PSYC 365
RESEARCH PAPER: FINAL SUBMISSION ASSIGNMENT INSTRUCTIONS
OVERVIEW
Now that you have thoroughly investigated and gathered research through the previous two
assignments, you are ready to write a research paper addressing Classical and Instrumental
(Operant) Conditioning Theories. This culminating assignment will provide a research
foundation for your work in the field as a professional. Understanding foundational theories of
learning is imperative to providing the best opportunities for learning in various settings.
Completion of this assignment will improve research and communication skills while increasing
your knowledge of these theories.
INSTRUCTIONS
Create a formal, current APA formatted paper using the following specifications and outline.
● Body of the paper should be a minimum of 8 pages (this does not include the title page or
reference page)
● Current APA style is required.
● Minimum of 10 scholarly peer reviewed journal articles addressing Classical and/or
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning, published within the most recent 5 years, as well as
the textbook, and the Bible, must be included in both in-text citations and the reference
page.
● Websites are not acceptable sources.
● Do not include direct quotes. Instead, paraphrase information from the scholarly sources
(using in-text citations) in order to demonstrate your mastery of each concept.
● Do not use first person. Write in a formal college-level essay style.
● Current APA Level 1 sub-headings must be used throughout the paper. The 6 main
sections of the paper will address the following topics:
1. Historical Development of Each Theory—For each theory, discuss prominent persons
and their corresponding historic contributions. Include how each theory developed over
time.
2. Key Concepts of Each Theory—This section will focus on the major points of each
theory. How is new information acquired? What are the goals of learning? What is
unique about each theory?
3. Compare and Contrast Research Findings for Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning—This
section will compare and contrast findings from the 10 peer-reviewed scholarly research
articles. Do not copy your work from the annotated bibliography. Instead, integrate your
findings as you compare and contrast research from the textbook and scholarly journal
articles.
4. Learning Implications—This section will discuss the implications for how learning takes
place in the classroom. How does Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning work to increase
learning? How might a teacher encourage learning using concepts of motivational
mechanisms and stimulus control?
PSYC 365
5. Biblical Worldview—Discuss what the Bible says regarding learning behaviors in
humans. How would a biblical worldview impact a learner? Use scripture in context and
thoroughly explain application of the scripture.
6. Most Significant Learning—Explain one factor which you found to be the most
significant information learned in this course. (Do not use first person.) Substantiate this
decision with research support citing scholarly peer-reviewed journal articles and the
textbook.
Use the following as an outline for your paper:
Title Page
Introduction
Historical Development
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
Key Concepts
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
Integration of Research Findings
Education Implications
Biblical Worldview
Most Significant Learning
Conclusion
Reference Page
Note: Your assignment Note: Your assignment will be checked for originality via the Turnitin
plagiarism tool.
RESEARCH PAPER 1
Research Paper
Name
Date
RESEARCH PAPER 2
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Introduction
Learning is acquiring new behaviours or modifying already established behaviours and
mental states through education, training, or one-on-one tutoring. Classical and operant
conditioning are two unique strategies that may be utilized to teach and change behaviour.
Classical conditioning, often known as Pavlovian conditioning, is a strategy for changing an
unconditioned stimulus into a conditioned response. Ivan Pavlov developed this strategy. A true
input is coupled with a stimulus that evokes a certain reaction in the learning approach known as
classical conditioning. This causes the learner to have a specific response. An alternate viewpoint
on learning as a procedure of adaptation is called instrumental conditioning, which is also
sometimes referred to as operant conditioning. To put it another way, operant conditioning
occurs when the activity results change the likelihood that the behaviour will be repeated in the
future, regardless of whether or not the activity is repeated (Coskun, 2019).
Comparing the classical conditioning theory with the operant conditioning theory is the
purpose of this investigation. The background and genesis of each approach will be covered first,
followed by a discussion of each theory's core principles, the research that supports and validates
each theory, the educational implications of each theory, and the most important takeaways from
each theory. This study will also discuss the biblical worldviews regarding classical and operant
conditioning.
RESEARCH PAPER 3
Historical Development
Classical Conditioning
In 1897, Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist, took the initial steps toward what would
become known as classical conditioning. Pavlov published the findings of an experiment in
which he worked with dogs and examined their reactions to various stimuli. In this experiment,
Pavlov observed the dogs' replies. As a part of the experiment, a bell was rung near the dogs, and
once it had finished ringing, the dogs were given food. When a bell rang, and food was presented
to the dogs, their mouths became moist. The dogs' tongues remained moist even after the bell
rang, and there was no longer any food. The research by Pavlov on how reflexes may be taught is
called “classical conditioning.” In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus, like a bell, is
provided right before an unconditioned stimulus, which in this case is food. Food is the
unconditioned stimulus. The animal will start to salivate as a result, which is an unconditioned
response that may be turned into a conditioned response by adding a ringing bell as a conditioned
stimulus (Domjan, 2018).
Ivan Pavlov's laboratory served as the location for the first concerted examination of
classical conditioning, carried out by S. G. Vul'fson and A. T. Snarskii. This study concentrated
its attention on the salivary glands since they are the first digestive glands to start working after a
meal. Despite the size of the salivary glands, it is possible to access them through a fistula.
Vul'fson placed sand, sour water, dry food, and wet food in the mouths of the puppies to observe
how their saliva altered. The findings of this investigation indicate that after tasting the items in
their mouths, the dogs only salivated while viewing them (Domjan, 2018).
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Edwin Twitmyer was the first to independently invent classical conditioning, and he
included it in the dissertation for his doctoral degree that he handed into the University of
Pennsylvania in 1902. Students' knee-jerk reflexes were routinely tested by ringing a bell 0.5
seconds before striking the patellar tendon, which is situated beneath the knee cap. This was
done to simulate the stimulus of a direct blow to the tendon. The patellar tendon is located just
under the kneecap. Since some of the students' reflexes were activated by repeated efforts of the
same sort, the bell was necessary to elicit this reaction from every student. Twitmyer's
conclusions received little attention since he did not investigate how they impacted other factors.
When both stimuli pertain to the same topic, it is difficult to complete these activities. To study
the fundamental mechanisms of associative learning, it is also necessary for the stimuli to be
interconnected and to evolve on their own. In his subsequent conditioning experiment, Pavlov
utilized procedures in which the stimuli were intended to be connected from various locations. In
the study of classical conditioning, Ivan Pavlov's trials are still regarded as the most effective
method (Domjan, 2018).
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
Thorndike was the first person to explore instrumental (operant) conditioning in the
laboratory and the classroom. Thorndike assembled a variety of puzzle boxes to conduct his
experiment on kittens. At the beginning of the experiment, young and hungry cats were put in
puzzle boxes, and food was placed outside the box so the animals could see it. The cats were
then given access to the food within the box. The goal for the kittens was to figure out how to get
the food into their mouths. And they had to do it without using the box. This experiment used
many puzzle boxes. To access the food within each, a unique method was required. In box A, for
example, a ring had to be pulled to remove a lock. That lock prevented the door from opening
RESEARCH PAPER 5
from the outside. This would allow you to unlock the door. Initially, it took the cats some time to
select the correct response, but as they received additional training on the assignment, their
reaction time became significantly faster (Domjan, 2018).
The studies of Thorndike taught us a great deal about how animals think and how they
may be educated. Thorndike's study led to developing and applying the law of impact, which
incorporates S–R learning. Consistent with the rule of effect, "When something gratifying
follows a reaction R to a stimulus S, the link between the stimulus S and response R becomes
stronger. When an irritating event follows a response, the S–R connection weakens." More than a
century ago, Thorndike's theories on the law of effect and S–R learning were initially introduced
to the public.
Nevertheless, despite this, they continue to be relevant since they make up an essential
part of his S–R system. When using the S-R approach, the individual is instructed to choose the
reaction R whenever the stimulus S is present. The study of behaviors that are difficult to alter
benefits greatly from the application of the law of effects (Domjan, 2018).
Key Concepts
Classical Conditioning
People can absorb knowledge most quickly and painlessly possible by using classical
conditioning, a sort of unconscious learning technique. The fundamental rules of classical
conditioning, which are utilized in educating students on new ideas, are the neutral stimulus, the
unconditioned stimulus, the unconditioned response, and the conditioned stimulus, respectively.
A stimulus is said to be neutral if it does not affect a person's behaviour. A stimulus that
produces a response from the recipient that has not been conditioned does not condition the
RESEARCH PAPER 6
recipient. A natural reaction to stimuli happens in response to a stimulus. A stimulus that has the
potential to elicit a conditioned response is referred to as a conditioned stimulus. In the
experiment conducted by Pavlov, the ringing of the bell served as a stimulus that had no effect.
The dogs' natural response to the unconditioned stimulus, which was the meal, was salivation in
anticipation of the food. The food itself was the unconditioned stimulus. The dog's salivation
represented the conditioned response, triggered by the sound of the bell, which served as the
conditioned stimulus (Domjan, 2018).
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
The ideas of reinforcement and punishment are the two most important ones to
understand in the field of instrumental conditioning. Any activity that reinforces or improves the
chance of later behaviour is considered a form of reinforcement. The process of positively
reinforcing behavior is the one that takes place when an instrumental response follows an
appetite-inducing input. This occurs when a parent acknowledges his daughter's efforts to clean
up her room by rewarding her with a cookie. The removal of a negative consequence as a result
of a certain behavior is an example of negative reinforcement, a type of reward. Both positive
and negative reinforcement achieve the same goal: increasing the probability that the desired
behavior will occur (Lee et al., 2021). A form of instrumental conditioning, punishment involves
associating a negative stimulus with a positive instrumental response to produce the desired
behavioral outcome.
One illustration of this would be a parent chastising their child for running into the street
without looking. Instrumental conditioning can form negative punishment, in which an
unpleasant stimulus is associated with an instrumental response to create a negative association
RESEARCH PAPER 7
between the two. A negative penalty will be assessed if you choose to protect yourself from the
rain by opening an umbrella (Domjan, 2018).
Integration of Research Findings
First, Debeer et al. (2014) demonstrated how strategies based on operant conditioning
might assist individuals in recalling past events. People can use these techniques to recall
particular prior experiences, which can benefit them. People are more interested in this field of
study now that they know that memories play a crucial role in various mental disorders, such as
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). More individuals have sought to study this subject
(PTSD) in recent years.
Duits et al. (2015) discovered that when individuals with anxiety were presented with
conditioned safety cues, they responded with a greater sensation of dread than those without
anxiety. The study's results indicate that safety signals are critical for coping with fear and that
persons with anxiety disorders have difficulty reacting appropriately to safety cues. The results
demonstrate the significance of safety signals in terms of their capacity to reduce anxiety.
Therefore, they are essential components of anxiety disorder treatment regimens and must be
incorporated. Therefore, this is the next logical step. When more research is conducted on the
many forms of safety signals that might aid a large number of individuals with anxiety, it is
crucial to keep in mind the results of this study. The National Institute of Mental Health-funded
this research (NIMH). This is because the study's findings potentially benefit many individuals.
According to the study by Jensen et al. (2015), conscious and unconscious stimuli might
impact physiological activity. This method of conditioning is known as “classical conditioning.”
It is essential to keep this study's findings in mind when examining undesirable habits. The study
RESEARCH PAPER 8
demonstrates that neither awareness of conditioned stimuli nor conditioned responses are
required to form conditioned responses or conditioned behaviours. This information makes it
feasible to examine the evolution of responses through time.
Based on Limpens et al. (2014) findings, operant conditioning may have a role in the
formulation and application of therapy for drug addicts. This treatment may be most effective for
drug abusers who are not physically dependent on the substance. We do not know enough about
the impact that operant conditioning may play on these matters. As stated previously, this is
because the potential function that operant conditioning may play in these processes is not fully
known.
According to the study by Martin-Fardon and Weiss (2016), withdrawal symptoms
induced by stimuli connected to addictive substances are significantly more difficult to overcome
than withdrawal symptoms induced by other sorts of rewards. Also, the study results indicate that
behaviours not associated with any type of reward are far more difficult to break than habits
associated with several types of rewards, making it much simpler to break such habits.
Education Implications
We employ teaching, training, and tutoring to learn new behaviours or alter our current
ones. Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning is one approach to assist children in focusing on their
academics in the classroom. When youngsters communicate with their classmates and instructors
at school, they develop crucial skills that will benefit them. Teachers utilize several strategies to
manage the classroom to assist students in becoming adjusted to the situation, understanding
what type of conduct is anticipated, and obtaining feedback on their replies (Coskun, 2019).
RESEARCH PAPER 9
Students are driven to study due of reasons other than what they do. One of the essential
things teachers do is make their kids enthused about learning. Teachers may get their kids more
motivated in school by helping them accomplish a task or attain a goal. Students may be able to
study better if they incorporate concepts from multiple incentive systems. How much sensory
control is obtained relies on what sort of reinforcement is employed, positive or negative. Most
of the time, the teacher is the only thing in the classroom that can teach and encourage acceptable
student conduct. This is true for both teaching behaviour and making it stick. Teachers that
continually look at and support excellent classroom conduct will be able to help their students
attain their educational goals and teach them key strategies to improve their behaviour that will
help them in the long term (Domjan, 2018).
Biblical Worldview
Some parts of the book of Proverbs demonstrate what the Bible has to say about effective
teaching. Proverbs 22:6 states, “Start children off on the way they should go, and even when they
are old they will not turn from it (Mohler, 2007).” Children are constantly acquiring new
knowledge and absorbing the teachings they are given and the behaviours they observe in adults.
In this text, God instructs us to pay special attention to what we teach our children so that they
can distinguish between good and evil as adults. As a result of this comprehension, students will
be better able to maintain their particular biblical viewpoint as they progress through life and
their educational journey.
The Lord desires that we study new things while maintaining a biblical worldview so that
we may learn more about Him and use a biblical worldview more effectively in our everyday
lives. Each individual's biblical worldview is comprised of several distinct components. These
factors include our biological family, the morality we were taught to accept or disbelieve, the
RESEARCH PAPER 10
education we get, and the external influences we are exposed to. These factors affect everything
we do, from our words to our actions. A genuine biblical worldview is grounded in reality. Since
this is the case, there is no middle ground between right and wrong. We accept these truths
because we have faith in God and Jesus Christ. Everything we attempt to learn must always be
grounded on what God has provided.
Most Significant Learning
Everyone has acquired many new abilities, techniques, and ways of thinking during the
past eight weeks. Positive and negative reinforcement were the most significant things I learned
in this training. According to our textbook, positive reinforcement is an instrumental
conditioning process in which the instrumental (operant) response has a positive likelihood of
leading to the reinforcer. Negative reinforcement, on the other hand, is a sort of instrumental
conditioning in which an unpleasant stimulus is unlikely to follow an instrumental (operant)
response. Positive and negative reinforcement may be used in the classroom to help pupils
achieve their goals (Domjan, 2018).
Both positive and negative reinforcement have been demonstrated to be effective when
applied appropriately by teachers to educate youngsters on how to behave as anticipated. Some
useful information I gained in school has been implemented in my classroom. First, provide your
pupils with clear and consistent guidelines, and then ensure they fully comprehend them. The
next stage is ensuring immediate positive feedback is provided following the activity. In the case
of positive reinforcement, for example, the reward must be delivered immediately after the
desired behaviour. It is essential to find a method of reinforcement that will be engaging for the
pupils with whom you will be working. Teachers must devise a means of rewarding each
student's positive conduct over time for the reinforcement system to be effective.
RESEARCH PAPER 11
Conclusion
In conclusion, there are two methods for training and altering the behaviour of humans:
classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Throughout the years, several scholarly studies
have compared classical conditioning to operant conditioning. Multiple research investigations
have demonstrated that each concept is significant in several ways. Some individuals may choose
one theory over the other based on its fundamental principles, origins, research findings,
implications for education, or a biblical worldview that explains what the Bible says about each
theory.
References
Coşkun, K. (2019). Conditioning Tendency Among Preschool and Primary School Children:
Cross-Sectional Research. Interchange, 50(4), 517-536.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10780-019-09373-1
Debeer, E., Raes, F., Williams, J. M. G., Craeynest, M., & Hermans, D. (2014). Operant
conditioning of autobiographical memory retrieval. Memory, 22(3), 171-183.
Domjan, M. (2018). The principles of learning and behaviour (7th ed.). Cengage.
Duits, P., Cath, D. C., Lissek, S., Hox, J. J., Hamm, A. O., Engelhard, I. M., ... & Baas, J. M.
(2015). UPDATED META‐ANALYSIS OF CLASSICAL FEAR CONDITIONING IN
THE ANXIETY DISORDERS. Depression and anxiety, 32(4), 239-253.
RESEARCH PAPER 12
Jensen, K., Kirsch, I., Odmalm, S., Kaptchuk, T. J., & Ingvar, M. (2015). Classical conditioning
of analgesic and hyperalgesic pain responses without conscious awareness. Proceedings
of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(25), 7863-7867.
Lee, I., Won-Mo, J., Ye-Seul, L., Wallraven, C., & Younbyoung, C. (2021). Operant and
classical learning principles are underlying mind-body interaction in pain modulation: a
pilot fMRI study. Scientific Reports (Nature Publisher Group),
11(1)http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81134-6
Limpens, J. H., Schut, E. H., Voorn, P., & Vanderschuren, L. J. (2014). Using conditioned
suppression to investigate compulsive drug-seeking in rats. Drug and alcohol
dependence, 142, 314-324.
Martin‐Fardon, R., & Weiss, F. (2016). Perseveration of craving: effects of stimuli conditioned
to drugs of abuse versus conventional reinforcers differing in demand. Addiction biology.
Mohler, J. W. (2007). Train up a Child: An Exploration of the Concept of Train from Proverbs
22: 6. Journal of Christian Education & Information Technology, 12, 85-98.
Outline
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Introduction
Historical Development
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
Key Concepts
Classical Conditioning
Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning
Integration of Research Findings
Education Implications
Biblical Worldview
Most Significant Learning
Conclusion
Reference Page
