ATTITUDE AND PREJUDICE
A. ATTITUDE
1. Definition of Attitude
Attitude comes from the Latin word "aptus" which means in
good health and ready to take action. Meanwhile, according to
G.W. Allport in the book Handbook of Social Psychology attitude
is mental readiness, which is a process that takes place within a
person, together with each individual experience, directs and
determines responses to various objects and situations (G.W.
Allport, 1935). According to Morgan (1966), attitude is a tendency
to respond, either positively or negatively, to people, objects or
situations.
A person's attitude is based on the individual's affective,
behavioral, and cognitive components. The affective component
consists of one's emotions and feelings towards a stimulus. The
behavioral component is the way individuals act in responding to
stimuli. The cognitive component consists of individual thoughts
about certain objects, such as facts, knowledge, and beliefs. These
three components of attitude are not always interrelated. Attitude is
one of the factors that determine behavior, in addition to motivation
and societal norms. Therefore, a person's attitude and behavior are
sometimes contradictory.
2. Attitude Theory
The following are some of the theories used to assist in
understanding how attitudes are formed and how traits can change:
a. Learning Theory
This theory was first developed by Carl Hovland and
colleagues (Janis & Kelley, 1953). Learning theory
assumes that attitude is something that can be learned. The
assumption behind this is that the process of forming
attitudes is the same as the process of forming habits. When
someone learns information and facts about an object, they
will also associate their feelings and judgments in the
learning process.
Learning can also be done through reinforcement
(reinforcement) and punishment (punishment). When
someone takes a psychology class and then gets an A and
feels happy about it, then the act of taking an A class will
be strengthened. Meanwhile, if he gets an F and feels
disappointed because of it, then maybe in the future he will
not take a psychology class. Attitudes can also be learned
through imitation, that is, people imitate others, especially
when the other person is someone who has a strong and
important influence.
Message learning is considered to play a role in
changing attitudes. When someone learns a message, there
is a possibility of a change in attitude. However, this
opinion is still being debated. Learning theory also shows
that people will be persuaded when they transfer the affect
of an object to another object associated with that object
(transfer of affect). An example is a car ad. To persuade
potential customers to have a positive attitude towards the
car, the advertiser associates the car with other positive
objects, such as a happy family, with the hope that potential
consumers will associate positive feelings from the happy
family object with the car object so that the positive value
of the car object increases.
b. Cognitive Consistency
The cognitive consistency approach asserts that a
person is always trying to get coherence and meaning in his
cognition. If a person's cognition is consistent and that
person is dealing with new cognitions that might lead to
cognitive inconsistencies, then that person will try to
minimize these inconsistencies..
c. Value expectations
People often respond to persuasive communication
(persuasion) based on incentives, that is, on a cost-benefit
basis. According to this theory, the formation and change of
attitude comes from a process of considering the pros and
cons of various attitudes, and then people will take the
attitude they think is best.
d. Two Processing Theory
One of the two attitude processing approaches is
cognitive response theory. This theory attempts to explain
the process of changing attitudes by trying to understand a
person's cognitive response (negative or positive thinking)
in response to persuasive communication (persuasion). This
theory predicts that attitude changes are influenced by how
strong the counterarguments appear. The stronger the
counter-arguments that appear, the more likely there will be
a change in attitude and vice versa if the counter-arguments
are not strong enough, the more likely there will be no
change in attitude.
In processing persuasive messages, it is found that
people process them systematically and in depth and there
are those who process them without in-depth consideration
and thought.
3. Attitude Measurement
Attitude measurement techniques can be broadly divided into
explicit (direct) and implicit (indirect) methods..
a. Direct Measurement
Direct attitude measurement, that is, the subject is
directly asked for an opinion on how his attitude is towards
a problem or thing that is presented to him. Direct attitude
measurement can be divided into two, namely unstructured
direct measurement and structured direct measurement.
Unstructured direct measurements can be carried out by
way of free interviews, direct observation or by surveys,
such as public opinion surveys. Meanwhile, structured
direct measurement, namely attitude measurement using
questions that have been arranged in such a way in a
predetermined tool, and given directly to the subject under
study. The several structured direct measurement models
are as follows
1) Likert Scale
The Likert scale is a scale used to measure the
perceptions, attitudes or opinions of a person or group
regarding an event or social phenomenon, based on the
operational definition set by the researcher.
The Likert Attitude Scale is composed of several
positive statements (favorable statements) and negative
statements (unfavorable statements) which have five
possible answers (options) with continuum categories,
from the answers that strongly agree to strongly
disagree.
2) Guttman Scale
This scale is used for answers that are clear (firm
and consistent). Like sure - not sure; Yes No; True
False; positive – negative; ever - never; agree –
disagree; etc.
Example:B
Has your boss ever invited you to have a discussion
together?
1. AgreeB
2. Disagree
3) Bogardus Scale
This scale is used to measure social distance
between individuals or groups. Social distance in
question is the level of acceptance of other individuals
or groups. This scale is structured using 7 categories,
which range from extreme acceptance to extreme
rejection. Scores 1-7, where a score of 1 indicates no
social distance, no prejudice.
b. Indirect Measurement
Indirect attitude measurement is the measurement of
attitude by using a test, where the test does not describe an
event or thing that is faced directly. This indirect attitude
measurement can be divided into two, namely projective
and non-projective tests. Examples of tests performed for
this measurement include the Rorschah and TAT tests.
B. The Process of Attitudes and Attitude Changes
Attitudes are formed through four kinds of learning as follows
1. Classic Conditioning
The learning process can occur when a stimulus is always
followed by another stimulus so that the first stimulus becomes a
cue for the second stimulus. Over time a person will become
accustomed to it so that if the first stimulus comes without being
followed by another stimulus, the second stimulus will still appear
following the first stimulus.
2. Instrumental conditioning
The learning process occurs when a behavior brings
pleasant results to someone, then the behavior will be repeated.
Conversely, if a behavior brings unpleasant results for someone,
the behavior will not be repeated or avoided.
3. Learn through observation
The learning process is carried out through observing the
attitudes of other people, then being used as an example to behave
in a similar way. Many of a person's behavior is done just because
of observing other people.
4. Social comparison
The learning process by comparing ourselves with others to
check whether our view of something is right or wrong. We tend to
identify ourselves with others by adopting the ideas and attitudes of
others.
C. Factors Associated with Attitudes
1. Personal Experiences
To be the basis for forming attitudes, personal experience
must leave a strong impression. Therefore, attitudes will be more
easily formed if the personal experience occurs in situations that
involve emotional factors.
2. Significant Others
In general, individuals tend to have a conformist attitude or
in line with the attitudes of people who are considered important.
This tendency is partly motivated by the desire for affiliation and
the desire to avoid conflict with people who are considered
important.
3. Cultural influences
Without realizing it, culture has instilled a line of influence
on a person's attitude towards various problems. Culture has
colored the attitudes of members of society because it is culture
that gives the style of experience of the individuals of society.
4. Mass media
In newspaper or radio reporting or other communication
media, news that should be factual, conveyed objectively, is
influenced by the attitude of the writer. As a result, this will affect
consumer attitudes.
5. Lembaga pendidikan dan lembaga agama
The moral concept and teachings of educational institutions
and religious institutions largely determine the belief system. It is
not surprising that the concept can influence a person's attitude..
6. Emotional Factors
Sometimes, attitudes are emotional statements that aim to
channel frustration or act as a diversion in the ego's defense
mechanisms.
D. Social Attitude
Abu Ahmadi stated that social attitude is individual awareness that
determines real and repeated actions towards social objects. Social
attitudes are expressed not by a person but are noticed by the group of
people. The object is a social object (many people in a group) and is stated
repeatedly. For example, the attitude of the people towards the national
flag, they always respect it in a solemn way and repeatedly on national
days. Another example is the mourning attitude of all group members
because of the death of a hero.
So it can be concluded that social attitude is individual awareness that
determines real actions to behave in a certain way towards other people
and prioritizes social goals rather than personal goals in community life.
The indicators used in this study are honesty, responsibility and tolerance.
E. Definition of Prejudice, Stereotipe, and Discrimination
1. Prejudice
Prejudice is a preconceived negative judgment of a group
and its individual members. Prejudice is an attitude, which is a
different combination of feelings, tendencies to act, and beliefs.
People who are prejudiced may dislike those who are different
from themselves and behave in a discriminatory manner.
2. Stereotipe
Negative evaluations that characterize prejudice are often
supported by negative beliefs, which are called stereotypes.
Stereotypes are sometimes too general, inaccurate, and resistant to
new information. Stereotypes are generalizations about the
characteristics of a group that are not considered to vary from one
person to another. Stereotypes are a natural extension of cognitive
processing limitations. We simplify the task of understanding other
people by categorizing them as members of a group or category
with which we are familiar. It takes more mental effort to consider
a person's various individual characteristics than to label him or her
as a member of a particular group or category. Thus, when we
categorize someone, the categorization is often based on
stereotypes.
3. Discrimination
Brigham (1991) states that discrimination is treated
differently because of membership in a particular ethnic group.
These ethnic groups include ethnicity, language, customs, religion,
nationality and others.
Discrimination is unjustifiable negative behavior towards a
group of people. Prejudice is a negative attitude; discrimination is a
negative behavior. The source of this discrimination is almost the
same as the source of the emergence of prejudice, namely social
influences, in-group and out-group competition, historical factors
and others.
F. Factors Influencing Social Prejudice
1. Competition
Bobo, 1983 (in Baron & Byrne, 1997) states that
competition is the most basic source of prejudice. According to this
view, prejudice occurs because of competition between social
groups in obtaining valuable commodities and opportunities. It can
be said that prejudice develops because of the struggle to achieve
prosperity (struggle for the welfare). This opinion became known
as realistic conflict theory. If the competition continues, a negative
view of others will emerge. Others are considered as enemies.
Competition often makes individuals have negative perceptions of
other people or groups and even creates physical conflict.
Competition always creates at least two different groups. His group
and other people's groups (ingroup and outgroup). The two
opposing positions have an influence on the views and perceptions
of each group which are usually negative.
2. The role of social learning
Prejudice is not innate. No new born baby has any
particular hatred towards other people. Hatred and negative attitude
towards other people or groups is something he learns from the
environment because prejudice as an attitude is the result of social
learning. Through the process of socialization with the
environment, children then learn from the environment that
negroes are usually stupid, poor, dirty and uncivilized. Such
stereotypes are often shown by parents and their families so that
children perceive this as something that is true and natural and
appropriate to follow..
