Joseph Wolpe, 1958)
oTrain person to fall into deep relaxation (meditation)
oCreate hierarchy of fear eliciting stimuli
oGradually (from least to most) pair each item of hierarchy with relaxation
▪w/o producing fear (b/c of deep relaxation)
▪combines counterconditioning, generalization, and extinction
•Flooding
oProlonged exposure to the feared stimulus
oProvides maximal opportunity for the fear response to extinguish
oProblem: may involve too much stress for the phobic individual
•Operant Conditioning
oA type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on
the consequence that follows that behavior
oThe frequency will increase if the consequence
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
•Author of Law of Effect
•Behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently
•Behaviors with unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently
Reinforcement/ Punishment
•Reinforcement- increases the likelihood of behavior
•Punishment- Decreases the likelihood of behavior
Positive Reinforcement
•Strengthens a response by increasing productivity
Negative Reinforcement
•Strengthens a response by reducing
Positive punishment
•Something is added to the environment that you do not like
Negative Punishment
•Taking away something you do like
Shaping
•Reinforcement
Partial Reinforcement
•A schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows only some correct responses
Fixed Ratio Schedules
•Rewards a response only after some
Variable- Ratio Schedule
•Rewards an unpredictable average number of correct responses
•High rates of responding with little pause in order to increase chances of
getting reinforcement
Fixed- Interval Schedule
•Rewards only first correct response after some defined period of time
•Produces gradual responses at first and increases
Variable- Interval Schedule
•Rewards the first correct response after and unpredictable amount of time
•Produces slow and steady responses
•Ex: “pop” quiz in class
oParent tending to the cries of a child. Parents will not typically attend to the
child each time it cries. But periodically show up in the room to show them that
everything is okay
Radical Behaviorism Pros & cons
•Pros- “Scientific”
oDeals with observable, measurable phenomena
oRigorous methodology
•Con- Ignores the things that make humans “human”
oCognitions
oEmotions
o“Free Will”
Multimodal Therapy & BASIC ID
•Arnold Lazarus
oDeveloped due to notice lack of longitudinal results w/ behaviorism
▪Behaviors: bx they want to + or – (measurable goals)
▪Affective processes: current level of emotion (emotions that are problem)
▪Sensations: awareness of phys sensations associated
▪I
▪C
▪I
▪D
Theoretical
Background
•Very much like HCAP process
•Classical conditioning
•Operant conditioning
Functional Analysis
•Identify
oAntecedent stimuli
oOrganismic (mediating) variables
oResponse (observable) variables
oConsequences
Integration to Common Factors
•Commitment
oBehavior is purposeful
oConditioning from environment/reinforcement
oContingency Mgt. (accountability)
oCommitment to right behavior at expense of emotion
oCommitment to right behavior leads to positive emotions (hope/passion)
Chapter 10- Cognitive Behavioral therapy
•RET holds that virtually all serious emotional problems directly stem from
magical empirically invalidated thinking
•If disturbance-creating ideas are vigorously disputed by logical/empirical thinking, they
can be eliminated or minimized and will ultimately cease to reoccur
•Hedonism - a philosophical term referring to the concept of seeking pleasure
and avoiding pain
oIn REBT responsible hedonism refers to maintaining pleasure over the long-term
by avoiding short-term pleasures that may lead to pain, such as alcohol or
cocaine with other significant examples
•Rationality : Thinking, feeling, and acting in ways to
•Irrational Beliefs : unreasonable views or convictions that produce emotional
and behavioral problems
oComes from mind’s eye (mental optometry)
oBeing vulnerable to emotional disturbance for both social and biological
reasons is a core view of Ellis
oAlthough individuals desire to be successful and happy, many irrational
beliefs interfere with these goals. (Leads to obsessive passions)
Factors of REBT
•One reason that Ellis uses such powerful and direct therapeutic techniques in his view
how entrenched individuals hold irrational beliefs
•Emotion vs. Truth
•Some of this is due to biological factors
Premise
•The ABC model refers to:
oA: Activating event that causes positive or negative emotional and
behavioral consequences
oB: Belief system, what we believe about (A) causes
oC: Consequence. The “real” cause of upsets is themselves and not what
happens to them
▪We will always act on what we believe…
oATTITUDE
Disturbances about Disturbances
•Musterbation : Albert Ellis’
•Disputing these primary beliefs
Goals of Therapy
•General goal of REBT is to help clients minimize emotional disturbances, decrease
self- defeating behaviors, and become happier
•If individuals can think rationally and have fewer irrational beliefs, Ellis believes they
will live happier lives
oCreating more positive emotions at expense of negative emotions
Assessment
•REBT therapists try to assess
Counselor/ client Relationship
•Rational- emotive therapists do not believe a warm relationship between counselor
and counselee is a necessary or a sufficient condition for effective personality change
Insight
•Acknowledging that disturbances largely come from irrational beliefs not from the past
•Learning how one has reindoctrinated oneself with irrational beliefs from the past
oThrough repetition
Cognitive Therapy
•Aaron Beck was the major contributor of cognitive theory, developed
•As individuals develop, they think about their world and themselves in different ways
•Their beliefs and assumptions about people, events, and themselves are
cognitive schemas
•Individuals have automatic thoughts that are derived from these beliefs that they are
not aware
•How individuals shift from adaptive beliefs to distorted beliefs
Automatic Thoughts
•Notions or ideas that occur without effort or choice, that can be distorted, and lead
to emotional responses.
•They are subject to cognitive distortions. Cognitive therapists have identified a variety of
cognitive distortions that can be found in different psychological disorders
•All or nothing Thinking: engaging in black and white thinking
oThinking in extremes, such as all good or all bad, with nothing in the middle
▪“Nothing works out for me”
▪“This always happens”
▪“Nobody cares about me”
•Selective Abstraction : Selecting one idea or fact from an event while ignoring other
facts in order to support negative thinking
oSeeking things in the environment to conform to the situation
oEx: bad grade defines you
•Mind Reading: Believing that we know the thought in another person’s mind
•Negative Prediction: Believing something bad is going to happen even though there is
no evidence to support this prediction
o“I just know that I’m not going to do well”
o“I just know that I’m never going to meet someone”
•Catastrophizing: Exaggerating the potential or real consequences of an event
and becoming fearful of the consequences
•Overgeneralization: When individuals view of oneself based on errors or mistakes
that one has made. It is a type of overgeneralizing which affects one’s view of oneself
o“I’m not smart enough”; “I’m ugly”; etc….
•Labeling:
•Self-Monitoring:
•Challenging absolutes:
Chapter 11- Reality theory
•William Glasser
oStudied chemical engineering, clinical psychology (denied due to not
accepting his dissertation), Medical doctor
oDissatisfied with psychoanalysis and medications (victim of circumstance
w/o control over life)
oPeople are :
▪unhappy with relationships
▪Focus on the here and now
▪Robert Wubbolding: director at William Glasser institute
•Philosophy w/ Key concepts
oThe perceptions and images that individuals have of the world around
them influences how individuals needs are met.
▪We then develop strategies to meet these needs
oWe cannot know reality itself but only our perceptions which we then
compare to others’ perceptions of reality
•Basic Beliefs
oFocus on individual responsibility for choice (meaning, experience) Life is about
making choices
oFocus on the unsatisfied needs, which are often the cause of problems
oThe only person you can control if yourself
oBehavior = an attempt to get what we want
oFocus symptoms = avoid facing unsatisfied needs
•Needs
oBelonging: The urge to belong to something
oPower: The need to control others and be better than others
▪It’s how we make these choices to get that need met
oFreedom: How we wish to live our lives, express ourselves, and worship
▪Also choices about who we associate with, what we wish to read or write
oFun: Included are hobbies and things we do for amusement such as
sports, reading, collecting, laughing
•Choice
oOften choices are made without awareness that we are choosing.
▪Automatic behaviors
oAccording to Glasser, we choose to be depressed
oHe prefers to say a person is not depressed but chooses to depress or is in the
act of depressing
oThe choices are made without awareness
oHowever, Glasser believes individuals can control their choices to depress,
to anger, or to be anxious
•Behavior
oFor Glasser, behavior is how we act to deal with ourselves and the world
around us
oIndividuals respond in very creative ways, sometimes very positive such
as through music or art
•Total Behavior
oRefers to 4 components in reality therapy:
▪Doing: If it’s not working, change the behavior. It is up to you to
choose how you feel
▪Thinking: voluntary and involuntary thoughts, including daydreams
and night dreams, make up this aspect of total behavior
▪Feeling: Included are emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, etc.
▪Physiology: voluntary and involuntary mechanisms such as sweating,
fight or flight
•WDEP
oWants: What is their need?
oDirection and Doing: What they are currently doing?
oEvaluation: Is what they are doing working or not?
oPlanning: What they need to do; doing differently.
•Why would someone choose to depress, to be anxious, or otherwise to be miserable?
oThe payoffs:
▪By choosing to depress or anxietize, individuals can keep angering
under control
▪People may choose to depress or anxietize to get others to help them
▪Choosing pain and misery can excuse an individual’s unwillingness to
do something more effective
▪Choosing to depress or anxietize can help individuals gain power or
control over others.
Chapter 12- Feminist Theory
•Feminist is diverse, compromising of social theories, politics, and moral principles. It
was based on experiences of women and inequalities they experienced social and
politically
•Karen Horney (1966)
oPsychoanalyst; reject “penis envy”
oWomen envy men’s power and social status
•No single individual can be identified as the founder of this approach, reflecting a
central theme of feminist collaboration
•The beginnings of feminism began in the 1800’s (1st wave)
•The women’s movement of the 1960’s (2nd wave)
oDefining decade for culture (good & bad)
oAbortion rights
•Modern times consists of LGBTQ movement including men and women
Assumptions about Human Nature
•We exist in a political and social system that is male dominated: Patriarchy
•In order for women to experience changes in personal lives, political changes (to
social institutions) must occur
•Gender schemas/ sex-role stereotypes limit development
oIn society, men have more power than women
oWomen are taught to rely on men
•Societal Gender role expectations profoundly influence a person’s identity from (or
even before) birth
•Feminists recognized that development of women was judged by male norms
•Females are raised in a culture grounded in sexism, and understanding
internalized oppression is central to this approach
oFeminists would classify the Bible as being sexist (created male and female)
•Patriarchy
oMasculine behaviors and thought patterns are the norm
oHierarchy of value and power based on gender, race, class, sexual
orientation, etc.
oMen and Women are judged differently for the same characteristics
oSex:
▪Biological: male/female
▪Previously considered binary
▪Now increasingly seen as fluid
oGender:
▪Social construct
▪Masculine/ Feminine
▪Occurs on a continuum
•Gender Socialization
oFirst question asked?
▪Boy or girl?
oMales preferred in many cultures
oInfant behavior across gender is similar: treatment is different
▪Baby’s clothing predicted how “it” was treated
▪Media, teachers, peers, etc. often provide and reinforce gender
role expectations (i.e., what is socially appropriate for female and
males)
▪Over time, a gender role schema develops:
•We interpret our world based on our gender expectations
oPuberty
▪Sex differences become visually apparent
▪Conflict for girls because of how society views the female body and
role of female sexuality- conflicting
•Importance of appearance (especially for girls): perpetuated
by women or men?
•Sexual double standard
oAdulthood
▪Working mom/superwoman
▪Role strain/ conflict
oWhat feminist theory does..
▪IS aware of what he/she brings to the table (own values)
▪Form egalitarian relationship
•Demystifies therapy
•Respects what client brings to therapy
•Is aware of power balance; gives clients permission to
be understood
•Self-discloses own struggles (if/ when therapeutically appropriate)
▪Considers social, political, historical, & cultural contexts..
then psychological things
▪Supports (interpersonally, women’s groups)
▪Educates
•Power analysis
•Gender role analysis
•Bibliotherapy
▪Is technically eclectic, but…
•Does assertiveness training
•Reframes schemas
•Techniques and Strategies
oEmpowerment
oSelf-disclosure
oGender-role or Social Identity Analysis
oGender- role intervention
oBibliotherapy
•What about Men?
oMen can benefit from feminist therapy
▪Focus on socialization
▪Attaining level of masculinity
▪Drugs/alcohol, family role issues
oMen can be feminist therapists
▪Feminist therapy does not refer to who the therapist or client is,
but rather the framework
•Limitations from a diversity perspective
oAdvocating for change in the social structure can be problematic when
working with women who do not share these beliefs
oIF therapists do not fully understand and respect the cultural values of
clients from diverse groups, they run risk of imposing their own values.
▪If don’t ascribe to their beliefs, you’re the enemy…
▪Ultimately, however, this is exactly what they want to do
•Contributions of Feminist Therapy
oHas paved the way for gender-sensitive practice and an awareness of the
impact of the cultural context and multiple oppressions
oHas emphasis on social change, which can lead to a transformation in society
oCalled attention to child abuse, incest, rape, sexual harassment, and
domestic violence
oDemanded action in cases of sexual misconducts at a time when male
therapists misused the trust placed in them by their female clients
oCan incorporate principles and techniques
•Limitations of Feminist therapy
oTherapists do not take a value neutral stance
oTherapists must be careful not to impose their cultural values on a client
oTherapists may alienate clients if they challenge societal values that
subordinate certain groups without for gaining a clear understanding of the
clients culture
oThe heavy environmental/ sociopolitical may detract from exploring a
clients intrapsychic experiences
oMore empirical support is needed for this approach
oTraining in FT is often offered only sporadically in a non-systematic way,
and there is a lack of quality control
•Integrations of Common Factors
oHope for social change/ individual change
oSelf-acceptance/ not taking on labels (obsessive passion): to a degree but
can come militant which is obsessive
oStrive to follow harmonious passions
oInvolvement in causes and helping other achieve their goals
oCommitment to change, taking back power
Chapter 13- Family System Theory
•Early approached focused on individual therapy (psychoanalysis/ psychodynamic)
•Patients were treated separately from their families
•Impact of the child guidance movement
oChild guidance clinics were established on the premise that
psychological problems began in childhood
oView focused on early intervention
oJohn Bowlby theorized children’s symptoms were often the result of
family distress
•Nathan Ackerman, psychiatrist (grandfather of family therapy)
oFamily consists of a system of individuals/ subgroup within larger group
oIntrapsychic processes contribute to pathology
•Jay Haley
oIn collaboration with his wife, Madeliene Richeport-Haley, Jay Haley
has produced a number of therapist training videotapes
oDominant figure in strategic- family therapy
oStudied under 3 of the most influential pioneers in the evolution of
Family therapy
oFocus was on patients actively doing something about their problems rather
than understanding why they had problems
•Virginia Satir
oDescribed family roles that serve to stabilize expected characteristic
behavior patterns in a family
•Kurt Lewin’s research speculating that a group is more than the sum of its parts
•Interdependence among group members seen as a stabilizing factor for
maladaptive behaviors (accountability)
•Distinct between the process
•Concepts:
oOpen:
▪allows more information to come in
▪Preferable to closed ones
▪Allows situations to be seen from different perspectives
oClosed:
▪Have varying degrees of inner circles
▪Those outside of the system completely are viewed as having nothing
to contribute (I.e., “they would understand the way we do things”
•Feedback Loops
oThe feedback loop as a path which info can be traced back from one point in
a system and back to the point of origin
oFeedback loops are two types: positive and negative
•Homeostasis & Equilibrium
o“systems” are resistant to change?
▪This is true EVEN IF the change might seem to be a desirable one!
•Distancer- Pursuer Dyad
oA dyad is just a group of two people
oCircular causality
oCould occur within relationships, marriage, friendships, etc.
•Overfunctioner-Underfunctioner Dyad
oIn the over- under Dyad, one member of the couple, (the overfunctioner) is
very responsible. This person wants things to be planned out. The
underfunctioner maybe less responsible, more fun loving, more spontaneous,
etc.
•Family Therapy
oFamilies which are cohesive and adaptable best serve the functions of members
oFamily systems attempt to achieve homeostasis (i.e., if mom and dad are in
a fight a child may develop a problem to shift the focus (Cybernetic/
Dynamic Models)
oMultigenerational transmission of both strengths and problems are
common (e.g., grandmother, mother, daughter all have been sexually
abused).
Theories of Biblical Counseling
•Nouthetic counseling
oBased on Greek word “noutheteo,” which means admonish
oJ. Adams rejected psychology as a source for helping man
•Distinctives of Personality Theory
oBehavior gives rise to emotion?
▪Not always
oAttitudes are habitual patters of thought which strongly influence actions
oFeelings are equated with desire, and desire is tied to sinful acts.
▪Is all desire sinful? Of course not.
•Basic presuppositions
oScriptures are our only need: They contain “all things necessary for life
and godliness.” – 2 Peter 1:3
oProper proposition for counseling is training in the Bible
•Nature of Maladjustment
oSin is the cause of pathology
•Nature of Counseling
oThe core of a Christian approach is to “Lay aside the old self and put on the
new self”
oCounseling should focus on Changing behaviors
oConfrontation is counseling is viewed as inseparable from pastoral authority
oThe goals of Nouthetic counseling are stated to be the same goals of discipleship
oMental health is then equated with sin. . . . .
oNouthetic counseling has a strong similarity to legal counseling in that
is confrontive, gives advise, and imparts information
oNouthetic counseling implies 3 things:
▪A change from sinful patterns of living
•The Process of Counseling
oCounseling with a non- Christian
▪Pre- Counseling is a precondition to in-depth counseling.
▪Pre-counseling is helping the client deal with a problem in order to
prepare them for the presentation of the Gospel; after they become
a Christian, then they will be ready for true counseling .
▪Dangers in this approach
oCounselor introduces God into every problem as the center of the solution
oClient responsibility is stressed
•Critique
oNouthetic’s is not the best model for counseling, according to Christian
counselor Gary Collins
•Why study psychological theories?
oIsn’t the bible sufficient to meet all human needs?
▪Jesus, not the bible itself, is all sufficient to meet human needs
▪Is the bible essential for an accurate approach to psychotherapy?
oIsn’t the integration of psychology and theology mixing two
incompatible systems?
▪Psychology is a unified system
▪There is much in psychology that is compatible with the Bible
▪Three core principles
•All Truth is God’s Truth (and is consistent with the Bible)
oEverything in the Bible is True
oHowever, the Bible does not contain EVERYTHING that is true. . . .
•Two places to find Truth
oThe Bible (Divine Truth)
oSources outside of the Bible (Empirical Truth)
▪Scientific method
▪Observation
▪Rational Thought
•Finding Truth outside of the Bible
oMust be evaluated....in light of the truth
oIF there are no contradictions, we are free to investigate and use those sources
•Are all psychological problems spiritual?
oOriginal sin
▪Many problems that people deal with are a product of mankind’s fall
from God’s grace
▪Other problems are from our own fault, poor choices, etc.
•The need for Christian Counselors and Psychologists
oThe Christian counselor is trained in the spiritual side of people, whereas
most non- Christian professionals are not
oWe have Scriptures that speak to many problems that people undergo in life
oWe have a counselor for us to draw discernment from: The holy Spirit but He
also uses our education and experience. God uses people. . .
Theories of Counseling with Cognitive approach
•Man is made in the image of God
oWhat is the image though. We don’t know what God looks like. . .
oInterpretation is His Character (Nature)
▪Revealed in capacity got
•Hope
•Commitment
•Accountability
•Passion
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