Running Head: LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
Literature Assessment
Reagan L. Brackett
Helm School of Government, Liberty University
Dr. W. Scott Wilson
PLCY-700
Foundations of Public Policy
March 27, 2022
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LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
Introduction
In this literature assessment I summarize and synthesis, as well as critique the
articles found within. I also bring forth aspects of the field presented through the articles that are
missing and should be researched further to gain a greater perspective on the subject. The articles
discussed below examine in different ways the impact of the drug policies in the United States on
different groups of citizens. These articles by a multitude of authors attempt to determine if the
drug policies leading up to and current policies target individuals based on race. The authors do
this by looking at qualitative and quantitative data from different areas.
In this literature assessment I present sources which have examined the War on Drugs
policy in the United States and even globally. Drug policy was officially referred to as the War
on Drugs in the 1970s by President Richard Nixon when the United States federal government
decided to crack down on drug crime. This phrase was the government-led initiative of drug
prohibition using military tactics and aid with the goal of reducing the illegal drug trade in the
United States and around the world.
The current literature available that I found and examined seem to be in agreement with
each other concerning the War on Drugs and the policies that have come from this rhetoric.
However, most of this research uses results from older studies or case studies. Not many of the
current literature examines qualitative data on their own when trying to see if the policies that
come from the War on Drugs are inherently race motivated, and therefore a part of systemic
racism, and also to see if these policies are a failed tactic in general.
The current drug related policies supported and implemented through Congress creates
skepticism and questions among scholars in a multitude of professions. Have these policies
accomplished their goal in the decades they have been in place? Do they cause more harm than
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good, specifically to a certain group of citizens? Is it possible these policies will ever be
abandoned while the misleading rhetoric still exists? These are some of the questions addressed
throughout the literature examined here and it appears as though the current literature on
surrounding the War on Drugs leaves us with more questions than answers in reality – which will
be addressed more in the conclusion of this assessment.
War on Drugs Literature
Going back five years, Langner and Zajicek (2017) examine how the current research
regarding drug/marijuana discourse is lacking even though this topic has been studied in the past.
This article does not try or claim to show a cause-effect relationship; instead, this article uses an
approach that suggests it is the shared ways of thinking in groups of people (the media) that have
created the rhetoric surrounding drug policy. A major theme through these articles discussed
here, is the examination of either (or more than one) mass incarceration and/or institutional
racism, in regard to, how the War on Drugs impact those areas (Rosino & Hughey, 2018;
Lohaaruka. 2019; Walden, 2019; Beckett & Brydolf-Howitz, 2020; Farahmand et al., 2020; Earp
et al., 2021; Osler, 2021) This source is no different. Also, like many of the analyses in this
review, Langner and Zajicek (2017) start by discussing the percentage of the incarcerated
population within the United States and then break it down by race. This large, disproportionate
number of minority citizens incarcerated is what has many scholars and thinkers asking
questions that seek the answers found within these articles. Langner and Zajicek (2017) look at a
2007 report which suggests the War on Drugs and criminal justice system have targeted low-
level offenders over the years and they examine the history of marijuana prohibition along with
how perceptions of racially motivated drug policies have carried over into today’s views. The
authors end stating there is a lack in current research on this subject and there needs to be more –
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specifying that it should be done at international, national, and state levels also looking at other
types of media such as, social media. Another source examines a similar topic, which is how
newspapers and online media can demonstrate how the rhetoric and comments from those
reading the media contributes to the perceptions of minorities in the war on drugs and therefore
drug policies (Rosino & Hughey, 2018). This source also aims to show how drug policy,
specifically the War on Drugs, is a form of structural racism that has been perpetuated through
ideas and justifications created by individuals – or possibly through historical rhetoric according
to Langner and Zajicek (2017). This article suggests that the only way policy change for the War
on Drugs, or other policies influenced by systemic racism, the language and public awareness
needs to be addressed and changed.
Polomarkakis (2017) takes a different approach to examining the War on Drugs. This
article takes the view point that law enforcement is inadequate in achieving the goals of the War
on Drugs. It takes a look at law enforcement in general, the foundation of law enforcement, and
the rationale behind law enforcement (Polomarkakis, 2017). Even in identifying and discussing
the benefits of law enforcement, it is deemed that the benefits are not easily identifiable in the
long run. Examples of shortcomings of law enforcement at theoretical and practical levels are
used where needed to emphasize the point. This source also analyzes an international view on the
War on Drugs since these policies exist worldwide. It is discovered that not only are the War on
drugs policies unsuccessful in the United States, but they have failed in other countries as well
(Polomarkakis, 2017). The conclusion that law enforcement is inadequate in the War on Drugs
and that the benefits do not outweigh the cost begs the question, why the United States and other
countries continue this War on Drugs when scholars have shown this policy is a failed tactic. In a
similar line of thinking, Walden (2019) argues that America’s War on Drugs is so normalized that
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the inherent immoral nature of the policy is overlooked and considered the lesser of two evils.
This article points out that the War on Drugs policies tend to have the opposite intended effect.
That these policies can increase and continue the cycle of drug use, as well as increase drug
related violence and crime. It also suggests these drug policies have acted as a new set of Jim
Crow laws because of how disproportionately oppressive they are for minorities (Walden, 2019).
In the concluding statements, Walden (2019) suggests that social work is the path forward – that
instead of using militant tactics as an approach, organization(s) that are set up to enhance human
wellbeing and meet the needs of those who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty
should be utilized.
Another way of thinking seems to suggest that perhaps the opioid crisis may change the
way people perceive the drug crisis in the United States to a more sympathetic view since it
mainly effects White individuals. Four scholars examine this line of thought, Hart and Hart
(2019) and Beckett and Brydolf-Horwitz (2020). One article suggests this idea of a gentler war is
not a new concept and that the ‘war’ will continue, focus will just transfer to drug dealers and
traffickers instead of low-level users and that it will still be fueled by racist views of who
lawmakers and citizens think the dealers and traffickers are (Hart & Hart, 2019). This source
shows that not only have drug arrest numbers for the last 25 years not changed but that now
prosecutors have started to use murder charges against dealers, friends, etc. in the event of an
overdose (Hart & Hart, 2019). The conclusion here is that prohibition has shown to be
ineffective. Beckett and Brydolf-Horwitz (2020) analyze whether this kinder, gentler rhetoric
around the opioid crisis has made a difference in drug sentencing policy and drug law
enforcement. This source uses data from trends in sentencing policy and data concerning drug
related arrests and imprisonments. Hart and Hart (2019) have a more pessimistic view on this
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topic. They do not see this idea of a gentler ‘war’ as a new idea and do not think it will change
much, whereas Beckett and Brydolf-Horwitz’s (2020) findings a year later suggest their theory is
both accurate and inaccurate. In Beckett and Brydolf-Horwitz’s (2020), the authors find that in
urban areas where there is a higher population of minorities this new rhetoric is beneficial,
however, in suburban and rural areas it has not had the same effect. These findings are interesting
and bring another topic into possible play. The idea which Langner and Zajicek (2017) and
Rosino and Hughey (2018) examine considering the influence of media and historic rhetoric and
how they may contribute to the perceptions of minorities in the War on Drugs, especially
geographically (North versus South).
Getting off the topics of law enforcement and how these drug policies have failed in their
goal, Farahmand et al. (2020) looks at the disparities in substance use disorders. The reasons why
it persists and suggestions to make it more equitable are presented in this article as well. It is
shown that not only does substance use disorders mainly effect people of color, but that treatment
for them is less readily available for people of color than for White individuals (Farahmand et al.,
2020). To give proof of this the authors show which counties have outpatient substance use
disorder facilities and the demographics of those counties. This source also examines studies that
show people of color who did attend treatment are more likely to be arrested for driving under
the influence in the first year after treatment. Farahmand et al. (2020) suggests it is systemic
racism that contributes to substance use disorders’ racial disparities and that substance use
disorder outcomes started with the racist framework of the early United States drug policies. The
ways in which policies have made it difficult for physicians to treat addiction with the medicines
needed instead of forcing users to quit cold turkey is examined in this article and suggested this
possibly influences whether or not users even want to attempt to get treatment. Farahmand et al.
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(2020) concludes by suggesting that changes in systemic racism would help the racial disparities
in substance use disorders such as, economic stability and neighborhood safety.
It is fitting to end this literature assessment with the article by Earp et al. (2021) because
this research calls for an end to the War on Drugs. This source suggests ending the War on Drugs
by decriminalizing and legalizing illicit drugs for personal use. Earp et al. (2020) uses the idea
that prohibition is a violation of the rights of people since the main ‘victim’ of drug use is the
user and it does not inherently harm others. This source uses alcohol and tobacco as examples of
other substances that have negative side effects but are not prohibited and one that was
prohibited and ultimately it failed. The authors present a case study of Portugal as an example of
the success decriminalization and legalization combined with monitoring has had on the drug
related crime in the country (Earp et al., 2020). This case study shows that since the
decriminalization of all recreational drugs in 2001 there has been a decrease in the harmful
effects that come with arrests and incarcerations of drug users and there has been lower rates
reported of substance use disorders, overdoses, and drug-related HIV and hepatitis (Earp et al.,
2020). It also shows that by 2017 Portugal’s mortality rate, related to drug use, for adults was
much lower than the European average rate (Earp et al., 2020). It is acknowledged that
decriminalization alone does not remove the harms that come with illicit markets, like other
markets it needs to be monitored for consumer safety, and decriminalization without legalization
could still result in imprisonment if fines were not paid (Earp et al., 2020). Ultimately there is no
real conclusion, just a statement saying that the many authors as professionals in many different
fields believe decriminalization and legalization are the best option, especially since prohibition
and criminalization have been costly and ineffective.
Conclusion
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LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
The War on Drugs and the policies created under this phrase seems to be a popular
subject among a variety of scholars who examine how these effect different areas, such as health
care, the criminal justice system, immigration, and the people in general. As mentioned
previously, all these scholars included in this assessment agree that these drug related policies
have not accomplished their goals over the five decades the ‘War on Drugs’ has been a major
focus of elected officials. And the scholars go as far as to claim these policies, in actuality, cause
more harm than good. A powerful argument is also made suggesting these policies have an alter
motive of targeting minorities and people of color, regardless of the ‘color-blind’ language
presented within the policies.
One of the main themes throughout the articles is systemic racism or institutional racism.
The argument here is made from looking at history and the historical reasons for prohibition
originally. This historical precedent of prohibiting certain drugs because immigrants brought
them over and thinking it would target these individuals specifically has influenced the rhetoric
of the current War on Drugs – implying it is still minorities and people of color who are the main
users, dealers, and traffickers.
After reviewing these sources, it seems their conclusions and opinions are based mostly
on observations and case studies and very few quantitative data. This would be the main critique
of the current literature. Case studies and qualitative data have their place and do reap beneficial
results; however, qualitative analysis is also necessary where applicable to make conclusions and
suggestions. Since, as one article pointed out, there is a partisan and political aspect involved in
the policies surrounding the War on Drugs. And because of this, Congress and elected officials
may have a harder time arguing against change if there was more qualitative research showing
how these policies do more harm than good and even disproportionately effect minorities and
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people of color. With mostly qualitative studies using other countries as examples and
observations, elected officials are able to use other examples to invalidate those studies. If there
was more research in the field that used both research methods, it may be harder for
representatives to continue using a tactic that is outdated and unsuccessful instead of just
continuing the status quo around drug related crime.
Overall, there does seem to be a lack of more current research and each of the authors
acknowledges this fact. One thing that was clear is these authors covered a lot of aspects in one
article, which could make qualitative methods not possible for these situations. For instance,
discussing how media and the rhetoric used surrounding drug policy impacts the drug policy
within an article, then also discussing how the pollical environment is a factor, and discussing
how the War on Drugs is institutional racism is a lot to cover in one article (Langner & Zajicek,
2017). This seems to happen in more than just of the sources. All of this is important and
necessary to discuss and study. However, it might be more beneficial to examine each on their
own and cite the other studies in conclusions linking all of the research together to present a
stronger argument for change. This would possibly also make it easier to gather or develop
quantitative data to use for the research and then can use qualitative data when there is not
enough quantitative data available.
The implications for my future research would be similar to what is stated above as gaps
or critiques of the current literature. The examination I choose to do on the War on Drugs needs
to be more precise. It should include a narrow look at one or two aspects to research to determine
whether the War on Drugs is accomplishing its intended goals. If possible, depending on what
specifically I decide to look at, my research needs to try to include more qualitative methods to,
at the very least, be able to either provide stronger conclusions that match the above ones or
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show that when using the numerical data, the current drug policies are successful. Another issue
my research needs to address is conclusions and implications. The literature assessed in this
review did not always give a conclusion more than stating the policies are not working or that
more needs to be examined. There should be clear implications stated and suggestions of how to
go about implementing the changes. One article did suggest that social work needs to be used in
the path forward and another that there should be more of an economic method used to combat
drug related crime, but not of the authors made specific suggestions like that.
References
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LITERATURE ASSESSMENT
Beckett, K., & Brydolf-Horwitz, M. (2020). A Kinder, Gentler Drug War? Race, Drugs, and
Punishment in 21st Century America. Punishment & Society, 0(0), 1–25.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1462474520925145
Earp, B. D., Lewis, J., & Hart, C. L. (2021). Racial Justice Requires Ending the War on
Drugs. The American Journal of Bioethics, 21(4), 1–29.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2020.1861364
Farahmand, P., Arshed, A., & Bradley, M. V. (2020). Systemic Racism and Substance Use
Disorders. Psychiatric Annals, 50(11), 494–498. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-
20201008-01
Hart, C. L., & Hart, M. Z. (2019). Opioid Crisis: Another Mechanism used to Perpetuate
American Racism. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 25(1), 6–11.
https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000260
Langner, J., & Zajicek, A. (2017). Social Construction of Drug Policies and Target Populations:
U.S. Policy and Media Discourse. Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Sociologica, 62,
47–62. https://doi.org/10.18778/0208-600x.62.04
Loharuka, J. (2019). A New Look at the US War on Drugs and the Colorblind Criminalization of
Latinx Immigrants. 1–37.
Osler, M. (2021). What We Got Wrong in the War on Drugs. University of St. Thomas Law
Journal, 1–18.
Polomarkakis, K. A. (2017). Drug Law Enforcement Revisited: The “War” Against the War on
Drugs. Journal of Drug Issues, 47(3), 396–404.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0022042617697017
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Rosino, M. L., & Hughey, M. W. (2018). The War on Drugs, Racial Meanings, and Structural
Racism: A Holistic and Reproductive Approach. American Journal of Economics and
Sociology, 77(3-4), 849–892. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajes.12228
Walden, B. (2019). Addicted to the War on Drugs. Journal of Law & Public Affairs, 5(1), 1–13.
