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Phil 201-Unit 4 (Ethics)
Philosophy and Contemporary Ideas (Liberty
University)
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March 26, 2019: Metaethics vs. Applied ethics
•Ethics
ois a theory or system of moral values
•Metaethics
oAttempt to get behind the scenes of ethics, to ask fundamental questions about
the nature of morality and how it can be known.
oWhat makes something good or bad? How can we figure out what’s good or bad?
•Applied ethics
oIssue specific
oTaking your metaethical theory about what determines right or wrong
and applying it to real life scenarios (concrete issues)
•Ethical Relativism
oCultural relativism: the view that morality legitimately varies from culture
to culture; there are no moral absolutes
▪The opposite of ethical relativism is ethical absolutism
oYour culture decides what is right and wrong, and what’s right for your culture is
right.
•Subjectivism
oThe view that ethical principles are not objectively true but instead are subjective
matters of preference
▪The opposite of ethical subjectivism is ethical objectivism
oThere’s nothing more to your opinion than your opinion. Opinions are all that
there is.
•Emotivism
oThe view that moral statements are merely expressions of one’s feelings rather
than statements of facts.
•Arguments for ethical subjectivism and relativism
oEthical absolutism leads to intolerance.
oThe diversity thesis: absence of universal agreement indicates inexistence
of absolutes.
•Arguments against relativism
oThe problem of specificity: if morality is relative, how could we decide what
segment of society morality is relative to?
oA reduction ad absurdum: if relativism is true, then moral progress is impossible
oAnother reduction: if relativism is true, then all moral reformers
(William Wilberforce, Martin Luther King, etc.) are immoral.
▪They opposed the morality of their day, their culture, so by opposing
their culture, they were in fact, immoral.
oSome universals: there seem to be some ethical judgments that are
universal. How can we account for this if morality if a cultural construct?
oAlthough there is a considerable movement towards subjectivism and
relativism in contemporary America, this movement does not seem to be based
upon sound reason.
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oSince ethical absolutism seems to be the only alternative to ethical relativism,
we must seek methods for determining what the ethical absolutes are. That will
be our job in this class
•Euthyphro
oThe gods determine what is right and wrong
▪Knows the good or determines the good
•Consequentialist Theories
oDefinition: A consequentialist ethical theory is one that evaluates the
ethical status of an action by looking at the anticipated results of that
action.
oTwo consequentialist theories:
▪Ethical Egoism
•The view that the criterion by which an action should be judged
as right or wrong is its ability to produce happiness (or pleasure
or satisfaction of needs) for the individual contemplating the
action.
•Famous Egoists
oEpicurus:
▪Influenced by pre-Socratic atomists Leucippus
and Democritus
▪We are only material; there is no afterlife
▪Therefore, health of body and peace of mind
are the criteria that should govern our actions
oAyn Rand
▪20th century author who fled the Soviet Union
▪Reacted against socialism, defended the rights
of the individual
▪Popularized her philosophy in fictional works
such as Atlas Shrugged
oHappy Days: “Feels so right it can’t be wrong.”
▪Utilitarianism
•The view that the criterion by which an action should be judged
as right or wrong is the ability of that action to produce the
greatest good (happiness or pleasure or satisfaction of needs) for
the most people
•Proponents:
oJeremy Bentham: founder of modern Utilitarianism
oJohn Stuart Mill: most famous advocate of Utilitarianism
oProblems with Consequentialism
▪Difficult to predict immediate and long-range consequences of actions
▪Seems to imply that evil means can be used to achieve good ends
▪Implies that actions are not moral or immoral in themselves
▪Doesn’t help us choose between actions having equal consequences
•Non-consequentialist theories
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oDefinition: Ethical theories that evaluate the ethical status of actions based
upon their conformity or nonconformity to some standard
oNon-consequentialist theories:
▪Duty Ethics
•Emmanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative: “it is one’s duty to
act according to maxims that one could consistently will to
become universal laws.”
•If you do something immoral, it will eventually lead to a
logical problem
oAffirming lying is both good and bad at the same time
▪Virtue Ethics
•Aristotle’s Golden Mean: A virtuous person cultivates a
balanced character that avoids extremes.
oWork on cultivating character, so that when confronted
with a situation, we not only know what the right thing
to do is, but we also do it
▪Natural Law Ethics
•Thomas Aquinas: The fundamental principles of ethical conduct
are rationally discernable in human nature and the natural
world.
oGod created the world with a set of moral laws
oConcerns with the non-consequentialist theories
▪They tend to overlook the consequences of actions
▪They do not provide an explanation of the metaphysics of morality
▪They are subjective in interpretation and application
•Theories on the Nature of the Good
oSocial Contract Theory
▪Our idea of moral goodness is the result of an implicit agreement
between members of a society that facilitates the functioning of
that society.
•Naturalism—each group makes it up for themselves
oDivine Command Theory
▪The view that God is the ultimate source of morality, that what is right is
right because God commands it, and what is wrong is wrong only
because God prohibits it. God is the final moral authority.
•Theism
oEthical Realism
▪The view that morality is a standard that exists independent of God
and to which God’s commands conform because of the fact that God is
perfectly holy.
▪Timeless moral truths, that exist independent of anyone who exists
•Naturalism
oDivine Nature Theory
▪Essence of God vs. the will of God
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▪The view that what is good in ethics is a reflection of the ultimate
good that is inherent in the nature of God himself.
▪Commands are a communication of the morality that flows from
his nature
•Theism
•How can we sue the Bible to answer ethical questions?
oLook for direct statements that address the issue.
oLook for general principles form which we can deduce conclusions that
address the issue.
oLook for similar situations from which we can reason to a conclusion
using analogous induction.
•Virtue ethics is built on the principle that what we do flows form who we are
oOut of the hear the mouth speaks
•Categorical Imperative
oDo unto others
•Utilitarianism
oLet each esteem others better than himself; look out no for your own interests,
but also for the interests of others.
•Natural Law Ethics
oGentiles are a law unto themselves, show the law written on their heart
•Christian Foundationalism: Check the bible
oDirect statements
oPrinciples
▪Duty is a principle (the golden rule)
▪Considering the consequences (“fruit”) is a principle
▪Cultivating a virtuous character is a principle (WWJD)
oAnalogous situations
oNatural law
