NGRK 520 LIBERTY UNIVERSITY GREEK TEXTBOOK CHAPTER 1_15 STUDY MATERIALS 2023.pdf

The Professor In the third edition I am introducing the Professor.

This is the cartoon character who appears in the margins. Everything he says is optional, but they can

be helpful tidbits. I will be adding more of the Professor between printings as I discover additional

things that are fun to learn.

I will give you an overview of every chapter, a review half way through, and the final summary.

There’s no telling what I have to say! At the end of most chapters I will give you the chance to write

down what you learned in the Workbook.

Pay special attention to the Summary section. I may be the most relationally challenged—some say I

am boring—but I think my little tidbits of information are interesting to know, even if they are not

necessary. I’m the funnest of all!

I am going to teach you some conversational Greek, like how to count to ten, ask where the

bathroom is, and stuff like that.

Rationale Statement With so many introductory Greek grammars available, it is appropriate

to begin with a rationale for yet another.

BBG is not just new to be different, but approaches the instruction of the language from a

different perspective that I hope makes learning Greek as easy as possible, as rewarding as possible,

and, yes, even enjoyable.

The following explains my approach, why it is different, and why I think it is better. The widespread

acceptance of the first two editions has been encouraging.

Goals

1. To approach learning Greek not as an intellectual exercise but as a tool for ministry.

2. To provide constant encouragement for students, showing them not only what they should learn

but why.

3. To teach only what is necessary at the moment, deferring the more complicated concepts until

later.

4. To reduce rote memorization to a minimum.

5. To utilize current advances in linguistics, not for the purpose of teaching linguistics but to make

learning Greek easier. 6. To be able to read most of the books in the New Testament with help from a

lexicon. 1. A Tool for Ministry Biblical Greek should not be taught simply for the sake of learning

Greek. Although there is nothing necessarily wrong with that approach, it is inappropriate for a great

number of students in colleges and seminaries. Too often they are taught Greek and told that

eventually they will see why it is important to know the material. In my opinion, they should be

shown, in the process of learning, why they are learning Greek and why a working knowledge of

Greek is essential for their ministry. 2. Encouragement Most students come to Greek with varying

degrees of apprehension. Their enthusiasm often wears down as the semester progresses. BBG,

therefore, has built into it different ways of encouraging them. a. Most of the exercises are from the

Bible, mostly the New Testament, but some from the Septuagint. From day one, the students are

translating the biblical text. If a passage has a word that is taught in a later chapter, it is translated.

This gives students the satisfaction of actually having translated a portion of the Bible. Whenever the

Greek in the exercises clarifies an exegetical or theological point, I have also tried to point it out. The

disadvantage of using the biblical text is that the student may already know the verse in English. But

with a little discipline on the student’s part, this disadvantage is far outweighed by the advantages.

There are also made-up sentences in the exercises. b. The frequency is given for every vocabulary

word. It is one thing to learn that καί means “and,” but to see that it occurs 9,161 times in the New

Testament will motivate students to memorize it. c. There are some 5,423 different words in the New

Testament that occur a total of 138,167 times. After every vocabulary section, students are told what

percentage of the total word count they now know. By the eighth chapter the student will recognize

more than one out of every two word occurrences. d. Many chapters end with an Exegesis section.

This section expands on the basic grammar of the chapter and enables students to see that grammar

makes a difference in exegesis. For example, after they learn the present active indicative, I show

them examples of the punctiliar, progressive, customary, gnomic, historic, and futurist use of the

present tense. If this is more information than a student needs, it can be skipped. e. The website

(www.LearnBiblicalGreek.com) is full of additional helps that will encourage students, such as

relevant blogs, videos, and additional exercises. 3. Teaching Only What is Necessary Students only

learn what is necessary in order to begin reading the biblical text. After they have mastered the

basics and have gained some experience in reading, they are taught more of the details. In order to

encourage the better student and make the text more usable for more teachers, additional detailed

material is put in footnotes or in two sections at the end of the chapter called “Advanced

Information” and “Exegesis.” For example, some of the rules for accents are included in the

Advanced Information, so it is up to the student or teacher as to whether or not they should be

learned. The adverbial participle provides another example. Students are taught to use the “-ing”

form of the verb, prefaced by either a temporal adverb (“while,” “after”) or “because.” In the

Advanced Information, students can also read that they may include a personal pronoun identifying

the doer of the participle, and that the time of the finite verb used to translate the participle is

relative to the main verb. 4. Memorization Rote memorization for most people is difficult. It makes

language learning a chore, and often results in students forgetting the language. I will do everything I

can to keep the amount of memorization to a minimum. For example, in the noun system you will

learn only one paradigm and eight rules instead of memorizing dozens of charts. As I often say in the

website lectures: “You’re welcome.” 5. Modern Linguistics Modern studies in linguistics have much to

offer language learning. BBG does not teach linguistics for linguistics’ sake, but the basic principles

can be taught and applied generally. For example, the “Square of Stops” is mastered since it explains

many of the morphological changes of the verb. Also, a basic set of case endings are learned, and

then students are shown how they are modified, only so slightly, in the different declensions. Once it

is seen that the same basic endings are used in all three declensions, memorization is simplified. In

the lexicon, all words are keyed to my The Morphology of Biblical Greek (see bibliography on page

xii). As the students’ knowledge and interest progresses, they will be able to pursue in-depth

morphological work in this text. 6. Innovative BBG approaches the joyful task of learning Greek from

new and innovative angles, not merely for the sake of newness but from the desire to make learning

Greek as rewarding as possible. The easier it is to learn the language, the more the language will be

used by pastors and others involved in ministry. a. All definitions are derived from Prof. Bruce

Metzger’s Lexical Aids for Students of New Testament Greek and Warren Trenchard’s The Student’s

Complete Guide to the Greek New Testament. This way, when students move into second-year Greek

and use one of these two excellent study aids for increasing their vocabulary, they will not have to

relearn the definitions. b. A lexicon is provided that lists all words occurring ten times or more in the

Greek Testament along with the tense forms for all simple verbs. (Any word in the exercises that

occurs less than ten times will be identified in the exercise itself.) This will be needed for the

additional and review exercises. There also is a full set of noun and verbal charts. c. Instead of

switching students back and forth between nouns and verbs, BBG teaches nouns first and then verbs.

Because verbs are so important, some have questioned the wisdom of not starting them until

chapter 15. Here are my reasons. • Over the years I found that excessive switching between nouns

and verbs was one of the most confusing aspects to teaching Greek. • Nouns are learned so quickly

that you get to chapter 15 sooner than you might expect. • If you listen to a child learn to speak, you

can see that it is more natural to learn nouns first and later move on to the verbal system. While this

approach has proven itself over the years, I wanted to be sensitive to other teachers’ preferences.

Therefore, in the second edition I added a “Track Two” of exercises. It is an alternate set of exercises

that allows you to move from chapter 9 up to chapter 15 and learn about verbs, and after several

chapters on verbs come back and finish nouns. This involves switching back and forth between nouns

and verbs only once, and in my experience it has shown itself to be effective. If you utilize

LearnBiblicalGreek.com, it is especially easy to follow Track 2. d. At the beginning of most chapters is

an Exegetical Insight based on a biblical passage. These are written by New Testament scholars and

demonstrate the significance of the grammar in the chapter. e. Next comes a discussion of English

grammar, and in the summary of Greek grammar that follows as many comparisons as possible are

made between English and Greek, with emphasis on the similarities between the two languages. f.

Greek grammar is initially taught with English illustrations. When illustrations for new grammatical

constructions are given in Greek, students spend much of their concentration on identifying the

Greek forms, and often do not fully understand the grammar itself. In BBG the grammar is made

explicit in English, and only when it is grasped is it illustrated in Greek. For example, A participle has

verbal characteristics. “After eating, my Greek teacher gave us the final.” In this example, eating is a

participle that tells us something about the verb gave. The teacher gave us the final after he was

done eating. (After is an adverb that specifies when the action of the participle occurred.) A

participle also has adjectival aspects. “The woman, sitting by the window, is my Greek teacher.” In

this example, sitting is a participle telling us something about the noun “woman.” g. There are many

free resources available at the website. Go to www.LearnBiblicalGreek.com, click on “Basics of

Biblical Greek,” and go to the bottom of the page. There you will find many tools to help you learn

Greek, such as free flash card software. Most importantly, you have free access to three Greek

classes that will help walk you through the textbook (see below). Most of the free resources are

available within the online class; just go to the appropriate chapter. It is my hope that

LearnBiblicalGreek.com will become a centralized rallying point for learning Greek, where we can all

share our insights and help one another. www.LearnBiblicalGreek.com The summary lectures on the

website are 8–10 minute lectures over the main points of the chapter. They are in the online class.

There also are full length lectures available for sale at LearnBiblicalGreek.com. These lectures cover

everything in the chapter. Teachers: I don’t take class time lecturing over the textbook any more; I

use these full lectures. This way I am saving valuable class time for the most important thing I can do:

work with the exercises. It really works doing it this way. We also have an Everything You Need to

Learn Greek package for sale at a discount price at LearnBiblicalGreek.com; it includes the grammar

and workbook, lectures, answer sheets, paper flashcards, and the Get an A+ summary sheet. As we

move into the digital age, there are so many ways that I can help you learn Greek beyond just writing

the grammar and workbook. One way is to be able to share my teaching with you. This is especially

for those who are tired or need a little extra help. I have recorded my two-semester course in which I

go through each chapter in detail. These lectures can be purchased at my website:

www.LearnBiblicalGreek.com. I am more excited about the possibilities of this website than I have

been since the creation of the CD-ROM. The possibilities are endless as to how we can create a

community to teach and learn biblical Greek. This site is constantly changing, so what follows is what

I have right now or what I have planned in the foreseeable future. To find these resources, go to the

online class by clicking “Classes” on the home page, click on the correct class, and go to the

appropriate chapter. Some of these resources are also available by clicking on “Basics of Biblical

Greek” on the home page. For the textbook • The online class walks you chapter by chapter through

the textbook • Section lectures. Before each new major section, there is a video lecture giving the

grand overview. • Bill and Bob’s Blogs (also at BillMounce.com), which centers on translation issues •

Study Guide for the summary lectures • Summary lecture (iPod and QuickTime formats) • Mnemonic

devices for learning vocabulary; students can even add their own (see page xxi) • Color-coded hints

for every parsing and translation exercise (see page xx) • Quizzes (and keys) for testing yourself on

each chapter For the workbook • Answers for the entire workbook • Audio helps for the workbook.

These are my discussions of the difficult parsing and sentence exercises. It’s like me being in class

with you. For the class • Sample syllabi • Overheads for each chapter in PowerPoint and Keynote •

Teacher forums, so we can work together • Student forums for each chapter, so students can interact

with each other • Greek Bingo game • Fun songs rewritten in Greek • Latest version of FlashWorks

(vocabulary learning software) • Free Greek and Hebrew fonts • Biblical passages to read when you

are done with the textbook Color-coded hints • Every parsing word and every translation exercise is

color-coded. Notice what I am doing (except that you cannot see the color). • Sentences are broken

into phrases. • Subjects are given a gray background and a blue dotted border. • Objects are given a

gray background and a red dotted border. • The words that we are learning in the current chapter

are also color-coded into their morphemes (e.g., βλέπ ο υσι is in three colors). This is the best way I

know to help students without actually giving them the answer. Community-built mnemonics I am

especially excited about this resource available at the website class. At the top of the screen is the

basic information on the word, and you can hear how it is pronounced in standard and modern

pronunciation. Below it are all the silly helps I have developed, and a place for you to add your own.

Just click Add mnemonic and share. FlashWorks FlashWorks is a vocabulary drilling program for

Macintosh and Windows computers. It is available as a free download at LearnBiblicalGreek.com.

FlashWorks tags each vocabulary word as to its chapter, category (noun, verb, adjective, preposition,

other), and its degree of difficulty (1–5). Then, for example, you can call up all the verbs in chapters

15–20 with a degree of difficulty 3 through 4. The words are then randomly mixed and the fun

begins. As you learn the words, you can change the difficulty rating to a lower number, or FlashWorks

can watch how you are doing and change the rating automatically. FlashWorks has help information

built in. Start the program and from the Help menu select Help; it defaults to the QuickHelp screen.

There is more exhaustive help in the help system, and there is a tutorial at LearnBiblicalGreek.com.

Part I: Introduction Chapter 1 The Greek Language The Greek language has a long and rich history

stretching all the way from the thirteenth century B.C. to the present. The earliest form of the

language is called “Linear B” (13th century B.C.). The form of Greek used by writers from Homer (8th

century B.C.) through Plato (4th century B.C.) is called “Classical Greek.” It was a marvelous form of

the language, capable of exact expression and subtle nuances. Its alphabet was derived from the

Phoenician’s as was that of Hebrew. Classical Greek existed in many dialects of which three were

primary: Doric, Aeolic, and Ionic (of which Attic was a branch). Athens was conquered in the fourth

century B.C. by King Philip of Macedonia. Alexander the Great, Philip’s son, was tutored by the Greek

philosopher Aristotle. Alexander set out to conquer the world and spread Greek culture and

language. Because he spoke Attic Greek, it was this dialect that was spread. It was also the dialect

spoken by the famous Athenian writers. This was the beginning of the Hellenistic Age. As the Greek

language spread across the world and met other languages, it was altered (which is true of any

language). The dialects also interacted with each other. Eventually this adaptation resulted in what

today we call Koine Greek. “Koine” (κοινή) means “common” and describes the common, everyday

form of the language, used by everyday people. It was not considered a polished literary form of the

language, and in fact some writers of this era purposefully imitated the older style of Greek (which is

like someone today writing in King James English). Koine was a simplified form of Classical Greek and

unfortunately many of the subtleties of Classical Greek were lost. For example, in Classical Greek

ἄλλος meant “other” of the same kind while ἕτερος meant “other” of a different kind. If you had an

apple and you asked for ἄλλος, you would receive another apple. But if you asked for ἕτερος, you

would be given perhaps an orange. It is this common Koine Greek that is used in the Septuagint, the

New Testament, and the writings of the Apostolic Fathers. For a long time Koine Greek confused

scholars because it was significantly different from Classical Greek. Some hypothesized that it was a

combination of Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic. Others attempted to explain it as a “Holy Ghost

language,” meaning that God created a special language just for the Bible. But studies of Greek

papyri found in Egypt over the past one hundred years have shown that this language was the

language of the everyday people used in the writings of wills, private letters, receipts, shopping lists,

etc. There are two lessons we can learn from this. As Paul says, “In the fullness of time God sent his

son” (Gal 4:4), and part of that fullness was a universal language. No matter where Paul traveled he

could be understood. But there is another lesson here that is perhaps a little closer to the pastor’s

heart. God used the common language to communicate the gospel. The gospel does not belong to

the erudite alone; it belongs to all people. It now becomes our task to learn this marvelous language

so that we can more effectively make known the grace of God to all people. This is a lectionary from

the thirteenth to fourteenth century containing parts of Matthew and John. Photo provided by the

Center for the Study of New Testament manuscripts (Dr. Daniel B. Wallace, director) and used by

permission of Institut für neutestamentliche Textforschung. Chapter 2 Learning Greek Before we start

learning Greek, let’s talk about how to learn. If you have developed any bad study habits, they are

going to be magnified as you set out to learn Greek. Goal The main purpose of writing this book is to

help you to understand better and to communicate more clearly the Word of God. This must be kept

in mind at all times. It should motivate you, encourage you when you are frustrated, and give you

perspective when you think you are going to crack. Remember the goal: a clearer, more exact, and

more persuasive presentation of God’s saving message. But is knowing Greek essential in reaching

this goal? If you are not fully convinced that this is so, you will have difficulty reaching the goal. In

other words, is knowing Greek worth the effort? We have been blessed with a wealth of good

translations. A careful use of these goes a long way in helping the preacher understand the Word of

God. It would be unfair to claim that the only way to be a good preacher is to know Greek. However,

allow me a little parable and the point will become clear. You need to overhaul your car engine. What

tools will you select? I would surmise that with a screw driver, hammer, a pair of pliers, and perhaps

a crow bar, you could make some progress. But look at the chances you are taking. Without a socket

wrench you could ruin many of the bolts. Without a torque wrench you cannot get the head seated

properly. The point is, without the proper tools you run the risk of doing a minimal job, and perhaps

actually hurting the engine. The same is true with preaching, teaching, and preparing Bible studies.

Without the proper tools you are limited in your ability to deal with the text. When Jesus says of

communion, “Drink ye all of it” (Matt 26:27; KJV), what does the “all” refer to? All the drink, or all the

people? When Paul writes to the Ephesians that it is “by grace you have been saved through faith,

and this is not of yourselves; it is a gift from God” (Eph 2:8), what does “it” refer to? When Paul asks,

“Do all speak in tongues?” (1 Cor 12:30), is he implying that the answer is “Yes”? But there is more.

Almost all the best commentaries and biblical studies require a knowledge of Greek. Without it, you

will not have access to the lifelong labors of scholars who should be heard. I have seen a rather

interesting pattern develop. The only people I have heard say that Greek is not important are those

who do not themselves know Greek. Strange. Can you imagine someone who knows nothing about

tennis say that it is unnecessary ever to take tennis lessons? Sounds ridiculous, doesn’t it? The point

of all this is to emphasize that you must think through why you want to learn Greek, and then you

must keep your goal in sight at all times. John Wesley, perhaps one of the most effective ministers

ever to mount a horse, was able to quote Scripture in Greek better than in English. How far do you

want your ministry to go? The tools you collect, Greek being one of them, will to a significant degree

determine your success from a human point of view. Set your goals high and keep them in sight.

Memorization In order to learn any language, memorization is vital. For Greek you will have to

memorize vocabulary words, endings, and various other things. In Greek the only way to determine,

for example, whether a noun is singular or plural, or if a word is the subject or object of the verb, is

by the ending of the word. So if you have not memorized the endings, you will be in big trouble.

Along with grammar is the importance of memorizing vocabulary. There is little joy in translating if

you have to look up every other word in the lexicon. Rote memory is more difficult for some than

others, so here are some suggestions. 1. Make flash cards for vocabulary words and word endings.

You can put them in your pocket and take them anywhere. Use them while waiting in lines, during

work breaks, before classes, etc. They will become your life saver. 3 × 5 index cards cut in thirds are a

nice size. You can also purchase my pre-made cards, Basics of Biblical Greek Vocabulary Cards

(Zondervan). 2. Use FlashWorks, my computer flash card software that can be downloaded for free

(see page xxii). You can tell it which words you have difficulty remembering, and it can quiz you just

on those. 3. When memorizing words use mnemonic devices. For example, the Greek word for “face”

is transliterated as prosōpon, so it could be remembered by the phrase, “pour soap on my face.” It

seems that the sillier these devices are the better, so don’t be ashamed. At Teknia.com you can see

all my mnemonic devices and contribute yours. I encourage you to become involved in this

community. 4. You must pronounce Greek consistently and write it neatly. If your pronunciation

varies, it is difficult to remember the words. 5. Say the words and endings out loud. The more senses

involved in the learning process the better. So pronounce the words, listen to them, and write them

out so you can see them. Exercises The greatest motivation for learning Greek comes during the

homework assignments. Because most of the exercises are drawn from the New Testament, you are

constantly reminded why you are learning the language. I have tried to point out in the footnotes

whenever a knowledge of Greek helps you exegetically or devotionally to better understand the

verse’s meaning. I will also be introducing you to intermediate grammar through the footnotes to the

exercises. Whereas the footnotes in the grammar are not essential, they are very important in the

exercises. Be sure to treat the exercises as tests. Learn the chapter, do as many of the exercises as

you can, then work back through the chapter and do the exercises again. The more you treat the

exercises as a test, the better you will learn the material and the better you will do on actual tests.

There are many sample quizzes available on the website. Time and Consistency Very few people can

“pick up” a language. For most of us it takes time, lots of it. Plan for that; remind yourself what you

are trying to do, and spend the necessary time. But along with the amount of time is the matter of

consistency. You cannot cram for tests; Greek will not stick, and in the long run you will forget it.

Spend time every day; getting to know the language of the New Testament deserves at least that.

Remember, “Those who cram, perish.” Partners Few people can learn a language on their own. For

sake of illustration, let me quote the story of John Brown as told by the great Greek grammarian A. T.

Robertson. At the age of sixteen John Brown, of Haddington, startled a bookseller by asking for a

copy of the Greek Testament. He was barefooted and clad in ragged homespun clothes. He was a

shepherd boy from the hills of Scotland. “What would you do with that book?” a professor scornfully

asked. “I’ll try to read it,” the lad replied, and proceeded to read off a passage in the Gospel of John.

He went off in triumph with the coveted prize, but the story spread that he was a wizard and had

learned Greek by the black art. He was actually arraigned for witchcraft, but in 1746 the elders and

deacons at Abernethy gave him a vote of acquittal, although the minister would not sign it. His letter

of defence, Sir W. Robertson Nicoll says (The British Weekly, Oct. 3, 1918), “deserves to be reckoned

among the memorable letters of the world.” John Brown became a divinity student and finally

professor of divinity. In the chapel at Mansfield College, Oxford, Brown’s figure ranks with those of

Doddridge, Fry, Chalmers, Vinet, Schleiermacher. He had taught himself Greek while herding his

sheep, and he did it without a grammar. Surely young John Brown of Haddington should forever put

to shame those theological students and busy pastors who neglect the Greek Testament, though

teacher, grammar, lexicon are at their disposal. This story points out how unusual it is for someone to

learn Greek without the communal help of the class. Find a partner, someone who will test and quiz

you, encourage and support you, and vice versa. Make use of the social network at Teknia.com; the

forums are especially good places to help and be helped. Discipline Discipline is the bottom line.

There are no magical solutions to learning Greek. It is achievable if you want it. It comes at a cost,

but the rewards are tremendous. So get ready for the journey of your life as we travel through the

pages of the Greek Testament. Enjoy the excitement of discovery and look forward to the day when it

will all bloom into fruition. Here is a great Greek coin. After the next chapter you will be able to read

the name of the back of the coin. © Georgios Kollidas/www.istockphoto.com Hi. I am the Professor. I

live over there to the left in the margin. The things I have to teach you aren’t necessary for learning

Greek, but I can make your studies a lot more fun. I will show you my different faces depending on

what I am teaching you. Check out page xiii for more specifics. Chapter 3 The Alphabet and

Pronunciation Overview I start each chapter with an overview of what you will be learning. This will

give you a feel for what is to come, and should also be an encouragement when you see that there is

not too much information in each chapter. In this chapter you will learn: ■ to write and pronounce

the alphabet (consonants, vowels, diphthongs); ■ that “breathing marks” are on every word

beginning with a vowel. Footnotes in the Grammar are not necessary to learn, although they are

often interesting. The footnotes in the Workbook, however, are important. The Greek Alphabet 3.1

The Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters. At first it is only important to learn the English name,

small letters, and pronunciation. The transliterations will help. In our texts today, capitals are used

only for proper names, the first word in a quotation, and the first word in the paragraph. There is

some disagreement as to the correct pronunciation of a few of the letters; these are marked in the

footnotes. I have chosen the standard pronunciations that will help you learn the language the

easiest. Notice the many similarities among the Greek and English letters, not only in shape and

sound but also in their respective order in the alphabet. The Greek alphabet can be broken down

into sections. It will parallel the English for a while, differ, and then begin to parallel again. Try to find

these natural divisions. To see how modern pronunciation is different, get the download from the

class website on Chapter 3. Here is where they are different. ■ β as “v” in “vase ■ γ as “y” in “yes”

(when followed by ε, η, ι, or υ) or “ch” in “loch” (when followed by α, ο, or ω) ■ δ as “th” in “the” ■ η

as “ee” in “feet” ■ ι as the long “i” in “intrigue” ■ ο as “o” in “note” ■ ρ has a slight trilled sound ■ υ

as short “i” in “intrigue” The following chart shows the name of the letter (in English and Greek), the

English transliteration (in italics), the letter written as a capital and as a small letter, and its

pronunciation. Alpha ἄλφα a A α a as in father Beta βῆτα b B β b as in Bible Gamma γάμμα g Γ γ g as

in gone Delta δέλτα d Δ δ d as in dog Epsilon ἒ ψιλόν e E ε e as in met Zeta ζῆτα z Z ζ z as in daze Eta

ἦτα ē H η e as in obey Theta θῆτα th Θ θ th as in thing Iota ἰῶτα i I ι i as in intrigue Kappa κάππα k K κ

k as in kitchen Lambda λάμβδα l Λ λ l as in law Mu μῦ m M μ m as in mother Nu νῦ n N ν n as in new

Xi ξῖ x Ξ ξ x as in axiom Omicron ὂ μικρόν o O ο o as in not Pi πῖ p Π π p as in peach Rho ῥῶ r P ρ r as

in rod Sigma σίγμα s Σ σ/ς s as in study Tau ταῦ t T τ t as in talk Upsilon ὖ ψιλόν u/y Υ υ u as the

German ü Phi φῖ ph Φ φ ph as in phone Chi χῖ ch X χ ch as in Loch Psi ψῖ ps Ψ ψ ps as in lips Omega ὦ

μέγα ō Ω ω o as in tone 3.2 Writing the Letters 1. Notice how α β δ ε ι κ ο ς τ and υ look like their

English counterparts. 2. In Greek there are four letters that are transliterated by two letters. ■ θ is th

■ φ is ph ■ χ is ch ■ ψ is ps 3. It is important that you do not confuse the following. ■ η (eta) with the

English “n” ■ ν (nu) with the “v” ■ ρ (rho) with the “p” ■ χ (chi) with the “x” or ■ ω (omega) with the

“w” 4. There are two sigmas in Greek. ς occurs only at the end of the word and σ occurs elsewhere:

ἀπόστολος. 5. The vowels in Greek are α, ε, η, ι, ο, υ, ω. It is fun to use the Greek alphabet to write

out English words. Of course, they aren’t really Greek words, but they do help you get familiar with

the alphabet. What English words do the following refer to? When done, write out a few of your

own. βεδ, κατ, βιλλ, βαλλ, σιτ, στανδ, φλυφε (someone’s dog), ρεδ βυλλ, φησβουκ, τεξ. 3.3

Pronouncing the Letters 1. You will learn the alphabet best by pronouncing the letters out loud as

you write them, over and over. Be sure to listen to the summary lecture on Teknia.com for practice.

2. The name of a consonant is formed with the help of a vowel, but the sound of the consonant does

not include that vowel. For example, μ is the letter “mu,” but when mu appears in the word, there is

no “u” sound. 3. The following letters sound just like their English counterparts: α β γ δ ε ι κ λ μ ν ο π

ρ σ/ς τ. 4. Gamma (γ) usually has a hard “g” sound, as in “get.” However, when it is immediately

followed by γ, κ, χ, or ξ, it is pronounced as a “n.” For example, the word ἄγγελος is pronounced

“angelos” (from which we get our word “angel”). The gamma pronounced like a “n” is called a

gamma nasal. 5. Alpha and iota can be either long or short. Epsilon and omicron are always short

while eta and omega are always long. “Long” and “short” refer to the relative length of time it

requires to pronounce the vowel. In the case of iota, the sound of the vowel actually changes as well.

3.4 Breathing marks Greek has two breathing marks. Every word beginning with a vowel or rho has a

breathing mark. ■ The rough breathing is a  placed over the first vowel and adds an “h” sound to the

word. ὑπέρ is pronounced “huper.” Every word that begins with a rho or upsilon takes a rough

breathing. ■ The smooth breathing is a  placed over the first vowel and is not pronounced.

ἀπόστολος is pronounced “apostolos.” If a word begins with a capital single vowel, the breathing is

placed before the vowel (e.g., Ἰσαάκ). 3.5 Pronouncing diphthongs 1. A diphthong is two vowels that

produce one sound. The second vowel is always an ι or an υ. They are pronounced as follows. αι as in

aisle αἴρω ει as in eight εἰ οι as in oil οἰκία αυ as in sauerkraut αὐτός ου as in soup οὐδέ υι as in suite

υἱός ευ, ηυ as in feud εὐθύς / ηὔξανεν υι and ηυ are less common than the others. 2. An improper

diphthong is made up of a vowel and an iota subscript. An iota subscript is a small iota written under

the vowels α, η, or ω (ᾳ, ῃ, ῳ) and normally is the last letter in a word. This iota has no effect on the

pronunciation but is essential for translation, so pay close attention to it. ᾳ ὥρᾳ ῃ γραφῇ ῳ λόγῳ

Here is how the diphthongs are different in modern Greek. ■ αι as “e” in “hen” ■ ει as “ee” in “meet”

■ οι as “ee” in “meet” ■ αυ as “af” or “av” ■ ευ as “eff” or “ev” ■ υι as the short “i” in “intrigue” 3. If

a word begins with a diphthong, the breathing mark is placed over the second vowel of the

diphthong (αἰτέω, Αἴγυπτος). 4. In some words you will find two vowels that normally form a

diphthong, but in the case of this word do not. To show that these two vowels are pronounced as

two separate sounds, a diaeresis (  ) is placed over the second vowel. αι normally forms a diphthong,

but in the case of Ἠσαΐας, the diaeresis indicates that αι forms two separate sounds: Ἠ σα ΐ ας. Cf.

naïve in English. Summary 1. It is essential that you learn the Greek alphabet right away. You cannot

learn anything else until you do. 2. Learn the English name, how to write the small letter, and how to

pronounce the letter. 3. The vowels in Greek are α, ε, η, ι, ο, υ, and ω. 4. Every word beginning with a

vowel must have either a rough or smooth breathing mark. If the word begins with a diphthong, the

breathing mark is over the second vowel. If the word begins with a single vowel and is capitalized,

the breathing goes before the first vowel. 5. A diphthong consists of two vowels pronounced as a

single sound. The second vowel is always an iota or upsilon. 6. An improper diphthong is a diphthong

with an iota subscript under the first vowel. The iota subscript does not affect pronunciation but is

important in translation. Advanced Information In most of the chapters there is information that

some teachers consider essential, but others do not. I have included that kind of information in the

Advanced Information section of each chapter 3.6 Capital letters. If you want to learn capitals, notice

that there are very few unexpected forms. The unusual ones are in blue. Notice which ones might be

confusing (Ξ Θ, Σ Ε, Ρ and the English P). capital small A α B β Γ γ Δ δ E ε Z ζ Η η Θ θ I ι K κ Λ λ M μ N ν

Ξ ξ O ο Π π P ρ Σ σ/ς T τ Υ υ Φ φ X χ Ψ ψ Ω ω Now write these English words with Greek letters:

computer, Skype, Bible (write as “Bibel”), program, thud, monster drink (with gamma nasal). What

are some more English words you could practice on? Chapter 4 Punctuation and Syllabification

Exegetical Insight When the New Testament was first written there were no punctuation marks. In

fact, the words were run together one after another without any separation. Punctuation and

versification entered the text of manuscripts at a much later period. Obviously this has created some

difficulties for contemporary scholars since the way a verse is punctuated can have a significant effect

on the interpretation of the verse. One outstanding example is Romans 9:5. If a major stop is placed

after κατὰ σάρκα (“according to the flesh”), then the final section of the verse is a statement about

God the Father (the NEB has “May God, supreme above all, be blessed for ever! Amen”). However, if

a minor stop is placed at that point, the final words of the sentence speak of Christ (the NIV has

“Christ, who is God over all, forever praised! Amen”). Does it make any difference? Most scholars

believe it does. If the latter punctuation brings out what Paul intended, then we have in this verse a

clear-cut statement affirming the deity of Jesus Christ. He is, in fact, God. The way a translation

handles an ambiguous verse such as this reveals the theological leanings of the translator. Robert H.

Mounce Overview In this chapter you will learn: ■ four Greek punctuation marks and three accents;

■ how to break a Greek word into parts so you can pronounce it (“syllabification”). Greek

Punctuation 4.1 Punctuation Character Looks like the English Greek meaning θεός, comma comma

θεός. period period θεός· period above the line semicolon θεός; semicolon question mark 4.2

Diacritical Marks 1. Diaeresis. This has already been explained in 3.5. 2. Apostrophe. When certain

prepositions and conjunctions end with a vowel and the next word begins with a vowel, the final

vowel of the first word drops out. This is called elision. It is marked by an apostrophe, which is placed

where the vowel was dropped. ἀπὸ ἐμοῦ ▶ ἀπʼ ἐμοῦ This is similar to the English contraction (e.g.,

“can’t”). Some words appear to have two accents. There are certain words that lose their accent to

the following word (“proclitic”) or the preceding word (“enclitic”), and you end up with one word not

having an accent, and another word possibly having two accents. ■ εἰς is a proclitic, and so we find

εἰς τὴν οἰκίαν. ■ ἐστιν is an enclitic, and so we find, οὗτός ἐστιν. 3. Accents. Almost every Greek word

has an accent mark. It is placed over a vowel and shows which syllable receives the stress. Originally

the accent was a pitch accent: the voice rose, dropped, or rose and dropped on the accented

syllable. Eventually it became a stress accent as we have in English. Most teachers are satisfied with

students simply placing stress on the accented syllable. The acute accent shows that the pitch

originally went up a little on the accented syllable (αἰτέω). The grave accent shows that the voice

originally dropped a little on the accented syllable (καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος). The circumflex accent shows

that the voice rose and then dropped a little on the accented syllable (ἁγνῶς). Notice how the shape

of the accent gives a clue as to the direction of the pitch. Most people teach Greek as a dead

language; you only learn to write it. But the more senses you employ, the better you learn; so let’s

start learning to speak a little Greek. If you like doing this, check out KidsGreek.com for a lot more

fun. I will also be adding more of these kinds of exercises to the website class. Check there often. I

will start on page 16 The question then becomes, when do you use which accent? Opinions vary

from viewing the rules of accent placement as essential to being unnecessary. Since the original

biblical manuscripts did not have them, and since in my opinion they unnecessarily burden the

beginning student, I skip the rules of accent placement. If your teacher thinks you need to learn

them, they are listed in the Advanced Information section of this chapter. However, this does not

mean that accents are worthless and should be ignored. Far from it. Accents serve us very well in

three areas. ✓ Pronunciation. If all the students in the class accent any syllable they wish, it will be

difficult to talk to each other. Consistently placing stress on the accented syllable creates a desirable

and necessary uniformity. ✓ Memorization. If you do not force yourself to say a word the same way

every time, vocabulary memorization becomes difficult. Imagine trying to memorize the word

κοινωνία if you could not decide which syllable to accent. Try pronouncing “koi no ni a” four times,

each time accenting a different syllable. See why consistency is desirable? ✓ Identification. There are

a few words that are identical except for their accents. τίς can mean “who?” and τις can mean

“someone.” There are also a few verbal forms where knowing the accent is helpful. I will point out

these words and forms as you meet them. However, just remember that accents were not part of the

original text and are open to interpretation. Syllabification 4.3 How to Divide Words In order to

pronounce a Greek word, you must break it down into syllables. This is called “syllabification,” and

there are two ways you can learn it. The first is to recognize that Greek words syllabify in basically the

same manner as English words do. Therefore, if you “go with your feelings” (and you are a native

English speaker), you will syllabify Greek words almost automatically. If you practice reading 1 John 1

in the exercises of this chapter, syllabification should not be a problem. I have read it for you on the

website class. It is essential that you master the process of syllabification, otherwise you will never

be able to pronounce the words consistently, and you will have trouble memorizing them and

communicating with your classmates. 4.4 Rules. The second way is to learn the basic syllabification

rules. Here they are. 1. There is one vowel (or diphthong) per syllable. ἀ κη κό α μεν μαρ τυ ροῦ μεν

Therefore, there are as many syllables as there are vowels/diphthongs. 2. A single consonant by itself

(not a cluster) goes with the following vowel. ἑ ω ρά κα μεν ἐ θε α σά με θα If the consonant is the

final letter in the word, it goes with the preceding vowel. 3. Two consecutive vowels that do not form

a diphthong are divided. ἐ θε α σά με θα Ἠ σα ΐ ας 4. A consonant cluster that can not be

pronounced together is divided, and the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel. ἔμ προ σθεν

ἀρ χῆς 5. A consonant cluster that can be pronounced together goes with the following vowel. Χρι

στός γρα φή This includes a consonant cluster formed with μ or ν as the second letter. ἐ πί γνω σις ἔ

θνε σιν 6. Double consonants are divided. ἀ παγ γέλ λο μεν παρ ρη σί α 7. Compound words are

divided where joined. ἀντι χριστός ἐκ βάλλω Summary 1. A period above the line is a Greek

semicolon, and an English semicolon is a Greek question mark. 2. There are three accents. You do not

have to know why they occur where they do, but pay attention to them as you pronounce the word.

3. English syllabification basically follows Greek syllabification. Listen to your teacher pronounce the

words and it should become automatic. Vocabulary One of the frustrating parts of learning a

language is memorization, especially memorizing vocabulary. And yet, memorizing vocabulary is one

of the essential elements if you are going to enjoy the language. If you have to look up every other

word, the language loses its charm. Because you are learning biblical Greek, there are a set number

of words, and statistically there are a few significant facts. There are 5,423 different words in the

New Testament. They occur a total of 138,167 times. But there are only 313 words (5.8% of the total

number) that occur 50 times or more. For special reasons I will also ask you to learn six more words

that occur less than fifty times. These 319 words account for 110,425 word occurrences, or 79.92%

of the total word count, almost four out of five. For example, καί (the word for “and”) occurs 9,161

times. Learn that one word and you know 6.6% of the total word count. Let’s learn to identify our

teacher and ourselves. Here is how you say “He is my teacher.” αὐτός ἐστιν διδάσκαλος μου. ■ αὐτός

means “he.” ■ ἐστιν means “he is.” ■ διδάσκαλος means “teacher.” ■ μου means “my.” In Greek we

put words like “my” after the word they modify. Say each word together as a class; and then put

them all together, point at your teacher and say out loud, in Greek, “He is my teacher.” Be sure to say

it out loud; you need to use all your senses. Who is the loudest student in the room? The point is

that if you learn these 319 words well, you can read the bulk of the New Testament. I think it is

counterproductive at this point to learn more, unless you really like doing things like that. Your time

is better spent reading the Bible or learning grammar. And 319 words are not very many. Most

introductory textbooks for other languages have about 2,000 words. For encouragement, I have

included in parentheses how many times each vocabulary word occurs, and at the end of every

chapter I will tell you what percent of the 138,167 word occurrences you now know. In this chapter I

have listed some Greek words that have come directly into English (“cognates”). Seeing the

similarities between languages can be helpful. Some of the cognates are not part of many peoples’

vocabulary, but I have found that it is still helpful to know that the cognates exist. Most of the

cognates and their definitions are drawn from Ernest Klein’s masterful study, Etymological Dictionary,

with good suggestions from Bruce Metzger’s Lexical Aids. But remember: never define a Greek word

on the basis of its English cognate! English was not a language until much later, so it had no impact

on the meaning of Greek. Think of as many cognates as you can for the following words. I list

cognates in the footnotes. Notice that I list more information for each word than just the word and

its meaning. For example, for ἄγγελος I have ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ. For now, ignore the additional

information; you will learn what it means in subsequent chapters. The definitions I give (called

“glosses”) are, at best, rough approximations of the meaning of the Greek word. In any two

languages, there are rarely, if ever, equivalent words. The multiple glosses are an attempt to replicate

the semantic range of the Greek word. ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ angel, messenger (175) ἀμήν verily, truly,

amen, so let it be (129) ἄνθρωπος, -ου, ὁ man, mankind, person, people, humankind, human being

(550) ἀπόστολος, -ου, ὁ apostle, envoy, messenger (80) Γαλιλαία, -ας, ἡ Galilee (61) γραφή, -ῆς, ἡ

writing, Scripture (50) δόξα, -ης, ἡ glory, majesty, fame (166) ἐγώ I (1,718) ἔσχατος, -η, -ον last (52)

ζωή, -ῆς, ἡ life (135) θεός, -οῦ, ὁ God, god (1,317) καί and, even, also, namely (9,018) καρδία, -ας, ἡ

heart, inner self (156) κόσμος, -ου, ὁ world, universe, humankind (186) λόγος, -ου, ὁ word, Word,

statement, message (330) πνεῦμα, -ατος, τό spirit, Spirit, wind, breath, inner life (379) By “Spirit” I

mean the Holy Spirit. Remember, in Greek there are no silent consonants, so the pi is pronounced;

unlike in English where, for example, the “p” is not pronounced in the word “pneumatic.” προφήτης,

-ου, ὁ prophet (144) σάββατον, -ου, τό Sabbath, week (68) σάββατον often occurs in the plural, but

can be translated as a singular. φωνή, -ῆς, ἡ sound, noise, voice (139) Χριστός, -οῦ, ὁ Christ, Messiah,

Anointed One (529) In the Old Testament and the earlier parts of the New Testament, “χριστός” is a

title; but as you move through Acts, it becomes so closely associated with Jesus that it is a personal

name and should be capitalized (Χριστός). Proper names are easy to learn. Ἀβραάμ, ὁ Abraham (73)

Δαυίδ, ὁ David (59) Παῦλος, -ου, ὁ Paul (158) Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ Peter (156) Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ Pilate (55)

Σίμων, -ωνος, ὁ Simon (75) Total word count in the New Testament: 138,167 Number of words

learned to date: 26 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 15,958 Number of word

occurrences to date: 15,958 Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 11.55% Remember

that 11.55% translates into knowing more than one out of every ten word occurrences. One out of

ten! Encouraged? What if your teacher is a lady? The Greek word for “she” is αὐτή. It looks like

αὐτός, doesn’t it? Just the last two letters have changed. If your teacher is a lady, point at her and

say, “She is my teacher.” Advanced Information 4.5 Basic rules for accents. If you want to know the

basic rules of accents, here they are. 1. The acute (  ) can occur on any of the last three syllables. ■

ἀκηκόαμεν ■ λόγου ■ αὐτός 2. The circumflex (  ) can occur only on one of the last two syllables and

will always be over a long vowel. η and ω are long vowels. ᾳ is always long. α, ι, and υ can be either

long or short. ■ πλανῶμεν ■ ἀρχῆς 3. The grave (  ) is formed when a word is normally accented with

an acute on the final syllable. When the word is not followed by a punctuation mark, then the acute

becomes a grave. ■ καὶ In other words, if the word is accented on the final syllable, the Greeks

always dropped their voices at the end of a word, but raised it when the word was at the end of a

clause or sentence. 4. Accents on nouns try to stay on the same syllable. This is called consistent

accent. Accents on verbs try to move as far back toward the beginning of the verb as possible. This is

called recessive accent. 4.6 Here are some more Greek words. What are some of their English

cognates? You do not need to memorize the Greek words now. word definition ἀγάπη love ἀδελφός

brother ἅγιος holy αἷμα blood ἁμαρτία sin γλῶσσα tongue, language ἐκκλησία church, Church,

assembly, congregation ἔργον work εὐαγγέλιον good news, Gospel θάνατος death θρόνος throne

Ἰησοῦς Jesus Ἰσραήλ Israel λίθος stone μέγας large, great μήτηρ mother Μωϋσῆς Moses νόμος law

παραβολή parable πατήρ father πρεσβύτερος elder, older πῦρ fire ὕδωρ water Φαρισαῖος Pharisee

ψυχή soul, life, self If he or she is your teacher, who are you? You are the student. ■ ἐγώ is “I.” ■ εἰμί

is “I am.” ■ μαθητής is “a (male) student.” ■ μαθήτρια is “a (female) student.” So tell your teacher

you are a student. ἐγώ εἰμι μαθητής. Or you could be a little more personal. ■ αὐτοῦ is “his.” ■

αὐτῆς is “her.” “His” and “her” go after μαθητής, just like μου did. So now you can say, “I am his

student,” or “I am her student.” Part II: Noun System Overview 1 Chapters 5–9 Before every major

section of the grammar I will give you an overview of what is to come. A more detailed multimedia

overview is given on the website. If you do not understand everything I say here, don’t worry about

it. It will all come clear in time. Chapter 5 In chapters 5–9 I introduce you to the noun system.

Chapter 5 is an overview of English noun grammar, and we get into cases in Chapter 6. Chapter 6

English uses word order to determine the meaning of a sentence. Consider this sentence. “The

student ate dinner.” Who ate what? Did the student eat the dinner or did the dinner eat the student?

How do you know? You know the student did the eating because “student” comes before “ate” in

word order. What was eaten? The dinner. How do you know? “Dinner” comes after the verb in word

order. The word that does the action of the verb (in this case, “ate”) is the subject (“student”) and is

in the subjective case. The word that receives the action of the verb is the direct object (“dinner”)

and is in the objective case. Greek does not rely on word order. Rather, it appends different suffixes

onto the word. The suffixes are called “case endings.” Consider this sentence. ὁ θεὸς ἀγαπᾷ τὸν

κόσμον. ὁ θεός means “God,” and the ς shows that it is the subject of the verb ἀγαπᾷ (which means

“love”). In Greek this is the nominative case. κόσμος means “world,” and the ν shows it is the direct

object of the verb. In Greek this is the accusative case. You can even change the order around and

have the same basic meaning. ἀγαπᾷ τὸν κόσμον ὁ θεός. This still means, “God loves the world.” The

ὁ before θεός and the τόν before κόσμον are different forms of the definite article, usually translated

“the,” as in “the world.” But Greek uses ὁ where English does not, such as with proper names, ὁ

θεός. In translation we can just ignore the ὁ in this case. Chapter 7 English shows possession by

adding “ ’s” onto the end of a word: “God’s word.” We can also use the “of” construction: “the word

of God.” Greek shows possession by putting genitive case endings onto the word. ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ

means, “God’s word.” The υ on θεοῦ shows it is in the genitive case. (τοῦ is another form of ὁ.) The

indirect object is the word that is indirectly involved in the action of the verb. Consider this sentence.

“Karen threw Brad the ball.” The direct object is “ball”; she threw the ball. But she threw the ball to

Brad. Brad is the indirect object. (If “Brad” were the direct object, he would get hurt.) In Greek, we

put the indirect object in the dative case by putting dative case endings on the word. The dative

carries other meanings as well, such as “by,” “in,” and “for” along with “to.” Chapter 8 Now we meet

prepositions, those little words that describe the relationship between things, such as “in,” “under,”

“around,” and “through.” The peculiarity of Greek prepositions is that the word that follows it (its

object) is controlled by the preposition. ἐν means “in,” and the case of its object will always be

dative. ἐν τῷ θεῷ means “in God.” Other prepositions take objects in other cases, and many

prepositions take objects in more than one case. In the case of the latter, the meaning of the

preposition changes. μετὰ τοῦ θεοῦ (object in the genitive) means “with God.” μετὰ τὸν θεόν (object

in the accusative) means “after God.” The verb “to be,” which occurs in many forms like “I am,” “you

are,” “they were,” is not followed by an object in the accusative. It takes a predicate nominative. ὁ

θεός ἐστιν ἀγαθός means “God is good.” ἐστιν is a form of the verb “to be.” ἀγαθός is in the

nominative case. Chapter 9 In this chapter we learn about adjectives, words that modify a noun or

pronoun. Consider this sentence. “The angel sent the good apostle.” “Good” (ἀγαθός) tells you

something about the noun “apostle.” In Greek, all nouns have not only case but also number

(singular or plural) and gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter). An adjective has to be the same

case, number, and gender as the word it modifies. In the case of this example, “apostle” is accusative

(because it is the direct object), singular (because there is only one), and masculine. It would be

ἀπόστολον. For “good” to modify it, ἀγαθός would also have to be accusative singular masculine:

ἀγαθόν. A great way to get the alphabet into your head is to sing it. If you go to the website class,

you can download the sheet music and hear my friend sing it. Chapter 5 Introduction to English

Nouns Overview In this chapter you will learn the following: ■ terms used in English grammar

(inflection, case, number, gender, lexical form); ■ other terms such as definite article, predicate

nominative, and declension; ■ parts of speech (noun, adjective, preposition, subject/predicate); ■ a

brief introduction to verbs. Introduction 5.1 As strange as it may seem, the first major obstacle many

of you must overcome is your lack of knowledge of English grammar. For whatever reasons, many do

not know enough English grammar to learn Greek grammar. I cannot teach about the Greek

nominative case until you know what a case is. You must learn to crawl before walking. For this

reason I begin our discussion of Greek nouns (chapters 6–14) with a short introduction to the English

grammar relevant for studying nouns. Also, at the beginning of every chapter I will introduce some of

the finer points of English grammar that are relevant for that chapter. There is a lot of information in

this chapter. The purpose is not to overwhelm you, but to introduce you to nouns and provide a

central location for reference. As you have questions in the later chapters, refer back to this chapter.

Inflection 5.2 Sometimes a word changes its form. This is called “inflection.” ■ A word might change

its form when it performs different functions in a sentence. For example, the personal pronoun is

“she” when it is the subject of the sentence (e.g., “She is my wife.”), but changes to “her” when it is

the direct object (e.g., “The teacher flunked her.”). ■ A word might also change its form when its

meaning changes. For example, the personal pronoun is “he” if it refers to a male, and “she” if it

refers to a female. If the king and queen have one son, he is the “prince,” but if they have two they

are “princes.” If their child is a girl she is called a “princess.” All these changes are examples of

inflection. Compared with most languages, English is not highly inflected. Greek, on the other hand,

is highly inflected. Almost every word is altered depending upon its use in the sentence and its

meaning. The following grammatical concepts can affect the form of a word in both languages. 5.3

Case. Words perform different functions in a sentence. These different functions are called “cases.” In

English there are three cases: subjective, objective, and possessive. Some English words change their

form when they switch functions, while other words stay basically the same. (In the following

examples, the personal pronoun “he” will change depending upon its case.) Subjective case If a word

is the subject of the sentence, it is in the subjective case. (“He is my brother.”) The subject is that

which does the action of the active verb. ■ The subject is usually the first noun (or pronoun) before

the verb in a sentence. For example: “Bill ran to the store.” “The ball broke the window.” Word order

shows that both Bill and ball are the subjects of their verbs. ■ However, sometimes it is hard to

determine which word is the subject. You can usually find out by asking the question “who?” or

“what?” For example, “Who ran to the store?” “Bill.” “What broke the window?” “The ball.”

Possessive case If a word shows possession, it is in the possessive case. (“His Greek Bible is always by

his bed.”) Objective case If a word is the direct object, it is in the objective case. The direct object is

the person or thing that is directly affected by the action of the verb. This means that whatever the

verb does, it does so to the direct object. (“The teacher will flunk him if he does not take Greek

seriously.”) ■ The direct object usually follows the verb in word order. For example: “Robin passed

her test.” “The waiter insulted Brian.” Test and Brian are the direct objects. ■ You can usually

determine the direct object by asking yourself the question “what?” or “whom?” Robin passed

what? Her test. The waiter insulted whom? Brian. case function example Subjective subject “He

borrowed my computer.” Possessive possession “He borrowed my computer.” Objective direct object

“He borrowed my computer.” I chose the pronoun “he” for some of the illustrations above because it

changes its form quite readily. Most words will not, except for the possessive case. For example, the

word “teacher” stays the same whether it is the subject (“The teacher likes you.”) or the direct object

(“You like the teacher.”). However, to form the possessive it will change by the addition of an

apostrophe s. (“She is the teacher’s pet.”) When people hear that you are learning Greek, they will

ask you to “Say something in Greek.” Here is part of 1 John 4:8. “God is love.” ὁ θεὸς ἀγάπη ἐστίν. ■

ὁ is “the,” which is called the “article” or “definite article.” ■ θεός is “God.” Proper names (including

“God”) are often preceded by the article, but we don’t translate ὁ in this case. ■ ἀγάπη is “love.” ■

ἐστίν is “he is.” John wrote ἀγάπη before ἐστίν. Why? Greek word order is rarely the same as in

English, so it is more flexible than English. 5.4 Number. Words can be either singular or plural,

depending upon whether they refer to one, or more than one. For example, “Students (plural) should

learn to study like this student” (singular). 5.5 Gender. Some words, mostly pronouns, change their

form depending upon whether they are referring to a masculine, feminine, or neuter object. For

example, “He (masculine) gave it (neuter) to her (feminine).” (He, it, and her are all forms of the

same pronoun, the third person singular personal pronoun.) Another example is the word “prince.” If

the heir to the throne is male, then he is the “prince.” But if the child is female, she is the “princess.”

Most English words do not change to indicate gender. “Teacher” refers to either a woman or a man.

If a word refers to neither a masculine nor feminine thing, then it is neuter. 5.6 Natural gender means

that a word takes on the gender of the object it represents. We refer to a rock as an “it” because we

do not regard the rock as male or female. But we refer to a man as “he” and a woman as “she.” In

Greek, pronouns follow natural gender but nouns for the most part do not. ἁμαρτία is a feminine

noun meaning “sin,” although “sin” is not a female concept; ἁμαρτωλός can be a masculine noun

meaning “sinner,” although “sinner” is not a masculine concept. 5.7 Declension. In English, there are

different ways to form the plural. For example, to form the plural of most words you add an “s”

(“books”). However, other words form their plurals by changing a vowel in the word (“man” becomes

“men”). Although these two words form their plurals differently, both plurals perform the same

function. They indicate more than one item. Notice that it does not matter how a word forms its

plural as far as meaning is concerned. “Children” and “childs,” if the latter were a word, would mean

the same thing. A declension is a pattern of inflection. English does not really have declensions any

more, but it does have patterns. Words forming their plural by adding “s” are one pattern. A sub-

pattern would be words adding “es.” Another pattern is words that change their stem vowel, such as

“goose” to “geese.” Greek has three declension patterns, three basic patterns of inflection to indicate

things like case and number. Parts of Speech 5.8 Noun. A noun is a word that stands for someone or

something. In the sentence, “Bill threw his big black book at the strange teacher,” the words “Bill,”

“book,” and “teacher” are nouns. 5.9 Adjective. An adjective is a word that modifies a noun (or

another adjective). In the sentence above, “big,” “black,” and “strange” are adjectives that modify

nouns. In the sentence, “The dark brown Bible costs too much,” “dark” is an adjective modifying

another adjective “brown.” 5.10 Preposition. A preposition is a word that shows the relationship

between two other words. For example, the relationship can be spatial (“The Greek text is under the

bed.”) or temporal (“The student always studies after the ball game.”). The word or phrase following

the preposition is the object of the preposition (“bed” in the first example, “the ball game” in the

second). 5.11 Subject and predicate. A sentence can be broken down into two parts. The term

subject describes the subject of the verb and what modifies the subject. Predicate describes the rest

of the sentence, including the verb, direct object, etc. 5.12 Definite article. In English, the definite

article is the word “the.” In the sentence, “The student is going to pass,” the definite article is

identifying one student in particular (even though context is required to know which one it is). 5.13

Indefinite article. In English, the indefinite article is the word “a.” In the sentence, “A good student

works every day on her Greek,” the article is indefinite because it does not identify any one particular

student. It is indefinite about the person of whom it is speaking. If the word following the indefinite

article begins with a vowel, the indefinite article will be “an.” Greek Subject and Verbs 5.14 The

formal study of verbs has been deferred until Chapter 15. For now, you are to concentrate on nouns

and learn them well. However, there is an important grammatical note you need to learn in order to

make sense of the exercises. The ending of the Greek verb indicates person and number. “I” and

“we” are considered first person, “you” is second person, and everything else (including “he,” “she,”

“it,” and all nouns) are third person. ■ The εις ending on γράφεις tells you that the subject is “you.”

γράφεις means “you write.” ■ The ει ending on γράφει tells you that the subject is “he,” “she,” or

“it.” γράφει means “he writes,” “she writes,” or “it writes.” You will see how this works out in the

exercises. 5.15 An important consequence of this is that a Greek sentence does not need to have an

expressed subject; the subject can be contained in the verb. So, σὺ γράφεις and γράφεις both mean,

“You write.” The “you” comes from both the pronoun σύ as well as the ending on the verb. In the

exercises, I will always include the pronoun (e.g., “he,” “they,” “we”) in the translation of the verb. If

there is an expressed subject, you would not use the pronoun. ἄνθρωπος γράφει (he/she/it writes)

τὸ βιβλίον. A man writes the book. In this sentence, you would not translate, “A man he writes the

book.” You would simply say, “A man writes the book.” However, if the subject were not expressed

(i.e., if ἄνθρωπος were not present), then you would translate, “He writes the book.” 5.16 One more

point. γράφει can mean “he writes,” “she writes,” or “it writes.” The ει ending is used with all three

genders. Only context will help you decide which gender is correct. I will always translate verbs in the

exercises up to Chapter 15 with all three pronouns, and it is up to you to decide which is the more

appropriate translation based on context. ὁ θεὸς ἀγαπᾷ (he/she/it loves) τὸν κόσμον. God loves the

world. The shortest verse in the Greek Testament is Ἰωάννην 11:35. (Guess what Ἰωάννην means.)

ἐδάκρυσεν ὁ Ἰησοῦς. ■ ἐδάκρυσεν is “he wept.” ■ ὁ you already know. You also know not to

translate it because it is connected with a personal name, Ἰησοῦς. ■ Ἰησοῦς is “Jesus.” How do you

know that ὁ Ἰησοῦς is the subject even though it comes after the verb ἐδάκρυσεν? You will find out

in the next chapter. Chapter 6 Nominative and Accusative; Definite Article (First and Second

Declension Nouns) Exegetical Insight The nominative case is the case that the subject is in. When the

subject takes an equative verb like “is” (i.e., a verb that equates the

William D. Mounce, Basics of Biblical Greek: Grammar, ed. Verlyn D. Verbrugge, Third Edition. (Grand

Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), xiii–27.

(i.e., a verb that equates the subject with something else), then another noun also appears in the

nominative case—the predicate nominative. In the sentence, “John is a man,” “John” is the subject

and “man” is the predicate nominative. In English the subject and predicate nominative are

distinguished by word order (the subject comes first). Not so in Greek. Since word order in Greek is

quite flexible and is used for emphasis rather than for strict grammatical function, other means are

used to distinguish subject from predicate nominative. For example, if one of the two nouns has the

definite article, it is the subject. As we have said, word order is employed especially for the sake of

emphasis. Generally speaking, when a word is thrown to the front of the clause it is done so for

emphasis. When a predicate nominative is thrown in front of the verb, by virtue of word order it

takes on emphasis. A good illustration of this is John 1:1c. The English versions typically have, “and

the Word was God.” But in Greek, the word order has been reversed. It reads, καὶ θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος

and God was the Word. We know that “the Word” is the subject because it has the definite article,

and we translate it accordingly: “and the Word was God.” Two questions, both of theological import,

should come to mind: (1) why was θεός thrown forward? and (2) why does it lack the article? In brief,

its emphatic position stresses its essence or quality: “What God was, the Word was” is how one

translation brings out this force. Its lack of a definite article keeps us from identifying the person of

the Word (Jesus Christ) with the person of “God” (the Father). That is to say, the word order tells us

that Jesus Christ has all the divine attributes that the Father has; lack of the article tells us that Jesus

Christ is not the Father. John’s wording here is beautifully compact! It is, in fact, one of the most

elegantly terse theological statements one could ever find. As Martin Luther said, the lack of an

article is against Sabellianism; the word order is against Arianism. To state this another way, look at

how the different Greek constructions would be rendered: καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν ὁ θεός “and the Word was

the God” (i.e., the Father; Sabellianism) καὶ ὁ λόγος ἦν θεός “and the Word was a god” (Arianism) καὶ

θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος “and the Word was God” (Orthodoxy). Jesus Christ is God and has all the attributes

that the Father has. But he is not the first person of the Trinity. All this is concisely affirmed in καὶ

θεὸς ἦν ὁ λόγος. Daniel B. Wallace Overview In this chapter you will learn: ■ to identify whether a

noun is first or second declension; ■ two cases and their endings: the nominative (used when the

noun is the subject); the accusative (used when the noun is the direct object); ■ the forms of the

word “the” and how they “agree” with the noun they are modifying; ■ two hints for effective

translation; ■ the first three of eight noun rules. Introduction 6.1 This is by far the longest chapter in

this text. You are meeting some important ideas for the first time, and I want to cover them

adequately. Most of it is grammar and not much is memory work, so take heart. There is a review

part way through and a summary at the end. The chapters in BBG are laid out consistently. ■ Each

one starts with an exegetical insight designed to illustrate some point you will be learning in the

chapter. ■ Overview of the material you will learn ■ A discussion of relevant English grammar ■

Greek grammar ■ A summary of the entire discussion ■ Vocabulary ■ Sometimes there is an

Advanced Information section and an Exegesis section. ■ On many chapters there is a “Halftime

Review.” The website contains many blogs and other items that will encourage you on a chapter by

chapter basis. English 6.2 Everything you need to know about English grammar in this chapter has

been covered in Chapter 5. Greek The Form of the Greek Noun 6.3 Do not memorize the endings in

the following illustrations. All I want you to see is how inflection works. Case endings. The case of a

word in Greek is indicated by the “case ending.” This is a suffix added to the end of the word. For

example, the basic word for “apostle” is ἀποστολο. ■ If the word is functioning as the subject of the

verb, it takes a case ending that is equivalent to the subjective case in English: ς (ἀπόστολος). ■ If it is

functioning as the direct object of the verb, it takes a case ending that is equivalent to the objective

case in English: ν (ἀπόστολον). ὁ ἀπόστολος πέμπει τὸν ἀπόστολον. The apostle sends the apostle.

In English, we normally use word order to determine the function of a word. If the word is the

subject of the verb, it comes before the verb; if it is the direct object of the verb, it comes after the

verb. But in Greek, it is the case ending, not the word order, that indicates the function of a word;

therefore, it is extremely important to learn the case endings well. The following issues affect which

case ending is used in a specific instance. 6.4 Stem. If you take the case ending off a noun you are left

with the stem. The stem of λόγος is λογο. It is the stem of a noun that carries the actual meaning of

the word. It is essential that you be able to identify the stem of a word. It is listed in the Vocabulary

section marked with an asterisk (*λογο). 6.5 Gender. A noun is either masculine, feminine, or neuter.

A noun has only one gender and it never varies. A word is not always the gender you might expect

(cf. “natural gender,” 5.6). ἁμαρτωλός means “sinner” and is masculine, but it does not mean that a

sinner is male. ἁμαρτία means “sin” and is a feminine noun, but it does not mean that sin is a

feminine trait. This is called “grammatical gender.” However, there are certain patterns that will help

you remember the gender of a word. Words listed in the vocabulary section that end in ος are

usually masculine, words ending with ον are usually neuter, and words ending in eta or alpha are

mostly feminine. 6.6 Number. Instead of adding an “s” to a word, Greek indicates singular or plural by

using different case endings. ■ ἀπόστολος means “apostle” ■ ἀπόστολοι means “apostles” The

difference between the singular and plural is indicated by the case endings ς and ι. 6.7 Declensions. I

discussed in 5.7 how there are different inflectional patterns that English nouns follow in forming

their plural. Some add “s,” some add “es,” and others change the vowel in the stem of the word (e.g.,

“men”). The pattern a word follows does not affect its meaning, only its form. “Children” and “childs”

would mean the same thing, if the latter were actually a word. In Greek there are basically three

inflectional patterns. Each of these patterns is called a “declension.” What declension a particular

noun follows has no bearing on the meaning of the word. The different declensions affect only the

form of the case ending. ■ Nouns that have a stem ending in an alpha or eta are first declension, take

first declension endings, and are primarily feminine (e.g., γραφή). ■ Nouns that have a stem ending

in an omicron are second declension, take second declension endings, and are mostly masculine or

neuter (ἀπόστολος; ἔργον). ■ If the stem of a word ends in a consonant it is third declension. We will

deal with the third declension in Chapter 10. For example, a first declension case ending for the

subject of the verb is nothing; the stem stands by itself (γραφή; ὥρα). ἡ ὥρα ἐστὶν νῦν. The hour is

now. A second declension case ending for the subject of the verb is ς (ἀπόστολος). ὁ ἀπόστολος

λέγει τὸν λόγον. The apostle speaks the word. Remember: declension affects only the case ending

used; it does not affect meaning. Since the final letter of the noun stem determines its declension, a

noun can belong to only one declension. Indeclinable. Some words in Greek are indeclinable, such as

personal names and words borrowed from other languages. Their form, therefore, does not change

regardless of their meaning or function in the sentence. For example, the word for “Israel” is written

as Ἰσραήλ whether it is the subject or the direct object. First Two Cases 6.8 Nominative. In this

chapter you will learn two of the five Greek cases. The first is the nominative case. The primary

function of the nominative case is to indicate the subject of the sentence. In other words, if a word is

the subject of the verb it will have a nominative case ending. As you have seen above, one of the

nominative singular case endings is sigma. In the following sentence, which word is the subject?

(ἀγαπᾷ means “he loves” and τόν means “the.”) ὁ θεὸς ἀγαπᾷ τὸν κόσμον. 6.9 Accusative. If a word

is the direct object of the verb it will be in the accusative case. This means that it will have an

accusative case ending. One of the accusative singular case endings is ν. In the following sentence,

which word is the direct object? Χριστὸν ἀγαπᾷ ὁ θεός. Word Order and Lexicons 6.10 Word order.

Notice in the example above that you do not determine whether a word is the subject or the object

by its order in the sentence as you do in English. The only way to determine the subject or direct

object of a Greek verb is by the case endings. This cannot be stressed too much. Your natural

inclination will be to ignore the case endings and assume that the word before the verb is the subject

and the word after the verb is the direct object. Fight this tendency! While word placement does not

determine function, it does help in some situations to understand the author’s intention. For

example, Ephesians 2:8 starts, “For by grace you have been saved through faith.” Paul wanted to

emphasize, above all else, that salvation is due to God’s grace, and therefore he places that fact first

for emphasis. Your translation should retain that emphasis, as long as it is acceptable English. In

Greek, the ending ς shows you that this word is in the nominative case and therefore is the subject.

The ending ν shows you that this word is accusative and therefore is the direct object. In the

following examples, locate the subjects and direct objects. Note that although each example has the

same meaning (“God loves the world”), the order of the words is different. Θεὸς ἀγαπᾷ τὸν κόσμον.

ἀγαπᾷ τὸν κόσμον Θεός. τὸν κόσμον Θεὸς ἀγαπᾷ. ἀγαπᾷ Θεὸς τὸν κόσμον. As a general rule, as you

translate, try to maintain the same order as the Greek if possible. There is a rhythm to the order of

words in Greek, although it is a different rhythm than in English. Try to keep the same English order

as the Greek, for now, and this will keep you from making certain mistakes. 6.11 Lexicons and lexical

form. Whereas most people call them “dictionaries,” scholars call them lexicons. The form of the

word found in the lexicon is called the lexical form. The lexical form of a Greek noun is its form in the

nominative singular. For example, the lexical form of κόσμον (accusative singular) is κόσμος. Your

vocabulary words are given in their lexical forms. Whenever you are asked to explain the form of an

inflected Greek word, you must be able to indicate its lexical form; otherwise, you will not be able to

look up the word in the lexicon and find its meaning. Halftime Review You are halfway through this

lesson, so let’s stop and review what you have learned. I will include these reviews in all the chapters

unless they are short. ■ Greek uses different case endings to indicate the case (nominative;

accusative), gender (masculine; feminine; neuter), and number (singular; plural). ■ The stem of the

word is the basic form of the word that carries its meaning. It is discovered by removing the case

ending. ■ Stems ending in an alpha or eta are in the first declension; stems ending in omicron are in

the second declension. ■ If a word is the subject of a verb, it is in the nominative case and uses

nominative case endings. ■ If a word is the direct object of a verb, it is in the accusative case and

uses accusative case endings. ■ Word order does not determine the function of a word. ■ The lexical

form of a noun is the nominative singular. Case Endings 6.12 Form. The following chart is called a

“paradigm.” It is the paradigm of the case endings used by the first and second declensions,

nominative and accusative. A dash (-) means that no case ending is used and the stem of the noun

stands by itself. The underline (α) means that the case ending joins with the final stem vowel. These

endings must be learned perfectly. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ς - ν acc sg ν ν ν nom pl ι ι α acc pl

υς ς α When attached to the final stem vowel, they look like this. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ος η α

ον acc sg ον ην αν ον nom pl οι αι α acc pl ους ας α As you can see, we have to make allowance for

the two stem vowels in the feminine. The Structure of the Paradigms ■ The singular forms are on

top, and the plural below. ■ The order left to right is masculine, feminine, neuter. ■ The “2-1-2” along

the top means that the masculine follows the second declension, the feminine follows the first

declension, and the neuter follows the second. Older methods of learning Greek required you to

memorize paradigm after paradigm, fifty-two in all. You can still do that if you wish, but that means

that for the rest of your life you will have to review paradigm after paradigm. You get the picture. I

offer you a different approach. Memorize the definite article, one other paradigm, and eight rules.

That’s all there is to it. Which way would you like to go? Important ■ Learn these endings! Without

them, you will never be able to translate anything. ■ Be sure to memorize the endings by

themselves, not only what they look like when attached to a word. Otherwise you may not be able to

identify the endings on other nouns. ■ The key to learning these paradigms is to realize that

translation does not require you to repeat paradigms; it requires you to recognize the endings when

you see them. ■ I suggest that you read the paradigms left to right, not top to bottom. When you are

translating a verse, you will be looking for a word in the nominative, and at first you do not care

about its number or gender. ■ Use flash cards. Put each ending on a different card, carry them with

you wherever you go, mix them up, and review them over and over again. ■ Always say the endings

out loud. The more senses you employ in memorization the better. Pronounce the ending out loud;

listen to yourself speak; write the ending down; look at what you have written. 6.13 Hints ■ The

masculine and feminine case endings are often similar or even identical. In the nominative and

accusative, the neuter is usually distinct from the masculine. ■ In the neuter, the nominative and

accusative singular are always the same, and the nominative and accusative plural are always the

same (see 6.18 below). Context will usually show you whether the neuter word is the subject or

direct object. Nouns 6.14 Paradigm of the word and case endings. Now let’s add the case endings to

the nouns. Be sure to differentiate between the stem and the case ending. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom

sg λόγος γραφή ὥρα ἔργον acc sg λόγον γραφήν ὥραν ἔργον nom pl λόγοι γραφαί ὧραι ἔργα acc pl

λόγους γραφάς ὥρας ἔργα Notice which endings are going to give you trouble. The nu and alpha

occur in several places. 6.15 Feminine. In the paradigm there are two feminine nouns, γραφή and

ὥρα. The only difference between the forms of these two words is the final stem vowel. γραφή ends

in eta, and ὥρα ends in alpha. If you think of the alpha and eta as being related vowels, then you will

not have to learn two different patterns for feminine nouns. They are identical except for the final

stem vowel. Notice, however, that in the plural the stem of γραφή ends in an alpha and not an eta.

All first declension nouns that have eta in the singular shift to alpha in the plural. 6.16 Parse. When

asked to “parse” a noun, you should specify five things about the word. 1. Case (nominative,

accusative) 2. Number (singular, plural) 3. Gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) 4. Lexical form

(nominative singular) 5. Inflected meaning For example, λόγους is accusative plural masculine, from

λόγος, meaning “words.” This is only my suggestion. Teachers may vary on their preferred order of

parsing. 6.17 Parsing neuter nouns. When parsing a neuter word that is either nominative or

accusative, my suggestion is to list both possibilities. For example, ἔργον is nominative or accusative

singular neuter, from ἔργον, meaning “work.” When you are translating a sentence and come across

one of these forms, it is important to see that the word can be either the subject or direct object. If

you make an assumption that it is the subject when in fact it is the direct object, you may never be

able to translate the sentence. But if you are accustomed to parsing it as “nominative/accusative,”

you will be less likely to make this mistake. The First Three Noun Rules 6.18 These are the first three

of the famous eight noun rules. Learn them exactly! 1. Stems ending in alpha or eta are in the first

declension, stems ending in omicron are in the second, and consonantal stems are in the third. 2.

Every neuter word has the same form in the nominative and accusative. ἔργον could be either

nominative or accusative. 3. Almost all neuter words end in alpha in the nominative and accusative

plural. All of the eight noun rules are listed in the Appendix, page 346. Definite Article 6.19 Summary.

The definite article is the only article in Greek. There is no indefinite article (“a,” cf. 6.25). For this

reason you can refer to the Greek definite article simply as the “article.” 6.20 Agreement. The article

agrees with the noun it modifies in case, number, and gender. For this reason, unlike nouns, the

article can occur in any gender. In other words, if a noun is nominative, singular, masculine

(ἄνθρωπος), the article that modifies it will be nominative, singular, masculine (ὁ). The lexical form of

the article is the nominative, singular, masculine (ὁ). As a general rule, the lexical form of any word

that occurs in more than one gender is the masculine form. 6.21 Form. Here is the paradigm of the

article. Compare the forms to the case endings to see all the similarities. The feminine follows the

first declension, the masculine and neuter the second. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ὁ ἡ τό acc sg τόν

τήν τό nom pl οἱ αἱ τά acc pl τούς τάς τά 6.22 Hints ■ The article begins with either a rough breathing

or a tau. Then you have the characteristic vowel of that declension and the case ending. The only

exception is the neuter singular. ■ The article does not care about the declension of the word it is

modifying. ἡ will modify a feminine noun whether it is first or second declension. This makes the

article consistent, easy to learn, and important. 6.23 Here is the noun paradigm with the definite

article. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ὁ λόγος ἡ γραφή ἡ ὥρα τὸ ἔργον acc sg τὸν λόγον τὴν γραφήν

τὴν ὥραν τὸ ἔργον nom pl οἱ λόγοι αἱ γραφαί αἱ ὧραι τὰ ἔργα acc pl τοὺς λόγους τὰς γραφάς τὰς

ὥρας τὰ ἔργα 6.24 Knowing the forms of the article is the key to recognizing the forms of nouns in

Greek. If you learn the forms of the Greek article well, you will not have much more to learn for

nouns. Almost all nouns are preceded by the article. If you cannot decline a noun you can look at the

article and will know what the noun is. A second reason why the article is important is that most of

the case endings found on nouns are similar to the definite article. Therefore, if you know the article,

you know many of the case endings. There is a lot already to learn in this chapter, so I wouldn’t teach

you much fun stuff; but everyone needs to learn how to say “hello.” But it isn’t that simple. We have

different ways of saying hello, depending on how formal we want to be and how many people we are

talking to. The formal way to say “hello” is χαίρειν. It is short for “(I wish you) to be happy.” Check out

Acts 15:23; James 1:1; 2 John 10. Translation Procedure 6.25 When students start learning Greek,

one of their initial problems is that a Greek sentence looks like a collection of unrelated words. One

of the keys to this problem is learning to split a sentence into its different parts. At this point, you can

separate the subject and the direct object from the verb. θεὸς σώσει ψυχάς. God will save souls. The

subject is θεός and the direct object is ψυχάς. You would divide the sentence like this: θεὸς / σώσει /

ψυχάς. If there is an article, keep it with the noun. ὁ θεὸς / σώσει / ψυχάς. As you get further into

Greek and sentence structure becomes more complex, this practice becomes more significant. 6.26

Article. As in English, the Greek article is generally translated “the.” The rule is to translate according

to the presence or absence of the article. If an article is present, translate it. If there is no article, do

not use “the.” If there is no article you may insert “a” before the noun if it makes better sense in

English. For example, “ὁ ἄνθρωπος” means “the man” and “ἄνθρωπος” means “man” or “a man.”

6.27 You will soon discover that the Greeks do not use the article the same way we do. They use it

when we never would, and they omit it when English demands it. Languages are not codes, and

there is not an exact word for word correspondence. Therefore, you should be a little flexible at this

point. As you work through the following chapters, I will note some of the differences. You will meet

these two differences in this chapter: Names. Greek often uses the definite article before a proper

name. For example, you will often find ὁ Ἰησοῦς (“the Jesus”). You may omit the article in your

translation of proper names. Abstract nouns. Greek often includes the article with abstract nouns

such as “the Truth” (ἡ ἀλήθεια). English does not normally use the article with abstract nouns and

you may omit it in translation. If you are saying “hi” to one friend, you say, χαῖρε (Luke 1:28). This is

also the word the soldiers used to mock Jesus, often translated as “hail” (John 19:3). 6.28

Postpositive. A postpositive is a word that cannot be the first word in a Greek sentence or clause,

even though in your translation it is the first word. It usually is the second word and sometimes the

third. There are only a few postpositives, but in this chapter you will learn δέ, meaning “but.” ὁ δὲ

εἶπεν … is translated “But he said.…” Summary 1. The fog. You are now entering the fog. You will

have read this chapter and think you understand it—and perhaps you do—but it will seem foggy.

That’s okay. If living in the fog becomes discouraging, look two chapters back and you should

understand that chapter clearly. In two more chapters this chapter will be clear, assuming you keep

studying. 2. Greek uses case endings to show the noun’s function. Different case endings are used to

designate case (nominative, accusative), number (singular, plural), and gender (masculine, feminine,

neuter). 3. The stem of a noun is what is left after removing the case ending. It carries the basic

meaning of the word. 4. The subject of a verb uses nominative case endings, and the direct object

uses accusative case endings. 5. Memorize the paradigm of the case endings and the article. 6. The

article agrees with the noun that it modifies in case, number, and gender. 7. Learn the endings by

themselves. Then learn the full paradigm that lists the article, noun stem, and case endings. 2 1 2

masc fem neut nom sg ς - ν acc sg ν ν ν nom pl ι ι α acc pl υς ς α 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ὁ λόγος

ἡ γραφή ἡ ὥρα τὸ ἔργον acc sg τὸν λόγον τὴν γραφήν τὴν ὥραν τὸ ἔργον nom pl οἱ λόγοι αἱ γραφαί

αἱ ὧραι τὰ ἔργα acc pl τοὺς λόγους τὰς γραφάς τὰς ὥρας τὰ ἔργα 8. The first three noun rules. 1.

Stems ending in alpha or eta are in the first declension, stems ending in omicron are in the second,

and consonantal stems are in the third. The declension of a noun affects only its form, not its

meaning. 2. Every neuter word has the same form in the nominative and accusative. 3. Almost all

neuter words end in alpha in the nominative and accusative plural. 9. Divide the sentence you are

translating into its parts: subject; verb; direct object. Keep the article with the noun it modifies.

Vocabulary Nouns are listed with their article (e.g., ἀγάπη, ἡ). Be sure to memorize the article with

the word so you can remember its gender. The stem of the word is listed with an asterisk (e.g.,

*ἀγαπη). The forms with a dash following the words (e.g., “-ης” with ἀγάπη, and “-η, -ο” with ἄλλος)

will be explained in following chapters. ἀγάπη, -ης, ἡ love (116; *ἀγαπη) ἄλλος, -η, -ο other, another

(155; *αλλο) αὐτός, -ή, -ό singular: he, she, it (him, her) (5,597; *αὐτο) plural: they (them) Although

you do not yet know why, αὐτόν is only masculine, not neuter. βασιλεία, -ας, ἡ kingdom (162;

*βασιλεια) δέ (δʼ) but, and (2,792) δέ is a postpositive. δέ is sometimes written as δʼ when it is

followed by a word beginning with a vowel (e.g., δʼ ἄν …). ἐν in, on, among (2,752) ἔργον, -ου, τό

work, deed, action (169; *ἐργο) καιρός, -οῦ, ὁ (appointed) time, season (85; *καιρο) The

parentheses mean that καιρός can mean “time” or “appointed time.” νῦν adverb: now (147; adverb)

noun: the present ὁ, ἡ, τό the (19,867) ὅτι that, since, because (1,296) ὅτι can also act as quotation

marks. Modern Greek texts capitalize the first word in what the editors feel is a quotation; in these

cases they are expecting you to view ὅτι as quotation marks. οὐ (οὐκ, οὐχ) not (1,623) οὐ is used

when the following word begins with a consonant (οὐ δύναται). οὐκ is used when the next word

begins with a vowel and smooth breathing (οὐκ ἦλθον), while οὐχ is used when the next word begins

with a vowel and rough breathing (οὐχ ὑμεῖς). All forms mean “not.” οὐ tends to precede the word it

modifies. ὥρα, -ας, ἡ hour, occasion, moment (106; *ὡρα) Total word count in the New Testament:

138,162 Number of words learned to date: 39 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 34,867

Number of word occurrences to date: 50,825 Percent of total word count in the New Testament:

36.79% Alternate forms of the same word, like οὐ, οὐκ, and οὐχ are called “allomorphs.” Previous

Words As you learn more grammar, it will be necessary from time to time to go back to words you

have already learned and fine-tune our understanding of those words. When that happens, the

words in question are listed in this section. This is when I explain the parts of your vocabulary words

you did not understand. Be sure to learn the article and stem of every vocabulary word. If you are

saying “hi” to more than one friend, say χαίρετε. This form is also used to say “rejoice!” (1 Thess

5:16). Ἀβραάμ, ὁ *Ἀβρααμ ἄγγελος, ὁ *ἀγγελο ἄνθρωπος, ὁ *ἀνθρωπο ἀπόστολος, ὁ *ἀποστολο

Γαλιλαία, ἡ *Γαλιλαια γραφή, ἡ *γραφη Δαυίδ, ὁ *Δαυίδ δόξα, ἡ *δοξα ζωή, ἡ *ζωη θεός, ὁ *θεο

καρδία, ἡ *καρδια κόσμος, ὁ *κοσμο λόγος, ὁ *λογο Παῦλος, ὁ *Παυλο Πέτρος, ὁ *Πετρο Πιλᾶτος, ὁ

*Πιλατο πνεῦμα, τό *πνευματ προφήτης, ὁ *προφητη σάββατον, τό *σαββατο Σίμων, ὁ *Σιμων

φωνή, ἡ *φωνη Χριστός, ὁ *Χριστο workbook summary Exegesis It is often helpful for students to

see how the grammar they have just learned is actually used in exegesis. That’s what this section is

for. If you are struggling as a student, this may be too much information for you, but it is here when

you are ready. If you are in a class, your teacher will tell you if you are responsible for this

information. Nominative The primary function of the nominative case is to indicate the subject of the

verb. Another use will be introduced in Chapter 8. Accusative 1. The primary use of the accusative is

to indicate the direct object. ἠγάπησεν ὁ θεὸς τὸν κόσμον (John 3:16). God loved the world. 2. Some

verbs require two objects to complete their meaning (double accusative). ἐκεῖνος ὑμᾶς διδάξει

πάντα (John 14:26). He will teach you all things. Sometimes a translation will add a word like “as”

before the second accusative to help you understand its meaning. ἀπέστειλεν τὸν υἱὸν αὐτοῦ

ἱλασμόν (1 John 4:10). He sent his Son as the propitiation. 3. The accusative can behave as an adverb,

modifying the verb (adverbial accusative; accusative of manner or measure). δωρεὰν ἐλάβετε,

δωρεὰν δότε (Matt 10:8) Freely you received, freely give. ζητεῖτε πρῶτον τὴν βασιλείαν τοῦ θεοῦ

(Matt 6:33). Seek first the kingdom of God. Many signs in modern Greece are written in both Greek

and English. Chapter 7 Genitive and Dative First and Second Declension Nouns Exegetical Insight

“Peace on earth, good will toward men” (Luke 2:14, KJV). You have probably all received Christmas

cards containing this part of the angels’ song to the shepherds on the fields of Bethlehem. But most

modern translations read differently: “on earth peace to men on whom his [God’s] favor rests” (NIV);

“and on earth peace among those whom he [God] favors” (NRSV). The difference between the KJV

and the others is the difference between the nominative and the genitive. The Greek manuscripts

used to translate the KJV contain εὐδοκία (nominative), whereas the older manuscripts used to

translate the modern versions contain εὐδοκίας (genitive)—literally translated, “of good will” or

“characterized by [God’s] good pleasure.” In other words, the peace that the angels sang that

belonged to the earth as a result of the birth of Christ is not a generic, worldwide peace for all

humankind, but a peace limited to those who obtain favor with God by believing in his Son Jesus (see

Romans 5:1). What a difference a single letter can make in the meaning of the text! Verlyn Verbrugge

Overview In this chapter you will learn: ■ the final two major cases, the genitive (when the noun is

showing possession) and the dative (when the noun is used as the indirect object); ■ the concept of

key words; ■ Noun Rules 4, 5, and 6. English 7.1 The possessive case in English is used to indicate

possession. You can either put “of” in front of the word (“The Word of God is true.”), an “apostrophe

s” after the word (“God’s Word is true.”), or just apostrophe if the word ends in “s” (“The apostles’

word was ignored.”). 7.2 The indirect object, technically, is the person/thing that is “indirectly”

affected by the action of the verb. This means that the indirect object is somehow involved in the

action described by the verb, but not directly. For example, “Karin threw Brad a ball.” The direct

object is “ball,” since it is directly related to the action of the verb. It is what was thrown. But “Brad”

is also related to the action of the verb, since the ball was thrown to him. “Brad” is the indirect

object. If Karin threw Brad, then “Brad” would be the direct object. One way to find the indirect

object is to put the word “to” in front of the word and see if it makes sense. “Karin threw Brad a

ball.” “Karin threw to Brad a ball.” To whom did Karin throw the ball? To Brad. “Brad” is the indirect

object. The indirect object answers the question “to whom?” or “to what?” English does not have a

separate case for the indirect object. It uses the same form as the direct object (objective case).

“Him” is used for both a direct and an indirect object. Greek Genitive Case 7.3 The genitive case in

Greek can be used when showing possession. Instead of adding an “apostrophe s” or using “of,” the

genitive case endings are added to the Greek word. For example, if the sentence “Everyone breaks

the laws of God” were in Greek, “God” would be in the genitive case and have a genitive case ending.

υ is a genitive singular ending, and ων is the genitive plural ending. If you were to see the word

λόγου you would know it is singular and may be showing possession. If you were to see the word

λόγων you would know it is plural and also may be showing possession. In English the possessive

case can be indicated by the apostrophe. “Everyone breaks God’s laws.” Greek, however, does not

have this construction, and so all Greek constructions are in the form “of.…” “Laws of God” (νόμοι

τοῦ θεοῦ) would never be τοῦ θεοῦ’s νόμοι. Therefore, in translating you should think with the “of”

construction. The word in the genitive usually follows the word it is modifying (νόμοι τοῦ θεοῦ). The

word it modifies is called the head noun. 7.4 You now meet an important technique that is helpful in

learning Greek. It is the use of what I call key words. Key words are words that are associated with a

particular case that you should put in front of the translation of the actual word. Doing this will help

you understand the function of the case. The key word for the genitive is “of.” ἡ δόξα ἀνθρώπου The

glory of mankind. Greek Dative Case 7.5 The dative case in Greek has a wide range of usage, roughly

equivalent to the ideas behind the English “to,” “in,” and “with.” In the following examples, τῷ is the

dative form of the definite article. ἄγγελος κυρίου κατʼ ὄναρ ἐφάνη αὐτῷ (Matt 1:20). An angel of

the Lord appeared to him in a dream. Μακάριοι οἱ πτωχοὶ τῷ πνεύματι (Matt 5:3). Blessed are the

poor in spirit. πᾶς ὁ ὀργιζόμενος τῷ ἀδελφῷ αὐτοῦ (Matt 5:22). everyone who is angry with his

brother These become three key words for the dative, with “to” being primary. Context will help you

determine which is appropriate in a specific instance. 7.6 Under the category of “to” comes the

indirect object. The indirect object functions the same in Greek as it does in English. In Greek, the

indirect object is put in the dative case, which means it uses the dative case endings. For example, if

the sentence “God gave the world his Son” were in Greek, “the world” would be in the dative case

since it is the indirect object. ἔδωκεν ἄν σοι ὕδωρ ζῶν (John 4:10). He would give you living water.

For the time being it is best to use the key word “to” in your translation of the indirect object. As you

become comfortable with the construction, your teacher may allow you a little more flexibility. 7.7

Iota is the dative singular case ending and ις is a dative plural. In the singular, the final stem vowel

lengthens and the iota subscripts. (“Subscript” means it is written under a letter.) αι ▶ ᾳ *βασιλεια +

ι ▶ βασιλείᾳ ηι ▶ ῃ *ἀγαπη + ι ▶ ἀγάπῃ οι ▶ ῳ *λογο + ι ▶ λογοι ▶ λογωι ▶ λόγῳ If you were to

see the word λόγῳ you would know it is singular and may be functioning as the indirect object. If you

were to see the word λόγοις you would know it is plural and may be functioning as the indirect

object. Genitive and Dative Case Endings 7.8 Here is the full paradigm for the first and second

declension. The genitive and dative are placed between the nominative and accusative. 2 1 2 masc

fem neut nom sg ς — ν gen sg υ ς υ dat sg ι ι ι acc sg ν ν ν nom pl ι ι α gen pl ων ων ων dat pl ις ις ις

acc pl υς ς α When attached to the final stem vowel they look like this. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg

ος η α ον gen sg ου ης ας ου dat sg ῳ ῃ ᾳ ῳ acc sg ον ην αν ον nom pl οι αι α gen pl ων ων ων dat pl

οις αις οις acc pl ους ας α If you are going to say “hello,” you should also be able to say “goodbye.” ■

If you are saying goodbye to one person, you say, ἔρρωσο. ■ If you are saying goodbye to more than

one person, say, ἔρρωσθε (Acts 15:29). These forms are from the verb meaning, “to be strong.” If

your teacher lets you, take a break, walk around the room, and say “hello” and “goodbye” to one

another. When attached to words, they look like this. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg λόγος γραφή ὥρα

ἔργον gen sg λόγου γραφῆς ὥρας ἔργου dat sg λόγῳ γραφῇ ὥρᾳ ἔργῳ acc sg λόγον γραφήν ὥραν

ἔργον nom pl λόγοι γραφαί ἔργα gen pl λόγων γραφῶν ἔργων dat pl λόγοις γραφαῖς ἔργοις acc pl

λόγους γραφάς ἔργα In modern Greek, we use the plural when being formal or polite, even when

speaking to one person. So perhaps in speaking to your teacher you should say, ἔρρωσθε. 7.9 Hints a.

Both the masculine and neuter have the same case endings in the genitive and dative. This is always

true. b. In the dative an iota is always present for all three genders. In the singular it is subscripted. c.

The dative plural is also an iota and a sigma. The dative plural is also a longer ending (two letters)

than the singular (one letter); you can associate “longer” with the plural. d. All three genders have

the ending “ων” in the genitive plural. This is always true. e. Many feminine nouns ending in ας can

be either genitive singular or accusative plural. Look either at the definite article (τῆς/τάς) or the

context to decide. The Article 7.10 Because the article is the key to learning the noun system, you

should commit it to memory. There are no more forms of the article, no more possibilities; this is all

you need to know. Learn them well. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ὁ ἡ τό gen sg τοῦ τῆς τοῦ dat sg τῷ

τῇ τῷ acc sg τόν τήν τό nom pl οἱ αἱ τά gen pl τῶν τῶν τῶν dat pl τοῖς ταῖς τοῖς acc pl τούς τάς τά The

Full Paradigm 7.11 Here is the full paradigm of first and second declension nouns with the article. 2 1

2 masc fem neut nom sg ὁ λόγος ἡ γραφή ἡ ὥρα τὸ ἔργον gen sg τοῦ λόγου τῆς γραφῆς τῆς ὥρας

τοῦ ἔργου dat sg τῷ λόγῳ τῇ γραφῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ τῷ ἔργῳ acc sg τὸν λόγον τὴν γραφήν τὴν ὥραν τὸ ἔργον

nom pl οἱ λόγοι αἱ γραφαί τὰ ἔργα gen pl τῶν λόγων τῶν γραφῶν τῶν ἔργων dat pl τοῖς λόγοις ταῖς

γραφαῖς τοῖς ἔργοις acc pl τοὺς λόγους τὰς γραφάς τὰ ἔργα Halftime Review 1. The genitive case can

indicate possession (“of”). The word it modifies is the head noun. 2. The dative case can indicate the

ideas of “to” (indirect object), “in,” and “with.” 3. The most important paradigm to memorize is 7.11.

Noun Rules 7.12 You have already learned the first three of the eight noun rules. You now need to

learn the next three. Be sure to memorize them exactly. 4. In the dative singular, the iota subscripts if

possible. γραφη + ι ▶ γραφῇ. This rule explains what happens to the dative singular case endings in

the first and second declension. An iota can subscript only under a long vowel. 5. Vowels often

change their length (“ablaut”). λογο + ι ▶ λογῷ. “Ablaut” is the technical term for this. By “change

their length” I mean that they can shorten (omega to omicron), lengthen (omicron to omega) as in

the dative singular, or disappear entirely. 6. In the genitive and dative, the masculine and neuter will

always be identical. There are only two more rules to learn, and you will see them in Chapter 10 on

third declension nouns. Other Declension Patterns 7.13 Partially declined words. Certain words are

not fully declined, or else they follow rare patterns. This is especially true of proper nouns. Instead of

listing all of these separate paradigms, you will be told about the differences as you meet the words.

In this chapter you will meet the name “Jesus.” Proper names are usually preceded by the definite

article. Here is its declension. nom sg ὁ Ἰησοῦς gen sg τοῦ Ἰησοῦ dat sg τῷ Ἰησοῦ acc sg τὸν Ἰησοῦν

How can you tell the difference between the dative and genitive? Correct! The definite article that

precedes his name will tell you. 7.14 Alternate first declension pattern. There are 36 first declension

words in the New Testament that shift their final stem vowel in the genitive and dative singular from

alpha to eta. Only four of these words occur with any frequency (see MBG, n-1c; see MBG for an

explanation of this coding). nom sg δόξα n/v pl δόξαι gen sg δόξης gen pl δοξῶν dat sg δόξῃ dat pl

δόξαις acc sg δόξαν acc pl δόξας Here is the rule for the alpha to eta shift. If a first declension word

has a stem ending in alpha where the preceding letter is epsilon, iota, or rho, it will form the genitive

and dative singular with alpha. Otherwise, the alpha will shift to eta. Ask your teacher if you need to

memorize this rule. All feminine plural stems end in alpha, regardless of their form in the singular.

Alternate way to state the rule: ■ If stem ends in a vowel or ρ, it is formed like ὥρα, -ας ■ If stem

ends in a sibilant (σ, ξ, ζ), it is formed like δόξα, -ης. ■ All other feminine words are formed like

γραφή, -ῆς. Detective Work 7.15 One way to approach parsing is to think of it as a detective game.

Some case endings occur in only one location. For example, λόγους must be accusative plural. It can’t

be anything else. A subscripted iota must be dative singular. These are the easy endings. But other

endings can occur in two or more locations. These are the endings that may require more detective

work, and it is important to know which endings fit in which category. For example ἔργα can be

nominative or accusative plural. ὥρας can be genitive singular or accusative plural. Translation 7.16

Hints for translating genitive and dative forms. a. Be sure to use your key words when you translate a

word in the genitive or dative. b. Whenever you see a noun, do not stop but look further to see if

there is a word in the genitive following it. ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ σώσει ψυχάς. The word of God will save

souls. c. As you divide the sentence, you already know to keep the article with the noun it modifies.

Now you will also keep the genitive (and its article) with the noun it modifies. ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ /

σώσει / ψυχάς. Summary 1. There is a chart in the Appendix that covers all the Greek cases and their

different uses (page 344). Use it for reference. 2. The genitive case may indicate possession. It uses

genitive case endings, and its key word is “of.” 3. The dative case is used to express the ideas of “in,”

“with,” and especially “to.” 4. The indirect object “indirectly” receives the action of the verb. If you

can put the word “to” in front of it, it is the indirect object. It answers the question “to whom?” or

“to what?” It uses the key word “to” and dative case endings. 5. Memorize all the case endings and

the twenty-four forms of the definite article. When you study the full paradigm, be sure to identify

the true case endings. 6. Rule 4: In the dative singular, the iota subscripts if possible. 7. Rule 5:

Vowels often change their length (“ablaut”). 8. Rule 6: In the genitive and dative, the masculine and

neuter will always be identical. 9. If a first declension word has a stem ending in alpha where the

preceding letter is epsilon, iota, or rho, it will form the genitive and dative with alpha. Otherwise, the

alpha will shift to eta. 10. When dividing a sentence into its parts, be sure to keep the article and the

word in the genitive with the words they modify. You now know the four main cases and most of the

case endings. Congratulations! Vocabulary Now that you know the genitive case, I can explain the full

form of the vocabulary listing. A noun is listed followed by sufficient letters to show you its form in

the genitive, and then by its article. ἁμαρτία, -ας, ἡ means ἁμαρτία is a feminine noun (ἡ) with the

genitive ἁμαρτίας. Always memorize the genitive form with the nominative. This habit will become

especially important later on. ἁμαρτία, -ας, ἡ sin (173; *ἁμαρτια) ἀρχή, -ῆς, ἡ beginning, ruler (55;

*ἀρχη) γάρ for, then (1,041) γάρ is postpositive. εἶπεν he/she/it said (613) εἶπεν is third person

singular. The frequency of this form is not included in the running totals because it is an inflected

form. You will meet its lexical form later. εἰς into, in, among (1,767) ἐξουσία, -ας, ἡ authority, power

(102; *ἐξουσια) εὐαγγέλιον, -ου, τό good news, Gospel (76; *εὐαγγελιο) Ἰησοῦς, -οῦ, ὁ Jesus, Joshua

(917; * Ἰησου) κύριος, -ου, ὁ Lord, lord, master, sir (717; *κυριο) μή not, lest (1,042) μή has the same

basic meaning as οὐ but is used in different situations that I will discuss later. When οὐ μή occur

together, they form an emphatic negation: “No!” οὐρανός, -οῦ, ὁ heaven, sky (273; *οὐρανο) You

will often find οὐρανός in the plural. This is the result of a Jewish way of speaking, and you can

translate the plural as a singular if it fits the context. οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο singular: this (one) (1,387;

*τουτο) plural: these As an adjective it means “this” (singular) and “these” (plural), and as a noun it

means “this one.” σύ you (singular) (1,067) In English, “you” can be either singular or plural. σύ is

always singular. Greek has a different form for the plural. υἱός, -οῦ, ὁ son, descendant; child (377;

*υἱο) ὥστε therefore, so that (83) Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162 Number of words

learned to date: 53 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 9,077 Number of word occurrences

to date: 59,902 Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 43.35% Previous Words You need

to learn the genitives for all the nouns in chapters 4 and 6. You will notice that several of the nouns

have no expressed genitive form. This is because they are indeclinable. They can function in any of

the cases but will not change their form. Do not worry about the genitive of πνεῦμα and Σίμων until

Chapter 10. Ἀβραάμ, ὁ θεός, -οῦ, ὁ ἀγάπη, -ης, ἡ καιρός, -οῦ, ὁ ἄγγελος, -ου, ὁ καρδία, -ας, ἡ

ἄνθρωπος, -ου, ὁ κόσμος, ου, ὁ ἀπόστολος, -ου, ὁ λόγος, -ου, ὁ αὐτός, -οῦ Παῦλος, -ου, ὁ βασιλεία,

-ας, ἡ Πέτρος, -ου, ὁ Γαλιλαία, -ας, ἡ Πιλᾶτος, -ου, ὁ γραφή, -ῆς, ἡ προφήτης, ου, ὁ Δαυίδ, ὁ

σάββατον, -ου, τό δόξα, -ης, ἡ φωνή, -ῆς, ἡ ἔργον, -ου, τό Χριστός, -οῦ, ὁ ζωή, -ῆς, ἡ ὥρα, -ας, ἡ

workbook summary Exegesis Genitive 1. The most common use of the genitive is when the word in

the genitive gives some description of the head noun (descriptive). ἐνδυσώμεθα τὰ ὅπλα τοῦ φωτός

(Rom 13:12). Let us put on the armor of light. 2. The head noun can be possessed by the word in the

genitive (possessive). ὕπαγε πώλησόν σου τά ὑπάρχοντα (Matt 19:21). Go, sell your possessions. 3.

In a general sense, if you have a noun that in some way equals the meaning of another noun, the

writer can put the noun in the genitive, and it is said to be in apposition to the head noun. It is as if

you drew an equals sign between the two words. The translations will often add a word or

punctuation to help make this clear. λήμψεσθε τὴν δωρεὰν τοῦ ἁγίου πνεύματος (Acts 2:38). You will

receive the gift, the Holy Spirit. 4. The word in the genitive can indicate something that is separate

from the head noun or verb. It will often use the helping word “from” (separation). ἀπηλλοτριωμένοι

τῆς πολιτείας τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ (Eph 2:12) being alienated from the commonwealth of the Israel 5. This

category and the next two are extremely important. They occur with a head noun that expresses a

verbal idea (i.e., the cognate noun can also occur as a verb). These three categories often present the

translator with significantly different interpretations. Sometimes the word in the genitive functions

as if it were the subject of the verbal idea implicit in the head noun (subjective). You can use the

helping word “produced” to help identify this usage. “The love produced by Christ.” τίς ήμᾶς χωρίσει

ἀπὸ τῆς ἀγάπης τοῦ Χριστοῦ (Rom 8:35). Who will separate us from Christ’s love? 6. The word in the

genitive functions as the direct object of the verbal idea implicit in the head noun (objective). This is

the opposite of the subjective genitive. You can use the key word “receives.” “The blasphemy

received by the Spirit.” ἡ τοῦ πνεύματος βλασφημία οὐκ ἀφεθήσεται (Matt 12:31). The blasphemy

against the Spirit will not be forgiven. 7. Sometimes it appears that the word in the genitive is a

combination of both the objective and subjective genitive (plenary). ἡ γὰρ ἀγάπη τοῦ Χριστοῦ

συνέχει ἡμᾶς (2 Cor 5:14). For the love of Christ compels us. 8. The genitive can indicate a familial

relationship between a word and its head noun (relationship). Often the head noun is not expressed,

so it is up to the translator’s interpretive skills to determine the exact nature of the relationship.

Σίμων Ἰωάννου (John 21:15) Simon, son of John Μαρία ἡ Ἰακώβου (Luke 24:10) Mary the mother of

James 9. Sometimes the noun in the genitive is a larger unit, while its head noun represents a smaller

portion of it (partitive). τινες τῶν κλάδων (Rom 11:17) some of the branches Dative It is common for

grammars to break the dative into three sub-sections: dative proper; locative; instrumental. Dative

Proper (“to”) 1. The indirect object functions the same in Greek as it does in English, with the indirect

object placed in the dative case. ἐξουσίαν ἔδωκεν αὐτῷ κρίσιν ποιεῖν (John 5:27). He has given him

authority to execute judgment. 2. The dative can express the idea of “for” (dative of interest). ἡ γυνή

σου Ἐλισάβετ γεννήσει υἱόν σοι (Luke 1:13). Your wife Elizabeth will bear a son for you. When the

idea is for the person’s advantage, as in Luke 1:13 above, we call it a “dative of advantage.” When

context tells us that it is not for the person’s advantage, we can call it a “dative of disadvantage” and

often use a different preposition based on the meaning of the phrase. μαρτυρεῖτε ἑαυτοῖς (Matt

23:31). You testify against yourselves. 3. The dative can indicate what in English is awkwardly

expressed by the phrase “with respect to,” or here with “to” (reference, respect). λογίζεσθε ἑαυτοὺς

εἶναι νεκροὺς τῇ ἁμαρτίᾳ (Rom 6:11). Consider yourselves to be dead to sin. Locative (“in,” “with”) 4.

There is a little more nebulous use of the dative, indicating the sphere or realm in which something

occurs (sphere). μακάριοι οἱ καθαροὶ τῇ καρδίᾳ (Matt 5:8). Blessed are the pure in heart. 5. A time

designation in the dative specifies when something occurs (time). τῇ τρίτῃ ἡμέρᾳ ἐγερθήσεται (Matt

17:23). On the third day he will be raised. 6. The dative can indicate the idea of “with” (association).

μὴ γίνεσθε ἑτεροζυγοῦντες ἀπίστοις (2 Cor 6:14). Do not be unequally yoked with unbelievers.

Instrumental (“by”) 7. The dative can indicate the manner in which something is done (manner).

παρρησίᾳ λαλεῖ (John 7:26). He speaks boldly. 8. The dative can also show the means (or the

instrument) by which an action was accomplished (means, instrument). Τῇ γὰρ χάριτί ἐστε

σεσῳσμένοι (Eph 2:8). For it is by grace you have been saved. Ever feel like your mind is as barren as

Sinai? If God kept the Children of Israel fed in a place like this, he can help you to persevere in Greek.

This picture was taken half way up Mt. Sinai. Chapter 8 Prepositions and εἰμί Exegetical Insight “Hand

this man over to Satan, so that the sinful nature may be destroyed and his spirit saved on the day of

the Lord” (1 Cor 5:5, NIV). So reads Paul’s command to the Christians about the man who was having

an affair with his stepmother. The NIV margin notes that “sinful nature” (literally, “flesh”) could also

be translated “body.” Commentators are divided as to whether Paul envisions simple

excommunication or actual death here, though the former seems more probable. But either way, this

command seems harsh by modern standards, particularly in the majority of our congregations that

exercise little or no formal church discipline of any kind. An understanding of the preposition εἰς can

shed some light on this verse. The NIV reads as if there were two equally balanced purposes behind

Paul’s command: one punitive and one remedial. But the Greek prefaces the first with an εἰς and the

second with the conjunction ἵνα. Εἱς can denote either result or purpose; ἵνα far more commonly

denotes purpose. Paul’s change of language is likely deliberate—to point out that his purpose in

discipline is entirely rehabilitative, even if one of the results of his action is temporary exclusion and

ostracism of the persistently rebellious sinner. Or in Gordon Fee’s words, “What the grammar

suggests, then, is that the ‘destruction of the flesh’ is the anticipated result of the man’s being put

back out into Satan’s domain, while the express purpose of the action is his redemption.” Not every

scholar agrees with this interpretation. But being able to read only a translation like the NIV would

never alert us to this as an option. Growing exposure to the Greek of the New Testament brings us

into frequent contact with numerous prepositions and other connective words that are often left

untranslated in English versions, for the sake of literary style and fluency. But in reading only the

English, we may miss altogether the originally intended relationship between sentences and clauses,

and we may import motives to writers they never held. Whatever the final solution to 1 Cor 5:5 turns

out to be, it is certainly true that in every other New Testament instance of church discipline, the

purpose was exclusively remedial or rehabilitative and never punitive or vengeful. “The Lord

disciplines those he loves” (Heb 12:6), and so should we. Craig L. Blomberg Overview In this chapter

you will learn the following: ■ prepositions are little words like “over,” “under,” and “through” that

define the relationship between two words; ■ the word following the preposition is called the object

of the preposition; ■ how the meaning of a preposition changes; ■ dependent clauses; ■ εἰμί and

predicate nominatives. English 8.1 Prepositions. A preposition is a word that indicates the

relationship between two words. In the sentence, “The book is under the table,” the preposition

“under” describes the relationship between “book” and “table,” which in this case is a spatial

relationship. What are some other prepositions in English? Her feet are on the chair. The ball went

over his head. John came with his disciples. John came before Jesus. The word that follows the

preposition is called the object of the preposition. In the first example above, the object of the

preposition “under” is “table.” The object of the preposition is always in the objective case. You

would not say, “The book is under he.” You would say, “The book is under him.” “He” is subjective

and “him” is objective. The preposition together with its object and modifiers is called a

prepositional phrase. 8.2 Predicate nominative. The verb “to be” gives rise to a special situation. (The

verb “to be” has many different forms: “am”; “are”; “was”; “were”; etc.) If you say, “The teacher is I,”

the pronoun “I” is not receiving the action of the verb. Rather, it is telling you something about the

subject. In grammarians’ terminology, the pronoun “I” is “predicating” something about the subject.

Because it is not receiving the action of the verb, the pronoun cannot be a direct object. Rather, it is

called a “predicate nominative” and is put in the subjective case. It is incorrect English to say, “The

teacher is me,” regardless of current usage, because “me” is objective while “I” is subjective. Greek

8.3 The function of a preposition in Greek is the same as English. There is one important fact,

however, you need to understand about Greek prepositions. In Greek, the meaning of a preposition

depends upon the case of its object. For example, the preposition διά means “through” if its object is

in the genitive, but “on account of” if its object is in the accusative. The object almost always

immediately follows the preposition. Some prepositions are always followed by the same case, so

they only have one set of meanings. For example, the preposition ἐν always takes an object in the

dative and has the basic meaning “in.” But other prepositions can be followed by two cases, and a

few can even be followed by three cases. The object will never be in the nominative (except under

rare circumstances). 8.4 Flash cards. For the purpose of memorization, you should make a separate

flash card for each case. In other words, one flash card should say, “διά with the genitive,” while

another should say, “διά with the accusative.” To address a man as “Sir” or “Mr,” say, κύριε. To say

“Miss” or “Mrs.,” say, κυρία. Just like αὐτός, the difference between masculine (κύριε) and feminine

(κυρία) is in the ending. These endings are technically in the vocative case, which we will learn in

Chapter 13. 8.5 Key words. Earlier you learned to use the key word “of” with the genitive and “to”

with the dative. However, if a word is in the genitive or dative because it is the object of a

preposition, do not use the key word. For example, ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ means, “the word of God.” The

key word “of” is used since θεοῦ is showing possession. However, the phrase ὁ λόγος ἀπὸ θεοῦ is

translated “the word from God.” (ἀπό is a preposition meaning “from” and takes its object in the

genitive.) You would not say “the word from of God,” since θεοῦ is genitive due to the preposition.

8.6 Not inflected. The form of a preposition does not vary depending on its usage; it is not inflected.

παρά will be παρά whether its object is in the genitive, dative, or accusative. The only time the

preposition changes its form has nothing to do with inflection. When certain prepositions ending in a

vowel are followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the final vowel of the preposition may be

dropped and marked with an apostrophe. This is called “elision” (cf. 4.2). μετὰ αὐτόν ▶ μετʼ αὐτόν

When a preposition ends in a vowel and the following word begins with a vowel and a rough

breathing, the consonant before the vowel in the preposition often changes as well. These changes

were necessary in order to pronounce the combination of sounds more easily. μετὰ ἡμῶν ▶ μετʼ

ἡμῶν ▶ μεθʼ ἡμῶν You may want to make separate vocabulary cards for each of these altered forms.

Each form will be listed in the vocabulary section. 8.7 When memorizing the definition of a

preposition, I suggest you use this formula: with the means . ἐν with the dative means in. 8.8 When

asked to explain why the object of the preposition is in a given case, I suggest you respond with the

complete formula: is in the because it is the object of the preposition that takes the . αὐτῷ is in the

dative because it is the object of the preposition ἐν that takes the dative. Dependent Clauses 8.9 In

this chapter you will learn the word ἵνα meaning “in order that.” ἵνα is always the first word in what

is called a “dependent clause.” In Chapter 6 you learned the word ὅτι. It also introduces a dependent

clause. A dependent clause is a collection of words that cannot stand alone. It has meaning only

when it is part of a complete sentence; it is dependent upon that sentence. For example, in English

the clause “if I go home” is not a sentence. It is incomplete when standing on its own. It is therefore

dependent on the main sentence. “If I go home, I will eat dinner.” Here is the important point: as you

are looking for the main subject and verb in a sentence, you will never find them in a dependent

clause. There will be a subject and verb in the dependent clause, but they will not be the main

subject and verb of the sentence. Halftime Review ■ It has been said that a preposition is anything a

rabbit can do with its home. He can go in it, around it, dig under it, etc. ■ A prepositional phrase is

the preposition and its object (with modifiers). ■ Prepositions govern the case of their object, and so

key words are not used. ■ Prepositions are not inflected but the ending can change. ■ A dependent

clause will not contain the main subject and verb of the sentence. εἰμί 8.10 The formal study of verbs

has been deferred until Chapter 15. For now, you are to concentrate on nouns and learn them well.

Later you will tackle verbs. However, there is one common verb worth learning right now, εἰμί. You

may want to review the verbal grammar discussed at 5.14–16. 8.11 Basic verbal grammar. The basic

part of a verb is called the stem. The stem carries the basic meaning of the verb. Personal endings

are added to the end of the stem to indicate person and number. There are three persons,

grammatically speaking. You have already seen them in pronouns. ἐγώ is first person, “I.” σύ is

second person, “you.” αὐτός is third person, “he,” “she,” or “it.” These are all singular pronouns;

there are plural forms as well. Likewise, personal endings on verbs indicate person. For example, the

εις ending on γράφεις tells you that the subject is “you” (singular). The ει ending on γράφει tells you

that the subject is “he,” “she,” or “it.” γράφεις means “you write,” and γράφει means “he writes.” A

verb agrees with its subject, which means that its personal ending is the same person and number as

its subject. But we want to be friendlier than merely saying κύριε or κυρία! Everybody needs a Greek

name. ναί; Here are some. Search the Scriptures for more if you want. ὁ Πέτρος, Peter ὁ Ἰάκωβος,

Jacob ὁ Ἰωάννης, John ὁ Ἀνδρέας, Andrew ὁ Φίλιππος, Phillip ὁ Δαυίδ, David ὁ Ἰησοῦς, Jesus

(Joshua) ἡ Μαρία, Mary ἡ Μάρθα, Martha ἡ Λυδία, Lydia ἡ Ἐλισάβετ, Elisabeth ἡ Ἐσθήρ, Esther ἡ

Εὐνίκη, Eunice 8.12 εἰμί is the most common verb in Greek and needs to be memorized. In the

paradigm below, “1st” means “first person,” etc. “Sg” means “singular,” and “pl” means “plural.” This

is the present tense form of the verb. 1st sg εἰμί I am 2nd sg εἶ You are 3rd sg ἐστίν He/she/it is 1st pl

ἐσμέν We are 2nd pl ἐστέ You are 3rd pl εἰσίν They are Except for εἶ, the forms of εἰμί are enclitics,

which means they push their accent back on the previous word; they will normally not have an

accent of their own. 8.13 Movable nu. A movable nu is a nu occurring at the end of a word that ends

with a vowel when the following word begins with a vowel (e.g., εἰσὶν αὐτοί). The purpose of adding

the nu was to avoid pronouncing two successive vowels. By adding a nu, a pause is created and the

two vowel sounds can be distinguished. This is like changing the English “a” to “an” when the next

word begins with a vowel. The nu in the third singular ἐστίν is a movable nu, but ἐστί occurs only

once in the New Testament (Acts 18:10). The nu in the third plural εἰσίν is also a movable nu, but εἰσί

never occurs. Often in Koine Greek the movable nu is used even when the following word begins

with a consonant, especially in the dative plural; it also occurs when it is the last word in a clause.

Since you are learning to read Greek and not to write it, this presents no problem. 8.14 The past

tense form of ἐστί(ν) is ἦν, “he/she/it was.” It occurs frequently and you should memorize it now.

8.15 Predicate nominative. The second function of the nominative case is the predicate nominative.

Just as it is in English, a noun that follows εἰμί is not receiving the action from the verb but rather is

telling you something about the subject. Therefore the word is in the nominative case. (κύριος

means “Lord.”) θεὸς ἐστιν κύριος. Notice that in this sentence both the first and last words are in the

nominative case. Context should make clear which is the subject and which is the predicate.

Translation 8.16 When you are dividing your sentences into sections, make sure to separate the

prepositional phrase (or any other dependent clause) as a distinct group and see what word the

preposition modifies. It usually will be a verb. ὁ λόγος / ἔρχεται / εἰς τὸν κόσμον. The word / goes /

into the world. 8.17 Greek regularly drops the article in a prepositional phrase. If it fits the context,

you may put it back in. ὁ λόγος ἔρχεται εἰς κόσμον. The word goes into the world. Summary 1. The

word following the preposition is the object of the preposition, and the preposition and its object

and modifiers form a prepositional phrase. 2. The meaning of a preposition is determined by the case

of its object. Always memorize the prepositions with the case(s) of their objects. 3. Do not use the

key words when translating the object of a preposition. 4. Prepositions are not inflected, but their

endings can change depending on the following word. 5. A dependent clause cannot contain the

main subject and verb in a sentence. 6. Memorize εἰμί. It is always followed by a predicate

nominative. 7. The article is often omitted from Greek prepositional phrases. You can supply it if the

context requires it. Vocabulary In this chapter you will learn seven prepositions, two-thirds of all

major prepositions. Many students find a graphic representation easier than relying on rote memory.

The following chart illustrates the spatial relationship of the prepositions learned in this chapter.

Notice that only some of the meanings can be spatially mapped. Learning the prepositions in pairs

(e.g., πρός and ἀπό) may also help memorization. ἀλλά (ἀλλʼ) but, yet, except (638) When the word

following ἀλλά begins with a vowel, the final alpha elides (ἀλλὰ Ἰησοῦς ▶ ἀλλʼ Ἰησοῦς). ἀπό (ἀπʼ,

ἀφʼ) gen: (away) from (646) When ἀπό is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, the omicron

drops out (ἀπʼ αὐτῶν). If the following word begins with a vowel and rough breathing, it becomes

ἀφʼ (ἀφʼ ὑμῶν). διά (διʼ) gen: through (667) acc: on account of εἰμί I am, exist, live, am present

(2,462) ἐκ (ἐξ) gen: from, out of (914) When ἐκ is followed by a word beginning with a vowel, it is

written ἐξ (ἐξ ὑμῶν). ἡμέρα, -ας, ἡ day (389; *ἡμερα) ἦν he/she/it was (315) θάλασσα, -ης, ἡ sea,

lake (91; *θαλασσα) θάνατος, -ου, ὁ death (120; *θανατο) ἵνα in order that, that (663) Ἰωάννης, -ου,

ὁ John (135; Ἰωαννη) This word follows the same pattern as προφήτης (n-1f, page 343). λέγω I say,

speak (2,353) μετά (μετʼ, μεθʼ) gen: with (469) acc: after When μετά is followed by a word beginning

with a vowel, the alpha drops out (μετʼ αὐτοῦ). If the next word begins with a vowel and rough

breathing, it becomes μεθʼ (μεθʼ ὑμᾶς). οἰκία, -ας, ἡ house, home (93; *οἰκια) οἶκος, -ου, ὁ house,

home (114; *οἰκο) ὄχλος, -ου, ὁ crowd, multitude (175; *ὀχλο) παρά (παρʼ) gen: from (194) dat:

beside, in the presence of acc: alongside of παραβολή, -ῆς, ἡ parable (50; *παραβολη) πρός acc: to,

towards, with (700) ὑπό (ὑπʼ, ὑφʼ) gen: by (220) acc: under When ὑπό is followed by a word

beginning with a vowel, the omicron drops out (ὑπʼ αὐτοῦ). If the following word begins with a vowel

and rough breathing, it becomes ὑφʼ (ὑφʼ ὑμᾶς). Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162

Number of words learned to date: 72 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 11,093 Number

of word occurrences to date: 70,995 Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 51.38% You

now know more than one out of every two word occurrences in the New Testament.

Congratulations! There are places on the internet where you can look for more if you want. Google

“Greek name” to find many options. You can also get software modules for Josephus, Philo, or a

Classical Greek lexicon for many Bible search programs like Accordance. Search away! Previous

Words εἰς acc: into, in, among ἐν dat: in, on, among I’ll let you figure out what this is all about.

workbook summary Chapter 9 Adjectives Exegetical Insight Adjectives have a theological importance

that is hard to rival. They can modify a noun (attributive), assert something about a noun (predicate),

or stand in the place of a noun (substantival). Sometimes it is difficult to tell exactly which role a

particular adjective is in. Take the adjective πονηροῦ (“evil”) in Matthew 6:13, for example. The King

James Version (as well as more than one modern translation) translates this as “but deliver us from

evil.” But the adjective has an article modifying it (τοῦ), indicating that it is to be taken substantivally:

“the evil one.” And there is no little theological difference between the two. The Father does not

always keep his children out of danger, disasters, or the ugliness of the world. In short, he does not

always deliver us from evil. But he does deliver us from the evil one. The text is not teaching that

God will make our life a rose garden, but that he will protect us from the evil one, the devil himself

(cf. John 10:28–30; 17:15). Daniel B. Wallace Overview In this chapter you will learn that adjectives: ■

perform three functions; ■ agree with the nouns they modify, just like the article; ■ can be in any of

the three genders, just like the article. English 9.1 An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or

pronoun. Adjectives can perform three functions 9.2 An attributive adjective gives a quality—an

attribute—to the word it is modifying. This is the normal use of the adjective. “She learned modern

Greek.” The term it modifies is called the head term. “She learned modern Greek.” 9.3 A substantival

adjective functions as if it were a noun. “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly are all welcome here.”

“Out with the old and in with the new.” In this case the adjective does not modify anything. 9.4 A

predicate adjective asserts something about the subject, and the verb “to be” is either stated or

implied. “The students are good.” “God is true.” So now that you have a name, let’s say “Hi, my name

is.…” and supply your Greek name. ὄνομα μοι —— ἐστιν. ■ ὄνομα is “name.” ■ μοι is “to me.” ■

ἐστιν you learned as “he is,” but it can also mean “it is.” The order is different for us, but this is how a

Greek person would make this statement. Greek 9.5 Greek adjectives function much like their English

counterparts. 9.6 Form. The adjectives in this chapter all use the same case endings you have learned

for nouns. Notice that adjectives can occur in all three genders, like the article. ἀγαθός is an adjective

meaning “good.” 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ἀγαθός ἀγαθή ἀγαθόν gen sg ἀγαθοῦ ἀγαθῆς ἀγαθοῦ

dat sg ἀγαθῷ ἀγαθῇ ἀγαθῷ acc sg ἀγαθόν ἀγαθήν ἀγαθόν nom pl ἀγαθοί ἀγαθαί ἀγαθά gen pl

ἀγαθῶν ἀγαθῶν ἀγαθῶν dat pl ἀγαθοῖς ἀγαθαῖς ἀγαθοῖς acc pl ἀγαθούς ἀγαθάς ἀγαθά Notice the

many similarities among these endings and those already learned for nouns and the article. 9.7

Lexical form. The lexical form of any word that can appear in more than one gender is the nominative

singular masculine (as you have already seen with the article). For example, the lexical form of the

dative plural feminine ἀγαθαῖς is ἀγαθός, not ἀγαθή. Functions of the Adjective 9.8 Attributive.

When an adjective functions as an attributive, it agrees with the word it modifies in case, number,

and gender. This is the most common use of the adjective in Greek. ὁ ἀγαθὸς λόγος ἐστίν … The

good word is … ■ Because nouns can be in three different genders, and because an attributive

adjective must agree with the noun it modifies in gender (as well as case and number), an adjective

must be able to be masculine, feminine, or neuter. ■ It is essential to memorize the gender of all

nouns. It will help you determine which noun the adjective is modifying. For example, the adjective

ἀγαθή could not be modifying the noun ἄνθρωπος, because ἀγαθή is feminine and ἄνθρωπος is

masculine. 9.9 Substantival. When an adjective functions as a substantive, its case is determined by

its function as is true of any noun. For example, if the adjective is functioning as the subject of a verb,

it will be in the nominative case. ὁ ἀγαθός ἐστιν … The good (person) is … Its gender and number are

determined by what it stands for. For example, if it stands for a single entity, and that entity is

masculine, then the adjective would be masculine singular (as above). The other half of the

conversation is to ask, “What is your name?” τί σοι ὄνομά ἐστιν; ■ τί is “what?” It can also mean

“why?” ■ σοι looks like μοι but means “to you,” not “to me.” ■ ὄνομα you know. ■ ἐστιν; you know,

but notice the punctuation. In modern Greek you indicate a question by raising your voice at the end

of the question. Perhaps they did the same in Koine Greek. Use your common sense to translate a

substantival adjective. Ask these questions of the text in order to translate the adjective. ■ What

case is it? If, for example, the adjective is in the accusative case, it must be the direct object of the

verb or the object of a preposition. ■ What gender and number is it? You can often follow natural

gender in deciding how to translate. You can add an extra word (e.g., “man,” “woman,” “thing,”

“person,” “one”) to make sense of the construction in English. inflected parsing translation ἀγαθός

masculine singular a good man a good person ἀγαθαί feminine plural good women ἀγαθόν neuter

singular a good thing οἱ ἀγαθοί masculine as generic the good ones the good people Of course,

ἀγαθός could be simply translated “good” if that meets the needs of the sentence. 9.10 Predicate.

When an adjective functions as a predicate, it does not modify another word but rather asserts—

predicates—something about the subject. If the verb εἰμί is implied (rather than explicitly stated),

you may have to supply it in your translation. ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἀγαθός The man is good. Halftime Review

■ An attributive adjective gives an attribute to a noun, which is called the “head noun.” The

attributive adjective agrees with its head noun in case, number, and gender. ■ A substantival

adjective functions as a noun. Its case is determined by function, number and gender by what it

stands for. They tend to follow natural gender. ■ A predicate adjective asserts something about the

subject and uses the verb “to be.” ■ The lexical form of any word that occurs in more than one

gender is the nominative singular masculine. Recognition of the Adjective 9.11 The question then

becomes, how can you identify which function an adjective is performing? It all depends on whether

the definite article is present or not. “Anarthrous” means there is no article; “articular” means there

is an article. 9.12 Presence of the article. If the article occurs immediately before the adjective, then

you have either an attributive or substantival adjective. ■ Attributive. If there is a noun to modify,

then the adjective is attributive. The adjective can come before or after the noun; there is no

significant difference in meaning. However, the adjective must be preceded by the article. Both

examples mean, “the good man.” First attributive position: ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἄνθρωπος Second attributive

position: ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὁ ἀγαθός You will never find ὁ ἀγαθὸς ὁ ἄνθρωπος. ■ Substantival. However, if

there is no noun for the adjective to modify, then it is probably functioning substantivally. ὁ ἀγαθός

the good (man; person) τὴν πιστήν the faithful (woman) ■ Predicate. If the noun is articular but the

adjective is anarthrous (e.g., ὁ ἄνθρωπος ἀγαθός), then the adjective is functioning as a predicate

adjective. In this case you will supply the verb “is” to show the predicating nature of the adjective. ὁ

ἄνθρωπος ἀγαθός The man is good. ἀγαθὸς ὁ ἄνθρωπος The man is good. 9.13 Absence of the

article. If there is no article before either the noun or the adjective, context becomes the guide to

translation. You must decide whether the adjective is giving an attribute to a noun or is asserting

something about the verb. If the verb εἰμί is not explicitly present, it may be implied and you can

supply it in your translation if English requires it. ἀγαθὸς ἄνθρωπος “A good man” or “A man is

good.” ἄνθρωπος ἀγαθός “A good man” or “A man is good.” Be sure not to supply the article in your

translation unless English demands it. It is possible for an anarthrous adjective to function

substantivally, but it is unusual. ἀγαθός a good (man; person) Okay, you now have all the pieces. Find

a partner and say, in Greek, “Hello. My name is ——.” Fill in your Greek name. Go on; do it; don’t be

shy. χαίρειν. τὸ ὄνομα μοί ἐστιν Δαυίδ. And since you are polite—only polite people learn Greek—

ask them their name. τί σοι ὄνομά ἐστιν; Odds ’n Ends 9.14 Article and a prepositional phrase. You

will often find the article followed by a prepositional phrase. You will generally translate these as

relative clauses. ■ Sometimes this occurs in an “article-noun-article-modifier” construction where

the second article tells you the prepositional phrase is modifying the noun. τοὺς παῖδας τοὺς ἐν

Βηθλέεμ (Matt 2:16) The children who are in Bethlehem (Matt 2:16) ■ Other times the article is in

effect turning the prepositional phrase into a substantive. ἐλάλησαν τὸν λόγον τοῦ κυρίου πᾶσιν τοῖς

ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ. They spoke the word of the Lord to all who were in the house. 9.15 2–2 Adjective. You

will meet an adjective in this chapter listed as αἰώνιος, -ον. This means αἰώνιος can be either

masculine or feminine; αἰώνιον is neuter. Context will show if αἰώνιος is masculine or feminine. It is a

“2-2” pattern because the masculine and feminine follow the second declension, and the neuter also

follows the second declension. 9.16 Neuter plural subjects. Greek normally uses a singular verb when

the subject is neuter plural. It is an indication that the writer is viewing the plural subject not as a

collection of different things but as one group. To keep proper English, you will use a plural verb.

δοκιμάζετε τὰ πνεύματα εἰ ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ ἐστιν (1 John 4:1). Test the spirits (and see) if they are from

God. Translation Procedure 9.17 As you divide your sentences into the different parts, be sure to

keep the adjective with the noun it is modifying. They form a unit of thought. ὁ ἀγαθὸς ἄνθρωπος /

γράφει / τὸ βιβλίον. The good man writes the book. Summary 1. Adjectives can function as an

attributive, a substantive, or a predicate. 2. If the article precedes the adjective and the adjective

modifies another word, then it is an attributive adjective. The adjective agrees with the noun it

modifies in case, number, and gender. 3. If the article precedes the adjective and the adjective does

not modify another word, then it is a substantival adjective. The case of this adjective is determined

by its function, its gender and number by what it stands for. 4. If an anarthrous adjective occurs with

an articular noun, the adjective is a predicate and you may need to supply the verb “is.” 5. If there is

no article before either the adjective or the word it is modifying, let context be your guide. 6. A

prepositional phrase preceded by an article can be an attributive modifier or a substantive. 7. A 2-2

adjective has the same form in the masculine and feminine, and follows the second declension. The

neuter likewise is second declension. 8. A singular verb can be used when the subject is neuter plural

and viewed as a whole. Are you getting frustrated with all there is to learn? Go back to chapters 6

and 7, reread them, and see how easy they are now. But remember how difficult they may have been

when you first learned them? The fog has just moved from Chapter 6 to Chapter 9. Keep working,

and the fog will continue to move. Ask your teacher to remind you again why you are learning biblical

Greek. Check out the website for encouragement. Vocabulary The endings following the lexical form

of an adjective (e.g., “-ή, -όν”) show the feminine and neuter forms of the word. The feminine of

ἀγαθός is ἀγαθή and its neuter is ἀγαθόν. The roots of adjectives are listed with the final stem vowel

for the masculine (e.g., *ἀγαθο). ἀγαθός, -ή, -όν good, useful (102; *ἀγαθο) ἀγαπητός, -ή, -όν

beloved (61; *ἀγαπητο) αἰώνιος, -ον eternal (71; *αἰωνιο) ἀλλήλων one another (100; *ἀλληλο) This

is an unusual word because it never occurs in the nominative or in the singular. Its lexical form is

therefore genitive plural. ἀπεκρίθη he/she/it answered This is a common form of a common verb,

occurring 82 times in the New Testament. It takes its direct object in the dative, and therefore you do

not use the key word with its direct object. ἀπεκρίθη αὐτῷ means, “He answered him,” not, “He

answered to him.” δοῦλος, -ου, ὁ slave, servant (126; *δουλο) ἐάν if, when (350) Introduces a

dependent clause. ἐάν is a crasis of εἰ and ἄν. “Crasis” occurs when two words are “pushed

together” to make one. When ἐάν appears after a relative pronoun (ὅς), it has the effect of

appending “-ever” to the end of the pronoun (just like ἄν). ὅς ἐὰν … means “whoever.…” ἐμός, ἐμή,

ἐμόν my, mine (76; *ἐμο) This adjective always means “my” regardless of its case. If it is used

substantivally, it always means “mine.” ἐντολή, -ῆς, ἡ commandment (67; *ἐντολη) καθώς as, even as

(182) κακός, -ή, -όν bad, evil (50; *κακο) μου (ἐμοῦ) my (564) This is the genitive singular of ἐγώ.

Unlike ἐμός, μου only means “my” when it is in the genitive case. It can also be written with an initial

epsilon and an accent: ἐμοῦ. This word is discussed in detail in Chapter 11. νεκρός, -ά, -όν adjective:

dead (128; *νεκρο) noun: dead body, corpse πιστός, -ή, -όν faithful, believing (67; *πιστο) πονηρός, -

ά, -όν evil, bad (78; *πονηρο) πρῶτος, -η, -ον first, earlier (155; *πρωτο) τρίτος, -η, -ον third (56;

*τριτο) Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162 Number of words learned to date: 87

Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 1,669 Number of word occurrences to date: 72,664

Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 52.59% Previous Words These are words you

already know that can occur in more than one gender. You need to learn their feminine and neuter

forms. ἄλλος, -η, -ο other, another There are a few words such as ἄλλος, ὁ, αὐτός, and οὗτος that do

not use a case ending for the nominative and accusative singular neuter, and therefore the bare stem

stands alone. They are a-1a(2b) adjectives; their full paradigm is in the Appendix. αὐτός, -ή, -ό

he/she/it, they ἔσχατος, -η, -ον last οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο this; these Advanced Information 9.18

Genitive or accusative? If the next to the last letter in the stem of an adjective is a rho or a vowel, the

feminine stem ends in alpha (e.g., νεκρά) and the ending ας can indicate either the genitive singular

or accusative plural. nom sg ἁγία nom pl ἁγίαι gen sg ἁγίας gen pl ἁγιῶν dat sg ἁγίᾳ dat pl ἁγίαις acc

sg ἁγίαν acc pl ἁγίας If the next to the last letter in the stem is any letter other than a rho or a vowel

(e.g., ἀγαθή), the feminine stem ends in eta and the ending ας can only be accusative plural. The

final stem vowel in the plural will always be alpha for all feminine nouns. Can νεκράς be genitive

singular? workbook summary 9.19 Third attributive position. There is a third attributive position:

ἄνθρωπος ὁ ἀγαθός. It is rare in the New Testament when the modifier is an adjective, but more

common when the modifier is a phrase. Exegesis The Greek article is actually quite complex in how it

is used, and as a result you will see it translated many different ways. 1. ὁ can function as the definite

article. οἱ μαθηταὶ Ἰωάννου νηστεύουσιν πυκνά (Luke 5:33). The disciples of John often fast. 2. ὁ can

function as a grammatical marker, for example showing that the following word modifies the

previous. μετὰ τῶν ἀγγέλων τῶν ἁγίων (Mark 8:38) with the holy angels 3. Greek uses ὁ when

English does not, such as with proper names. ἀποκριθεὶς δὲ ὁ Ἰησοῦς εἶπεν πρὸς αὐτόν (Matt 3:15)

But Jesus answering said to him 4. Sometimes ὁ functions with a participle (e.g., ἔχοντι) or an

adjective to make it into a noun, even with words between them (τὴν ξηρὰν χεῖρα). These are often

translated as a relative clause. λέγει τῷ ἀνθρώπῳ τῷ τὴν ξηρὰν χεῖρα ἔχοντι (Mark 3:3) He says to

the one who has the withered hand 5. Other times Greek doesn’t use ὁ when English requires it. Ἐν

ἀρχῇ ἦν ὁ λόγος (John 1:1). In the beginning was the Word. 6. ὁ can function as a personal or

possessive pronoun. Οἱ δὲ εἶπαν πρὸς αὐτόν (Luke 5:33) And they said to Him Οἱ ἄνδρες, ἀγαπᾶτε

τὰς γυναῖκας (Eph 5:25). Husbands, love your wives. ὅμοιοί εἰσιν παιδίοις τοῖς ἐν ἀγορᾷ καθημένοις

(Luke 7:32). They are like children who sit in the market place. 7. When one ὁ governs two nouns, the

two nouns are being viewed as a single unit. These are often theologically nuanced and significant.

προσδεχόμενοι τὴν μακαρίαν ἐλπίδα καὶ ἐπιφάνειαν τῆς δόξης τοῦ μεγάλου θεοῦ καὶ σωτῆρος

ἡμῶν Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ (Titus 2:13). waiting for our blessed hope, the appearing of the glory of our

great God and Savior Jesus Christ Track One or Track Two? “Two Roads Diverged in a Yellow Wood”

As in the words of the Robert Frost poem, we have come to a fork in the road in the life of Greek.

What should you learn next? Which path you take determines which exercises you do for the next

several chapters. Track One: Finish Noun System Track Two: Get Into Verbs 9. Adjectives 9. Adjectives

Review 2 Review 2 10. Third Declension Nouns 15. Introduction to Verbs 11. First and Second Person

Personal Pronouns 16. Present Active Indicative 12. αὐτός 17. Contract Verbs 13. Demonstratives 18.

Present Middle/Passive Indicative 14. Relative Pronouns 21. Imperfect Indicative Review 3—Track 1

Review 3—Track 2 15. Introduction to Verbs 10. Third Declension Nouns 16. Present Active Indicative

11. First and Second Person Personal Pronouns 17. Contract Verbs 12. αὐτός 18. Present

Middle/Passive Indicative 13. Demonstratives 19. Future Active/Middle Indicative 14. Relative

Pronouns 20. Verbal Roots, and Other Forms of the Future 19. Future Active/Middle Indicative

Review 4—Track 1 20. Verbal Roots, and Other Forms of the Future 21. Imperfect Indicative Review

4—Track 2 22. Second Aorist Active/Middle Indicative 22. Second Aorist Active/Middle Indicative My

preference is to finish the noun system (Track One) and then move on to verbs (see page xvi for my

rationale). However, some teachers want their students to get into verbs earlier, and for them there

is “Track Two.” If you want to follow Track Two, then follow the second ordering of chapters and use

the exercises in the appendix to the Workbook. If you follow Track Two, please recognize that the

exercises will not include every vocabulary word given in that chapter. The vocabulary was chosen

based on the exercises in Track One. Also, you will see three vocabulary words in Chapters 17 and 18

whose forms, especially their genitive forms, will look strange. For now, memorize the words. They

are third declension and will be discussed in Chapter 10. 17. πλείων, πλεῖον 18. νύξ, νυκτός, ἡ ὅστις,

ἥτις, ὅτι This dual track system affects only the exercises. In other words, there is only one Chapter

10 in the textbook, and it is the same whether you are following Track One or Track Two. The website

makes it especially easy to follow Track Two. This inscription is on a column in the synagogue in

Capernaum. The synagogue was built on top of a first century synagogue. The inscription reads,

Ἡρώδης Μονιμοῦ καὶ Ἰοῦστος υἱὸς ἅμα τοῖς τέκνοις ἔκτισαν τὸν κίονα, of course without the

accents. It means, “Herod (the son) of Monimos and Justos (his) son together with their children

erected this column.” Overview 2 Chapters 10–14 Chapter 10 Third declension words have stems

ending in a consonant. There are three things you need to know. ■ It is common for the final letter of

the stem to be altered by the case ending in the nominative singular and dative plural. The stem

*σαρκ changes to σάρξ when the ς is added in the nominative singular, and to σαρξί in the dative

plural by the case ending σι. It is the same case ending as in λόγος. Because the nominative singular

form looks different from first and second declension forms, it is easy to think that third declension

words are totally different. They are not. ■ The key is to memorize the genitive singular; it shows the

true stem of the word. The genitive singular of *σαρκ is σάρκος. Drop off the ος case ending and you

have the stem. ■ As you can see from the genitive σάρκος and the dative σαρξί, third declension

words use a few alternate case endings. Other things happen as well, especially in the nominative

singular. For example, the stem *παντ becomes πᾶς because ντ drop out before the sigma (*παντ + ς

▶ πᾶς). The trick here is to realize that third declension words are not really that different from other

words, and to memorize the stems. Chapter 11 We finally meet the full paradigm of the first and

second person personal pronouns, ἐγώ and σύ. You have already learned most of the grammar

pertaining to pronouns, so there is not that much new in this chapter. You will also learn a few more

third declension patterns, but nothing too earth-shaking. Chapter 12 This chapter focuses on αὐτός.

You have already learned it as the third person personal pronoun, and this is by far its predominant

use. However, it can function two other ways as well. ■ αὐτός in the predicate position carries an

intensive meaning. αὐτὸς ὁ ἀπόστολος means, “the apostle himself.” When used this way, αὐτός

normally modifies the subject. ■ αὐτός in the attributive position can mean “same.” ὁ αὐτὸς λόγος

means, “the same word.” Chapter 13 You now meet the demonstratives. You have already met one

of them, οὗτος. οὗτος means “this” (“these” in the plural), and ἐκεῖνος means “that” (“those” in the

plural). The peculiarity of these words is that when used adjectivally, they are in the predicate

position. οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος means, “this person,” not, “this is the person.” The demonstratives can

also be used as pronouns. Sometimes you will have to provide an extra word or two to make sense.

ἐκείνη could mean, “that woman.” You may also translate them as personal pronouns, depending on

the needs of the context. ἐκείνη could be, “she.” You will also learn a few odds ’n ends, such as the

vocative case (used when directly addressing a person). For the most part, it looks like the

nominative. Chapter 14 The last major topic to learn in the noun system is the relative pronoun:

“who/whom” (not when asking a question), “that” (in one of its uses), and “which.” The relative

pronoun introduces a relative clause that will have its own subject and verb. It is a dependent

construction, either modifying something (“The book that is open on the table is too expensive.”) or

performing a function (“Whoever is not for me is against me.”). The case of the relative pronoun is

determined by its function inside the relative clause. Its number and gender are determined by its

antecedent, who or what it is referring to. There’s already a lot to learn in the next chapter, so

perhaps it is best to learn just a little fun stuff for now. As you meet people you will want to know

where they are from. ■ “From?” is ἀπό. ■ “Where” is ποῦ. ■ If you think through the paradigm for

εἰμί, you should be able to figure out the right form of the verb. If you are asking one person, you

would say, εἶ; if more than one person it is ἐστέ. Put it all together and you ask, ἀπο ποῦ εἶ (or ἐστέ);

Chapter 10 Third Declension Exegetical Insight A casual first-century reader of the Fourth Gospel’s

prologue (John 1:1–18) would have little difficulty understanding John’s description of the λόγος. As

a concept it was simple enough. Λόγος was the intelligible law of things. Ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ was God’s

transcendent rationality that gave the universe order and purpose. A Hellenized Jew would quickly

reach for a volume of wisdom literature explaining that God’s wisdom, his word (or λόγος), provided

the universe with its form and coherence. As such, ὁ λόγος τοῦ θεοῦ was foreign to human ways,

above us and distant from us, guiding us from afar. John 1:14, on the other hand, would make any

such reader pause in stunned silence. “And the λόγος became flesh (σάρξ) and dwelt among us.”

Σάρξ is the earthly sphere, the arena of human decisions and emotions, human history, and human

sinfulness (cf. John 1:13; 3:6; 17:2; etc.). John 1:14 contains the risk, the scandal, and the gospel of

the Christian faith: ὁ λόγος became σάρξ. The center of God’s life and thought entered the depths of

our world and took up its form, its σάρξ, its flesh, in order to be known by us and to save us. This

affirmation about λόγος and σάρξ is the very heart of our faith. God has not abandoned us. No

lowliness, no misery, no sinfulness is beyond God’s comprehension and reach. He came among us,

embraced our world of σάρξ in his incarnation, and loved us. It is easy enough to say that God loves

the world (John 3:16). But to say that God loves me, in my frailty and my faithlessness—that he loves

σάρξ—this is another matter. This is the mystery and the power of what God has done for us in Jesus

Christ. Gary M. Burge Overview In this chapter you will learn: ■ the third (and final) declension (i.e.,

stems ending in a consonant); ■ four hints for the third declension; ■ the Master Case Ending Chart;

■ Noun Rule 7, the “Square of stops,” and the effect of a sigma on stops; ■ Noun Rule 8. Introduction

10.1 What is the difference between the first and second declension? Right. First declension words

have stems ending in alpha or eta. Second declension nouns have stems ending in omicron. And

what declension a noun falls into has no effect on its meaning. Regardless of whether ἀπόστολος is

first or second declension, it still means “apostle.” 10.2 Function and meaning. Remember that all

Greek nouns, whether they are first, second, or third declension, function the same. Only their form

may be somewhat different. 10.3 Nouns with stems ending in a consonant follow the third

declension pattern. This is part of the first noun rule. *σαρκ + ων ▶ σαρκῶν 10.4 Final consonant

and the case ending. When you first look at a paradigm of a third declension noun, you may think

that it is totally different from a first or second declension paradigm. It is not! Because the stem of a

third declension noun ends in a consonant, that consonant sometimes reacts to the first letter of the

case ending, especially if the case ending begins with a sigma. For example, the stem of the second

declension noun λόγος is *λογο. The omicron joins with the nominative masculine case ending sigma

to form λόγος (*λογο + ς ▶ λόγος). No problem. But the stem of the third declension word σάρξ is

*σαρκ. The kappa is united with the same nominative singular case ending, and the combination of

κσ forms ξ (*σαρκ + ς ▶ σάρξ). While the ending of σάρξ may look totally different from that of

λόγος, it really isn’t. 10.5 Different case endings. The third declension does use a few case endings

that are different from those used in the first and second declensions, but not that many. If you have

been memorizing the case ending with the final stem vowel (e.g., ος and not ς for nominative

singular), you may want to go back and learn the true case endings. To answer the question on page

76, you say, εἰμὶ ἀπὸ ——. Depending on where you are from, there may not be a Greek word for

your country (or state, province, or town). For states and towns, the convention in Modern Greek is

to use a Greek pronunciation, so Michigan is Μίτσιγκαν, California is Καλιφόρνια. Here are some

country names: Greece: Ἑλλάς Macedonia: Μακεδονία Israel: Ἰσραήλ Italy: Ἰταλία Egypt: Αἰγυπτος

Asia: Ἀσία America: Ἀμερική Korea: Κορέα 10.6 Hints. If you can remember just four hints, these

changes will not be a problem. As you will see, the basic issue is what happens when a sigma follows

a consonant. 1. Because of the changes that take place in the nominative singular, it is often difficult

to determine the stem of a third declension noun. The solution to this problem is always to

memorize the genitive singular form with the lexical form. If you drop the genitive singular case

ending (e.g., ος), you will normally have the word’s stem. The lexical entry σάρξ, σαρκός, ἡ shows

that the stem is *σαρκ. 2. Whatever happens in the nominative singular (ς) also happens in the

dative plural. This is because the dative plural case ending (σι) also begins with a sigma. *σαρκ + ς ▶

σάρξ *σαρκ + σι ▶ σαρξί 3. A nu drops out when followed by a sigma. *τιν + ς ▶ τίς *τιν + σι ▶ τίσι

4. A tau drops out when followed by a sigma or if it is at the end of a word. *ὀνοματ + σι ▶ ὀνόμασι

*ὀνοματ + - ▶ ὄνομα In the case of ὄνομα, it is neuter and does not use a case ending in the

nominative or accusative singular. That is why the tau is at the end of the word. This is a slight

simplification of the situation, but if you can remember these four hints, the rest of the third

declension is easy to learn. Since Greek has only three declensions, once you understand these you

will be familiar with all the basic noun paradigms in the New Testament. So work on these and you

are well on your way toward success. But remember, any declension can have several variations. A

Walk Through 10.7 Following is the paradigm of a third declension noun: σάρξ (*σαρκ). The case

endings are in blue. Don’t be frightened; σάρξ really has only three case endings you have not seen,

and two other endings similar to those you already know. At this point, don’t try to memorize the

case endings; just see how they work. The paradigms of λόγος and γραφή are listed for comparison.

nom sg: *σαρκς ▶ σάρξ λόγος γραφή gen sg: *σαρκος ▶ σαρκός λόγου γραφῆς dat sg: *σαρκι ▶

σαρκί λόγῳ γραφῇ acc sg: *σαρκα ▶ σάρκα λόγον γραφήν nom pl: *σαρκες ▶ σάρκες λόγοι γραφαί

gen pl: *σαρκων ▶ σαρκῶν λόγων γραφῶν dat pl: *σαρκσι(ν) ▶ σαρξί(ν) λόγοις γραφαῖς acc pl:

*σαρκας ▶ σάρκας λόγους γραφάς Let’s walk through this paradigm so you can see how easy it is.

σάρξ. The normal nominative singular case ending is ς. When you add it to this stem, the κσ

combination is rewritten as a xi. σαρκ + ς ▶ σάρξ. σαρκός. ος is a new ending, but it is easy to

remember. The genitive singular case ending for first declension nouns is sigma (e.g., γραφῆς), and

for second declension nouns it actually is omicron (which contracts with the final stem vowel to form

ου, *λογο ο ▶ λόγου). Put those two case endings together, and you have the case ending for the

third declension: ος. σαρκ + ος ▶ σαρκός. σαρκί. The dative singular case ending is the same as for

the other declensions: ι. But because a third declension stem ends in a consonant and not a long

vowel, the iota cannot subscript. σαρκ + ι ▶ σαρκί. σάρκα. The accusative singular case ending is

different for the third declension: α. σαρκ + α ▶ σάρκα. σάρκες. The nominative plural case ending is

different for the third declension: ες. σαρκ + ες ▶ σάρκες. σαρκῶν. As always, the genitive plural case

ending is beautifully consistent: ων. σαρκ + ων ▶ σαρκῶν. σαρξί. The dative plural case ending for a

third declension noun is the exact opposite of the first and second declension (ις) and sometimes

includes the movable nu: σι(ν). Because it begins with a sigma, whatever change we see in the

nominative singular also appears here. σαρκ + σι(ν) ▶ σαρξί(ν). σάρκας. The accusative plural case

ending is different for the third declension: ας. σαρκ + ας ▶ σάρκας. Do not confuse this with a first

declension word where the alpha is part of the stem (γραφάς), although the similarity may help you

remember the case ending. 10.8 There! That wasn’t very difficult, was it? There are only three new

endings (ος, α, ες), and two that are similar (σι(ν), ας). You now know all the major case endings.

Congratulations! Let’s work through the formal presentation of the third declension. Forms 10.9

Third declension words are categorized according to the last consonant of the word’s stem. Below

you will find the σάρξ paradigm and then two more paradigms of third declension words: stems

ending in ματ (149 words) and stems ending in ν (77 words). The case endings are in blue to

emphasize the similarities with the first and second declensions. You will learn a few more third

declension sub-patterns in Chapter 11. My recommendation is not to memorize the paradigms. Read

through the footnotes so you can see why the forms do what they do, and then be sure you can

recognize the same endings and changes on other words. The time for memorizing will come in

10.14. κ stem ματ stem ν stem *σαρκ *ονοματ *τιν nom sg: σάρξ ὄνομα τίς gen sg: σαρκός ὀνόματος

τίνος dat sg: σαρκί ὀνόματι τίνι acc sg: σάρκα ὄνομα τίνα nom pl: σάρκες ὀνόματα τίνες gen pl:

σαρκῶν ὀνομάτων τίνων dat pl: σαρξί(ν) ὀνόμασι(ν) τίσι(ν) acc pl: σάρκας ὀνόματα τίνας 10.11 τίς is

the interrogative pronoun (e.g., “who?”). τις (no accent) is the indefinite pronoun (e.g., “anyone”).

Both are formed from the same root, *τιν. The masculine and feminine are identical in form, and all

genders are third declension. The change in the nominative singular is explained by the fact that nu

drops out when followed by a sigma. *τιν + ς ▶ τίς. masc & fem neut masc & fem neut nom sg τίς τί

τις τι gen sg τίνος τίνος τινός τινός dat sg τίνι τίνι τινί τινί acc sg τίνα τί τινά τι nom pl τίνες τίνα τινές

τινά gen pl τίνων τίνων τινῶν τινῶν dat pl τίσι(ν) τίσι(ν) τισί(ν) τισί(ν) acc pl τίνας τίνα τινάς τινά τίς is

always accented on its first syllable. τις is either not accented or is accented on its last syllable (the

“ultima”). 10.12 εἷς is an adjective meaning “one.” The stem of the masculine and neuter is *ἑν and

the feminine is the first declension *μια. In the nominative singular the nu drops out before the

sigma, and the stem vowel epsilon lengthens to ει (*ἑν + ς ▶ ες ▶ εἷς). masc fem neut nom sg εἷς μία

ἕν gen sg ἑνός μιᾶς ἑνός dat sg ἑνί μιᾷ ἑνί acc sg ἕνα μίαν ἕν Notice that this word has a rough

breathing in the masculine and neuter. This will help differentiate it from the prepositions εἰς and ἐν.

Why is there no plural to this word? Where is it different from τίς? Modern Greek uses the

equivalent of εἷς as its indefinite article “a.” The nominative forms today are ένας, μία, ένα. 10.13 In

the first and second declensions, the masculine and feminine are often different in form. In the third

declension, however, they are usually similar. There is, in fact, more similarity between masculine

and feminine than there is between masculine and neuter, since in the nominative and accusative,

the masculine and neuter are usually different. Halftime Review ■ Third declension words have stems

ending in a consonant. Always memorize the genitive singular so you can see the stem. ■ When the

final consonant is joined with the case endings, sometimes the consonant is changed. This generally

affects nominative singular and dative plural. ■ nu and tau drop out before a sigma. ■ Third

declension words use three different case endings: ος, α, ες. Characteristics of Third Declension

Nouns 10.14 Master Case Ending Chart. My recommendation is not to memorize the previous

paradigms, but to memorize the case endings in this chart and see how the case endings appear

when attached to a noun. Study them carefully, note what they have in common, and especially what

they have in common with the first and second declensions. There are other patterns within the third

declension, but if you know these, the rest are relatively easy to recognize. Try to list all the

similarities. The first chart shows the true case endings. The second shows what the endings look like

when attached to the final stem vowel. first/second declension third declension masc fem neut

masc/fem neut nom sg ς — ν ς — gen sg υ ς υ ος ος dat sg ι ι ι ι ι acc sg ν ν ν α/ν — nom pl ι ι α ες

α gen pl ων ων ων ων ων dat pl ις ις ις σι(ν) σι(ν) acc pl υς ς α ας α masc fem neut masc/fem neut

nom sg ος α η ον ς — — gen sg ου ας ης ου ος ος dat sg ῳ ᾳ ῃ ῳ ι ι acc sg ον αν ην ον α/ν — nom pl

οι αι α ες α gen pl ων ων ων ων ων dat pl οις αις οις σι(ν) σι(ν) acc pl ους ας α ας α 10.15 Gender. The

gender of third declension words can be difficult to determine because the inflectional patterns are

not as distinct as those in the first and second declensions. You must memorize the gender of every

word. There are, however, a few patterns. In this chapter you will meet stems ending in ματ (e.g.,

ὄνομα, ματος, τό). All ματ stems are neuter. 10.16 The article. The article becomes especially

important now. Even though a noun itself changes its form, the article always remains the same. τῷ

will always be τῷ whether the noun it modifies is first, second, or third declension. Most nouns are

modified by the article, which makes it easy to determine the noun’s gender. Square of Stops 10.17 A

stop is a consonant whose sound is formed by slowing down or completely stopping the flow of air

through the mouth. 10.18 “Stops” are broken down into three classifications. ■ Labial. π, β, and φ

are formed by using the lips to impede the air flow momentarily, which is essential in creating the

sound. Try to say π without letting your lips touch. ■ Velar. κ, γ, and χ are formed by pushing up the

middle of the tongue against the soft part of the roof of the mouth. ■ Dental. τ, δ, and θ are formed

by clicking the tongue against the back of the teeth. 10.19 Rule 7: Square of Stops. The seventh of

the eight noun rules is this chart. Be sure to memorize it exactly. Not only should you be able to

repeat it left to right but also top to bottom. Labial π β φ Velar κ γ χ Dental τ δ θ The chart is

important because the stops behave in a consistent manner. Whatever happens to a stem ending in

tau also happens to a stem ending in delta, because tau and delta are both dentals. If you learn the

chart, you will often be able to predict what is going to happen. This is much easier than memorizing

different paradigms. This same Square of Stops will also be important when we study verbs, so a little

time spent here saves hours of frustration later. 10.20 Stops plus a “σ.” Whenever a stop and a sigma

come into contact the results are predictable. Learn these changes well because you will encounter

them often. Labial + σ ▶ ψ Velar + σ ▶ ξ Dental + σ ▶ σ *σκολοπ + σ ▶ σκόλοψ *σαρκ + σι ▶ σαρξί

*ὀνοματ + σι ▶ ὀνόμασι 10.21 Rule 8: A tau cannot stand at the end of a word and will drop off. For

example, the stem of the word for “name” is *ὀνοματ. No case ending is used in the nominative

singular and the final tau drops off. *ονοματ + —— ▶ ὄνομα This is the final rule for case endings.

You know all eight. They are listed in the Appendix, page 346. πᾶς 10.22 πᾶς is a 3-1-3 type adjective

and is often used as the paradigmatic word for the third declension. The root of the word is *παντ,

which in the feminine is altered to *πασα. Armed with this knowledge and the rules in this chapter,

you should be able to write out the entire paradigm for this word without looking below. Try it. If you

can, you are doing well. 3 1 3 masc fem neut nom sg πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν gen sg παντός πάσης παντός dat

sg παντί πάσῃ παντί acc sg πάντα πᾶσαν πᾶν nom pl πάντες πᾶσαι πάντα gen pl πάντων πασῶν

πάντων dat pl πᾶσι(ν) πάσαις πᾶσι(ν) acc pl πάντας πάσας πάντα If you like to memorize paradigms,

this is the one! Not only does it show the first and third declension, but it is key for learning

participles (Chapter 26). Because πᾶς is an adjective, it can function substantivally. When it does, it

may require the use of an additional word like “people” or “things.” But unlike other adjectives, πᾶς

usually is in the predicate position when modifying a noun. πᾶς ὁ ἄνθρωπος means “every man.”

Categories 10.23 Adjectives fall into four categories, depending on which declension they follow and

whether the feminine and masculine forms are the same or different. The masculine and neuter

always follow the same declension. You met the 2-1-2 and 2-2 patterns in Chapter 9. category

masculine feminine neuter example 2-1-2 2 declension 1 declension 2 declension ἀγαθός, ή, όν 3-1-3

3 declension 1 declension 3 declension πᾶς, πᾶσα, πᾶν 2-2 2 declension 2 declension 2 declension

αἰώνιος 3-3 3 declension 3 declension 3 declension τίς, τί Article 10.24 There are two special

situations concerning the translation of the article that you need to look at. The article in Greek is

much more than just the word “the.” It is a “weak demonstrative,” which means it can perform as a

demonstrative (“that”), a relative (“who”), or even a personal pronoun (“he,” “one”), depending

upon the needs of the context. You will usually have to add a word into your translation to help, such

as “who” or “which.” Let the context determine which is appropriate. When you find the phrase ὁ δέ,

the article is usually functioning as a personal pronoun, “but he.” ὁ δὲ ὀπίσω μου ἐρχόμενος

ἰσχυρότερός μού ἐστιν (Matt 3:11). But he who is coming after me is mightier than I. 10.25

Sometimes you will find the article before a prepositional phrase. I mentioned this at 9.14. λαμπεῖ

πᾶσιν τοῖς ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ (Matt 5:15). It gives light to all who are in the house. The article is showing you

that the following prepositional phrase (ἐν τῇ οἰκίᾳ) is in an attributive relationship to πᾶσιν. It is the

same type of relationship that we have seen with adjectives: “article-noun-article-modifier,” only

here the modifier is a prepositional phrase. In order to translate this construction, you will normally

turn the prepositional phrase into a relative clause and supply whatever words are necessary. The

article will be in the same case, number, and gender as the noun. This way you can tell what word

the prepositional phrase modifies. Summary 1. Words whose stems end in a consonant use third

declension case endings. 2. To find the stem of a third declension noun, locate the genitive singular

and drop the case ending. 3. To remember the gender of a third declension noun, memorize its

lexical form with the article. To remember the stem of a third declension noun, memorize its genitive

form. 4. Memorize the Master Case Ending Chart perfectly. 5. Rule 7: The Square of Stops. Labial π β

φ Velar κ γ χ Dental τ δ θ 6. Labial + σ forms ψ. Velar + σ forms ξ. Dental + σ forms σ. 7. Rule 8: A tau

cannot stand at the end of a word and will drop off. 8. ὁ δέ can be translated “but he,” and an article

before a prepositional phrase is probably signaling that the prepositional phrase is an attributive

construction. 9. πᾶς is a paradigmatic word for grammar yet to come (participles), so learn it well. 10.

Know the four different categories of adjectives. Be encouraged! You now know all three declensions

and almost all noun forms. Vocabulary Be sure to memorize the nominative, genitive, and article for

each third declension noun. ἅγιος, -ία, -ιον adjective: holy (233; *ἁγιο; 2-1-2) plural noun: saints εἰ if

(503) This is not the same as εἶ, which means “you are.” Watch the accents carefully, because εἰ does

not have its own accent. Like ἐάν, εἰ always introduces a dependent clause and therefore you will not

find the main subject or verb of the sentence in the εἰ clause. εἰ μή except; if not (86) These two

words together can form an “idiom” (see below) meaning “except.” Other times they are best

translated, “if not.” It often introduces a dependent clause. An “idiom” is a phrase that does not have

the same meaning as the sum of its parts. When looking at the meaning of each word in the idiom,

you can seldom find the meaning of the idiomatic phrase. εἷς, μία, ἕν one (344; *ἑν/*μια; 3-1-3) ἤδη

now, already (61) ὄνομα, -ατος, τό name, reputation (231; *ονοματ) οὐδείς, οὐδεμία, οὐδέν no one,

none, nothing (234; οὐ[δε] + *ἑν/*μια) The second half of this word declines just like εἷς. πᾶς, πᾶσα,

πᾶν singular: each, every (1,244; *παντ/*πασα; 3-1-3) plural: all περί gen: concerning, about (333)

acc: around σάρξ, σαρκός, ἡ flesh, body (147; *σαρκ) σύν dat: with (128) σῶμα, -ατος, τό body (142;

*σωματ) τέκνον, -ου, τό child, descendant (99; *τεκνο) τίς, τί who? what? which? why? (556; *τιν; 3-

3) When this word means “why?” it will usually be in the neuter (τί). τις, τι someone/thing (533; *τιν;

3-3) certain one/thing, anyone/thing Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162 Number of

words learned to date: 102 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 5,151 Number of word

occurrences to date: 77,815 Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 56.32% 10.26 Hint. It

is common for students to stop memorizing vocabulary because there is so much grammar to learn.

Even if you are struggling with grammar, be sure to stay up with your vocabulary, and be sure you are

reviewing. How well you know the grammar serves little purpose (or has little value) if you do not

know what the words mean. You will not be able to translate a passage. So hang in there; the

remaining noun chapters are much easier than this chapter. Previous Words πνεῦμα, -ατος, τό spirit,

Spirit Σίμων, -ωνος, ὁ Simon workbook summary Chapter 11 First and Second Person Personal

Pronouns Exegetical Insight Small words sometimes carry a big punch, especially when combined

with other features of the Greek language. Pronouns can be those kind of small words. They, like

moving vans, can carry a big load. I am thinking of a particularly sinister example of this in Jesus’

temptations in Luke 4:6. The devil has taken Jesus on a cosmic ride so he can see all the kingdoms of

the world. Then he says to Jesus, “To you I will give all of this authority and their glory; for it has been

delivered to me and I give it to whom I will. If you, then, will worship me, it shall be yours.” Here is a

great (but deceitful) offer, and all the freight is carried in the various exchanges of personal pronouns

throughout the passage. To read through the verse one must follow the bouncing ball through

various pronoun changes. The devil (I, me) offers authority over all the earth (it), if Jesus (you, yours)

will but worship the devil. But there is one other touch to this verse. To sweeten the offer the

pronoun “to you” (σοι) is put at the front of the Greek sentence for emphasis in verse 6. Though

some translations suggest this emphasis (RSV), a knowledge of Greek reveals its significance. The

devil makes the personal and unique nature of the offer clear. The devil is saying, “This offer is just

for you!” He tries to present the offer in as attractive a way as possible to Jesus. It is a good thing the

devil is not a used car salesman! Fortunately, loyalty to God was more important to Jesus than

seizing power. He did not let the devil’s use (and abuse) of pronouns trip him up. Darrell L. Bock

Overview In this chapter you will learn: ■ the first (“I”) and second (“you”) person personal

pronouns; ■ that a pronoun’s case is determined by its function in the sentence, just like a noun; ■

that a pronoun’s number is determined by its antecedent; ■ several more third declension patterns.

English 11.1 A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. In the sentence, “It is red,” “It” is a pronoun

referring back to something. A personal pronoun is a pronoun that replaces a personal noun. In the

sentence, “My name is Bill; I will learn Greek as well as possible,” “I” is a personal pronoun referring

to me, Bill. The word that a pronoun refers back to, “Bill,” is the antecedent. 11.2 Person. Pronouns

can be first person, second person, or third person. ■ First person refers to the person speaking (“I”,

“we”). ■ Second person refers to the person being spoken to (“you”). ■ Third person refers to the

person being spoken about (“he,” “she,” “it,” “they”). All nouns are considered third person. Notice

how highly inflected the English pronoun is. Pronouns are radically changed, depending upon their

function. There is no easy way to distinguish between second person singular and plural. Some

grammars retain the old “thou” (singular) and “ye” (plural). 11.3 Case, Number, and Person The case

of a pronoun is determined by its function in the sentence, its number and person by its antecedent.

This is similar to adjectives that function substantivally. 1. The case of a pronoun is determined by its

function in the sentence. For example, if the pronoun is the subject of the sentence, you would use

“I” and not “me” since “I” is in the subjective case. You would not say, “Me would like to eat now,”

because “me” is objective. This is different from an attributive adjective, which determines its case

by the word it is modifying. A pronoun (except in the genitive) does not modify a word. 2. The

number of the pronoun is determined by the antecedent. Because “Bill” is singular, you would use “I”

and not “we.” 3. The person of the pronoun is determined by the antecedent. If the antecedent was

the person speaking (first person), you use “I,” not “you.” 4. There is no gender in the first and

second person. “I” or “you” can be either a woman or a man. The third person pronoun has gender,

but you will meet it in the next chapter. 11.4 English forms first person second person subjective sg I

you possessive sg my your objective sg me you subjective pl we you possessive pl our your objective

pl us you Greek 11.5 The Greek pronoun is similar to the English pronoun. ■ It replaces a noun. ■ Its

case is determined by its function in the sentence. ■ Its number and person is determined by its

antecedent. ■ First and second person pronouns do not have gender. 11.6 Greek forms We have

already learned some of these forms and have seen many of them in the exercises. They should be

quite familiar and easy to learn. The alternate forms in parentheses are discussed in 11.8. first person

second person nom sg ἐγώ I σύ you gen sg μου (ἐμοῦ) my σου (σοῦ) your dat sg μοι (ἐμοί) to me σοι

(σοί) to you acc sg με (ἐμέ) me σε (σέ) you nom pl ἡμεῖς we ὑμεῖς you gen pl ἡμῶν our ὑμῶν your

dat pl ἡμῖν to us ὑμῖν to you acc pl ἡμᾶς us ὑμᾶς you Characteristics of 1st and 2nd Person Pronouns

11.7 Form. Notice the many similarities among the case endings of the pronouns and the case

endings for the nouns you have already learned. ■ The nominative (singular and plural) and

accusative (singular) are a little different, but the others should remind you of endings you already

know. ■ In the plural, the first and second person personal pronouns are identical except for the first

letter. ■ Although there are many similarities among these forms and those you already know, some

students prefer just to memorize this paradigm. 11.8 Accents. In the first person singular, the

genitive, dative, and accusative cases will sometimes include an epsilon and an accent (ἐμοῦ, ἐμοί,

ἐμέ). The second person pronoun will not add an epsilon but it can add an accent (σοῦ, σοί, σέ).

These accented forms are called the emphatic forms. The emphatic and unemphatic forms basically

have the same meaning. The emphatic form is used when the author wants to be especially

emphatic, usually in contrasting one person with another. ἐγὼ ἐβάπτισα ὑμᾶς ὕδατι, αὐτὸς δὲ

βαπτίσει ὑμᾶς ἐν πνεύματι ἁγίῳ. I baptized you in water but he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit.

The contrast is usually difficult to bring into English. Emphatic forms also tend to be used after

prepositions. ἔργον γὰρ καλὸν ἠργάσατο εἰς ἐμέ (Mt 26:10). For she has done a beautiful thing to

me. 11.9 Parsing. When asked to decline a first or second person personal pronoun, I suggest that

you list the case, number, person (not gender), lexical form, and inflected meaning. σοῦ is genitive

singular second person, from σύ, meaning “of you” (or “your”) The lexical forms of the first and

second person personal pronouns are the nominative. Some teachers view ἐγώ as the lexical form of

ἡμεῖς while others see ἡμεῖς as a separate word. The same holds true for ὑμεῖς. Here are some other

phrases that might help you get acquainted with one another. ■ πῶς ἔχεις is, “How are you?” ■ εὖ

ἔχω or καλῶς ἔχω is, “I am well.” ■ κακῶς ἔχω is, “I am not well.” 11.10 Translation procedure. If the

pronoun is the subject or direct object, then treat it as you would any other subject or direct object.

If it is in the genitive, treat it like any other possessive. ἐγώ / πιστεύω / λόγον σου. I believe your

word. The possessive forms of the pronouns (μου, σου) usually follow the word they modify. κύριός

μου εἶπεν.… My Lord said.… Halftime Review ■ Pronouns are words that replace nouns. ■ Pronouns

are first (the person speaking), second (the person spoken to), or third (the person spoken about)

person. ■ First and second person pronouns agree with their antecedent in person and number.

Their case is determined by their function in the sentence. ■ The forms of the personal pronouns

need to be memorized. ■ Personal pronouns in oblique cases (i.e., not in the nominative) can have

accents when they are used emphatically. More on the Third Declension 11.11 Stems in tau and

delta. In Chapter 10 you learned the basics of the third declension. There are a few more patterns

you need to learn, although these patterns are still governed by the same rules. Stems ending in tau

or delta behave the same way, since both letters are dentals. Remember, dentals (τ, δ, θ) drop out

before sigma. *χαριτ *φωτ, τό *ελπιδ *σαρκ nom sg: χάρις φῶς ἐλπίς σάρξ gen sg: χάριτος φωτός

ἐλπίδος σαρκός dat sg: χάριτι φωτί ἐλπίδι σαρκί acc sg: χάριτα φῶς ἐλπίδα σάρκα nom pl: χάριτες

φῶτα ἐλπίδες σάρκες gen pl: χαρίτων φώτων ἐλπίδων σαρκῶν dat pl: χάρισι(ν) φωσί(ν) ἐλπίσι(ν)

σαρξί(ν) acc pl: χάριτας φῶτα ἐλπίδας σάρκας A special note on χάριτα. The ending α is used in the

accusative singular by all the New Testament words in this category except for χάρις. Of its 44

occurences, χάρις forms its accusative singular as χάριν 42 times, twice as χάριτα (Acts 24:27; Jude

4). 11.12 Consonantal iota stems. πίστις appears to have a final stem vowel of iota. nom sg: πίστις

gen sg: πίστεως dat sg: πίστει acc sg: πίστιν nom pl: πίστεις gen pl: πίστεων dat pl: πίστεσι(ν) acc pl:

πίστεις 11.13 Originally that iota was another letter called the “consonantal iota.” This letter dropped

out of the Greek alphabet long before Hellenistic Greek, but the fact that it used to be present helps

explain a lot of apparently weird behavior in both nouns and verbs. The final iota in πίστις used to be

a consonantal iota. When the consonantal iota dropped out of use, it was replaced with either an

iota or epsilon. On the one hand, it may not be important to know when it will be what; just

recognize that the stem of πίστις type words will end in either iota or epsilon. But if you really want

to know, here is the rule. ■ If the case ending begins with a vowel, the final stem vowel is an epsilon;

■ if the case ending begins with a consonant, then the final stem vowel is an iota. But in the dative

plural an epsilon precedes a sigma. ναί is “Yes.” οὐ is “No.” ουχἰ is “No!” (emphatic) ὀρθῶς is “right”

κακῶς is “wrong” ἵσως or τάχω is “maybe” ἀκριβῶς is “exactly” 11.14 All nouns with stems that end

in consonantal iota are feminine (e.g., πίστις, πίστεως, ἡ). 11.15 Two final patterns. Here are the

paradigms for πατήρ (“father”) and ὕδωρ (“water”). ἀνήρ (“man”) and μήτηρ (“mother”) are formed

like πατήρ. nom sg: πατήρ ὕδωρ, τό gen sg: πατρός ὕδατος dat sg: πατρί ὕδατι acc sg: πατέρα ὕδωρ

nom pl: πατέρες ὕδατα gen pl: πατέρων ὑδάτων dat pl: πατράσι(ν) ὕδασι(ν) acc pl: πατέρας ὕδατα

πατήρ is formed from the root *πατερ. The second stem vowel fluctuates between an eta (πατήρ),

epsilon (πατέρα), and nothing (πατρός). In the dative plural the stem vowel is lost and an alpha

added (πατράσι) to aid pronunciation. This stem of ὕδωρ appears to end in a tau, as can be seen in

most of its forms. But when there is no case ending (nominative and accusative singular), the original

final rho reappears. Summary 1. A personal pronoun is a word replacing a personal noun. 2. The

English personal pronouns are “I, my, me, we, our, us” (first person) and “you, your” (second person).

3. The case of a pronoun is determined by its function in the sentence, number and person by its

antecedent. 4. Most of the forms of these two pronouns are similar to the case endings you already

know. Concentrate on those similarities. 5. πίστις type words end in a consonantal iota, which now

appears as ι or ε, and are all feminine. Vocabulary ἀδελφός, -οῦ, ὁ brother (343; *ἀδελφο) ἀδελφός

can be used in the New Testament to describe members of God’s family. Some Bible versions

translate this use of ἀδελφός as “brother and/or sister.” ἄν an untranslatable, uninflected particle,

used to make a definite statement contingent upon something, e.g., changing “who” to “whoever”

(166). You usually cannot translate it. ἀνήρ, ἀνδρός, ὁ man, male, husband (216; *ἀνδρ) See the

Appendix for the full paradigm of this word (n-3f[2c]). It is similar to the pattern of πατήρ. ἐκκλησία,

-ας, ἡ a church, (the) Church, assembly, congregation (114; *ἐκκλησια) ἐλπίς, -ίδος, ἡ hope,

expectation (53; *ἐλπιδ) ἔξω adverb: without (63) preposition (gen): outside ἐπί (ἐπʼ, ἐφʼ) gen: on,

over, when (890) dat: on the basis of, at acc: on, to, against When ἐπί is followed by a word beginning

with a vowel and smooth breathing, the iota elides (ἐπʼ αὐτόν). If the following word begins with a

rough breathing, the iota elides and the pi aspirates to a phi (ἐφʼ ὑμᾶς). ἡμεῖς we (864) θέλημα,

θελήματος, τό will, desire (62; *θεληματ) ἴδε See! Behold! (29; interjection) ἰδού See! Behold! (200;

interjection) καλός, -ή, -όν beautiful, good (101; *καλο) μήτηρ, μητρός, ἡ mother (83; *μητρ) Follows

the same declension pattern as πατήρ. See n-3f(2c) in the Appendix. οὐδέ and not, not even, neither,

nor (143) πατήρ, πατρός, ὁ father (413; *πατρ) See the declension pattern of this word in 11.15.

πίστις, πίστεως, ἡ faith, belief (243; *πιστι) ὕδωρ, ὕδατος, τό water (76; *ὑδατ) See the declension

pattern of this word in 11.15. ὑμεῖς you (plural) (1,840) φῶς, φωτός, τό light (73; *φωτ) Because φῶς

is neuter, the accusatives are identical to the nominatives. See the declension pattern of this word in

11.11. χάρις, χάριτος, ἡ grace, favor, kindness (155; *χαριτ) ὧδε here (61) Total word count in the

New Testament: 138,162 Number of words learned to date: 123 Number of word occurrences in this

chapter: 6,188 Number of word occurrences to date: 84,003 Percent of total word count in the New

Testament: 60.80% There is no word in Koine Greek for “please.” It doesn’t mean they were a rude

people; they just had other ways to express the idea. In Modern Greek the word for “please” is

παρακαλώ, which is also an old Koine word. The Modern Greek word for “thanks” is ευχαριστώ. This

is basically the same as in Koine. Jesus would have said, εὐχαριστῶ σοι, when he wanted to say

“thank you.” workbook summary Chapter 12

William D. Mounce, Basics of Biblical Greek: Grammar, ed. Verlyn D. Verbrugge, Third Edition. (Grand

Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 27–99.

Chapter 12 αὐτός Exegetical Insight Pronouns have many different uses in Greek. One of the most

common pronouns is αὐτός. Its ordinary use is to “stand in” for a noun to avoid repetition. “James

loved Mary, but Mary couldn’t stand James” reduces to “James loved Mary, but she couldn’t stand

him.” But sometimes the pronoun is used with a noun to add some kind of stress to it. This is a

construction that Peter uses in 1 Peter 5:10, where he writes, “And the God of all grace, who called

you to his eternal glory in Christ, after you have suffered a little while, will himself restore you and

make you strong, firm and steadfast.” Here Peter reinforces the subject of the sentence by adding the

pronoun αὐτός, and the force of the addition is to indicate that God is personally involved in caring

for his people. In his comment on this verse P. H. Davids says, “Our author is emphatic, indicating

that God is not removed from their situation, but personally involved.” Such a verse would thus have

come as all-the-more powerful comfort to Christians who faced hostility from the people round

about them. They were being told to recognize in their activity the malevolent working of Satan and

to resist him firmly, lest they succumb to the temptation to give up their faith because the going was

too tough. In such a situation they needed to be convinced that, just as Satan was at work in their

opponents, so God himself was not far away, leaving them to struggle on their own, but was

personally concerned for each one of them, to strengthen and sustain them, and eventually to

summon them to their eternal reward with him. I. Howard Marshall Overview In this chapter you will

learn: ■ the three different ways αὐτός is used; ■ that since αὐτός is a 2-1-2 adjective, we already

know all its forms. English 12.1 Here are the inflected forms of the third person personal pronoun.

masc fem neut subjective sg he she it possessive sg his her its objective sg him her it all genders

subjective pl they possessive pl their objective pl them 12.2 The only significant difference between

the third person pronouns and the first and second is that third person singular pronouns have

gender. ■ The case of a pronoun is determined by its function in the sentence. ■ The gender and

number of a pronoun is determined by its antecedent. For example, if “Robin” is the antecedent, you

would say, “I would like to talk to her.” You would not say, “I would like to talk to it,” because Robin is

not an “it.” You would not say “them” because Robin is only one, and you would not say, “I would like

to talk to she,” since the pronoun is the object of the preposition, which takes the objective case

(“her”). Greek 12.3 You have already met αὐτός functioning as the third person personal pronoun

meaning “he” (αὐτός) and “him” (αὐτόν). Unlike ἐγώ and σύ, αὐτός uses the normal case endings

and has gender in the singular and plural. 2 1 2 masc fem neut translation nom sg αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό

he she it gen sg αὐτοῦ αὐτῆς αὐτοῦ his her its dat sg αὐτῷ αὐτῇ αὐτῷ to him to her to it acc sg

αὐτόν αὐτήν αὐτό him her it nom pl αὐτοί αὐταί αὐτά they gen pl αὐτῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν their dat pl

αὐτοῖς αὐταῖς αὐτοῖς to them acc pl αὐτούς αὐτάς αὐτά them 12.4 Form ■ αὐτός uses case endings

just like adjectives (2-1-2). ■ The feminine follows the first declension (which has eta as the final

stem vowel) and the masculine and neuter follow the second declension. ■ In the neuter nominative

and accusative singular, αὐτός does not use a case ending, so the word ends with the final stem

vowel (αὐτό). This is a normal subpattern for the neuter, and you have already seen it with the

article: τό (see the a–1a[2b] paradigm in the Appendix, page 347). ■ αὐτός always has a smooth

breathing. 12.5 Parsing. αὐτός is parsed just like an adjective (i.e., case, number, gender, lexical form,

and inflected meaning). αὐτοῖς: dative plural masculine/neuter from αὐτός meaning “to them.” 12.6

Gender. Do not be confused by the difference between Greek and English in the plural. Although in

English we do not designate gender, they did in Greek. The Three Uses of αὐτός 12.7 Summary. Do

not think of αὐτός as the third person pronoun. Think of αὐτός as a word that performs three distinct

functions. 12.8 Use 1: Personal pronoun. αὐτός can function as the third person personal pronoun.

This is by far its most common use. Translate it as you have become accustomed to. αὐτός he αὐτοί

they αὐτή she αὐταί they αὐτό it αὐτά they In this usage, the case of the pronoun is determined by

its function. Subject αὐτοὶ τὸν θεὸν ὄψονται (Matt 5:8). They will see God. Direct object

παραλαμβάνει αὐτὸν ὁ διάβολος εἰς τὴν ἁγίαν πόλιν (Matt 4:5). The devil took him to the holy city.

When showing possession (genitive), the pronoun usually follows the word it modifies. καλέσεις τὸ

ὄνομα αὐτοῦ Ἰησοῦν (Matt 1:21). You shall call his name Jesus. The pronoun’s gender and number

are determined by its antecedent. ■ If the antecedent is personal, αὐτός follows natural gender.

αὐτός ἐστιν Ἠλίας ὁ μέλλων ἔρχεσθαι (Matt 11:14). He is Elijah who is to come. ὁ δὲ οὐκ ἀπεκρίθη

αὐτῇ λόγον (Matt 15:23). But he did not answer her a word. διὰ τί ἡμεῖς οὐκ ἠδυνήθημεν ἐκβαλεῖν

αὐτό; (Matt 17:19). Why could we not cast it out? ■ But if the antecedent is not personal, αὐτός

follows grammatical gender. So, for example, if the antecedent is “world” (κόσμος), Greek will use

the masculine form of the pronoun (αὐτός). However, you would not translate αὐτός as “he” but as

“it.” We think of the world not as a “he” but as an “it.” ὀλίγοι εἰσὶν οἱ εὑρίσκοντες αὐτήν (Matt 7:14).

Those who find it are few (referring to the narrow gate, πύλη). 12.9 Use 2: Adjectival intensive. αὐτός

can also function intensively when it is used adjectivally. In this case αὐτός normally modifies

another word and is usually in the predicate position. Translate αὐτός with the reflexive pronoun

(himself, herself, itself, themselves, etc.). αὐτὸς ὁ ἀπόστολος the apostle himself αὐτὸ τὸ δῶρον the

gift itself αὐτὸς γὰρ ὁ Ἡρῴδης ἀποστείλας ἐκράτησεν τὸν Ἰωάννην (Mark 6:17). For Herod himself

sent and seized John. αὐτός agrees with the noun it modifies in case, number, and gender. In English

translation, choose the gender of the reflexive pronoun based on the natural gender of the word

αὐτός modifies. ἡ ἐκκλησία αὐτή the church itself/herself ἐγὼ αὐτός I myself Do not confuse this

with the predicate position of other adjectives. When an adjective is in the predicate position you

must insert the verb “to be.” When αὐτός is in the predicate position, it is modifying the noun

adjectivally. ὁ Ἰησοῦς ἀγαθός Jesus is good αὐτὸς ὁ Ἰησοῦς Jesus himself 12.10 When functioning as

an intensive, αὐτός is usually in the nominative case and modifies the subject. αὐτὸς Δαυὶδ εἶπεν ἐν

τῷ πνεύματι τῷ ἁγίῳ (Mark 12:36). David himself spoke by the Holy Spirit. Ἰησοῦς αὐτὸς οὐκ

ἐβάπτιζεν ἀλλʼ οἱ μαθηταὶ αὐτοῦ (John 4:2). Jesus himself was not baptizing but his disciples. This is

the same use of the personal pronoun we saw with ἐγώ and σύ. Remember, because the verb

indicates its own subject, the use of αὐτός is technically unnecessary, and therefore its presence can

be emphatic. Different suggestions are made on how to translate αὐτός when it occurs in this

situation. Some suggest using a reflexive pronoun as in the illustrations above. It is David himself and

not someone else who spoke by the Holy Spirit. Others suggest ignoring the personal intensive use of

αὐτός in the nominative because this translation does not sound proper to English ears. If you do

ignore it, be sure to remember that it can add an intensifying force. The subject of the verb does not

have to be third person. When used with the first or second person, αὐτός still adds emphasis. σὺ

αὐτὸς λέγεις τοῖς ἀνθρώποις. You yourself speak to the men. 12.11 Use 3: Identical adjective. αὐτός

is sometimes used as the identical adjective meaning “same.” This is its least frequent usage. It is

normally in the attributive position when used this way, but not always. Its case, number, and gender

are determined by the word it modifies, as is the case with any adjective. καὶ πάλιν ἀπελθὼν

προσηύξατο τὸν αὐτὸν λόγον (Mark 14:39). And again after going away he prayed the same thing. Ἐν

αὐτῇ τῇ ὥρᾳ προσῆλθάν τινες Φαρισαῖοι (Luke 13:31). In the same hour some Pharisees came.

Summary 1. αὐτός uses the normal case endings except for the nominative and accusative neuter

singular, which drop the nu. This is a common variation. 2. When αὐτός functions as a pronoun, its

case is determined by function, its number and gender by antecedent. 3. When αὐτός adds emphasis

it is usually translated with the reflexive pronoun. It usually will be in the predicate position, in the

nominative case. 4. αὐτός can function as the identical adjective and be translated “same.” In this

usage it normally is in the attributive position. Vocabulary αἰών, -ῶνος, ὁ age, eternity (122; *αἰων)

The idioms εἰς τὸν αἰῶνα and εἰς τοὺς αἰώνας τῶν αἰώνων both mean “forever.” διδάσκαλος, -ου, ὁ

teacher (59; *διδασκαλο) εὐθύς immediately (58) εὐθύς occurs 51x as an adverb and 7x as an

adjective. ἕως conj: until (146) preposition (gen): as far as μαθητής, -οῦ, ὁ disciple (261; *μαθητη)

μαθητης is declined just like προφήτης. μέν on the one hand, indeed (179) Postpositive. Sometimes

this word is untranslatable. It can occur as a correlative conjunction with δέ. In this case you can

translate μέν … δέ as “on the one hand … but on the other.” Usually in English you do not translate

μέν and translate δέ as “but.” μηδείς, μηδεμία, μηδέν no one/thing (90; μη(δε) + *ἑν/*μια) Declines

just like οὐδείς. μόνος, -η, -ον alone, only (114; *μονο) All adjectives can function adverbially. This

word does so quite often, usually as an accusative neuter (μόνον). ὅπως how, that, in order that (53)

ὅσος, -η, -ον as great as, as many as (110; *ὁσο) The initial ὁσ retains the same form, but the second

half of the word declines like the relative pronoun. For example, the nominative plural masculine is

ὅσοι. This word is idiomatic; rely on context to help with a precise definition. οὖν therefore, then,

accordingly (499) Postpositive. ὀφθαλμός, -οῦ, ὁ eye, sight (100; *ὀφθαλμο) πάλιν again (141) πούς,

ποδός, ὁ foot (93; *ποδ) πούς is declined like ἐλπίς, ἐλπίδος, except that in the nominative singular

the omicron of the root lengthens to ου (*ποδ+ ς ▶ πος ▶ πούς). The dative plural is ποσί(ν). ὑπέρ

gen: in behalf of (150) acc: above Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162 Number of words

learned to date: 138 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 2,176 Number of word

occurrences to date: 86,179 Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 62.37% I hope you

have been singing Greek songs well before this chapter, but here is a familiar tune. You can download

the sheet music and hear my friend sing it on the class website. ὁ Ἰησοῦς με ἀγαπᾷ, Jesus me he-

loves ὅτι γραφὴ κηρύσσει· because Scripture proclaims; παιδία εἰσιν αὐτῷ, Children are to-him,

ἀσθένουσι δύναται. They-are-weak; he-is-strong ναί, Ἰησοῦς ἀγαπᾷ Yes, Jesus loves, ναί, Ἰησοῦς

ἀγαπᾷ Yes, Jesus loves, ναί, Ἰησοῦς ἀγαπᾷ Yes, Jesus loves, ἡ γραφὴ κηρύσσει. The Scripture

proclaims. workbook summary Chapter 13 Demonstrative Pronouns/Adjectives οὗτος, ἐκεῖνος

Exegetical Insight δικαιοσύνη is one of the great words in Christian theology. Basically it means, “the

character or quality of being right or just.” It is a word used to describe God. He is in the ultimate

sense the Just One (Rom 3:5, 25). It is also used to describe the righteous life of the believer, i.e., a

life lived in obedience to the will of God (Rom 6:13, 16, 18, 19, 20; Eph 6:14, etc.). But the most

important use of δικαιοσύνη in the New Testament is to describe the gracious gift of God by which

through faith in Jesus Christ one is brought into a right relationship to God. Such a relationship is

apart from law, i.e., apart from the works of the law—we can do nothing to obtain it. However, the

“Law and the Prophets,” i.e., the Old Testament Scriptures, testify to it. It was all a part of God’s

redemptive plan that we should have been put into a right relationship with him through his Son.

Luther was right when he wrote: “For God does not want to save us by our own but by an extraneous

righteousness, one that does not originate in ourselves but comes to us from beyond ourselves.” My

hope is built on nothing less Than Jesus’ blood and δικαιοσύνη. Walter W. Wessel Overview In this

chapter you will learn: ■ the demonstrative pronouns and adjectives “this” and “that”; ■ that they

behave just like pronouns and adjectives except that when functioning as adjectives they are in the

predicate position; ■ the fifth and final case, the vocative, used when addressing a person directly.

English 13.1 Demonstratives in English are “this/these” and “that/those” (singular/plural). For

example, “This book is the greatest Greek textbook.” “Those students really work hard.” The

demonstratives are never inflected except to indicate singular and plural. 13.2 The same word can be

either a pronoun (“That is mine.”) or an adjective (“That car is mine.”). Greek 13.3 The

demonstratives in Greek are οὗτος (this/these) and ἐκεῖνος (that/those). They function the same way

as they do in English, both as pronouns and as adjectives. The difference between the English and

Greek demonstratives is that the Greek demonstratives have case and gender. ■ When a

demonstrative functions as a pronoun, its case is determined by its function in the sentence. Its

number and gender are determined by its antecedent, just like any pronoun. ■ When a

demonstrative functions as an adjective, its case, number, and gender are determined by the noun it

is modifying, just like any adjective. In the following paradigms, translate each form as an adjective

and then as a pronoun. 13.4 The forms of οὗτος 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο gen

sg τούτου ταύτης τούτου dat sg τούτῳ ταύτῃ τούτῳ acc sg τοῦτον ταύτην τοῦτο nom pl οὗτοι αὗται

ταῦτα gen pl τούτων τούτων τούτων dat pl τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις acc pl τούτους ταύτας ταῦτα

Since you have been learning pronouns, let’s practice them a bit conversationally. Tell someone that

Jesus loves them. If you are speaking to one person you would say, ὁ Ἰησοῦς σε ἀγαπᾷ. 13.5 The

forms of ἐκεῖνος 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg ἐκεῖνος ἐκείνη ἐκεῖνο gen sg ἐκείνου ἐκείνης ἐκείνου

dat sg ἐκείνῳ ἐκείνῃ ἐκείνῳ acc sg ἐκεῖνον ἐκείνην ἐκεῖνο nom pl ἐκεῖνοι ἐκεῖναι ἐκεῖνα gen pl

ἐκείνων ἐκείνων ἐκείνων dat pl ἐκείνοις ἐκείναις ἐκείνοις acc pl ἐκείνους ἐκείνας ἐκεῖνα

Characteristics of Demonstrative Pronouns 13.6 Form. The demonstratives use the regular case

endings. There are three peculiarities that need to be learned carefully. 1. The neuter singular

nominative and accusative do not use a case ending, so the form ends in the stem omicron rather

than ον. This is the same as αὐτός, ἄλλος, and ὁ. 2. οὗτος always begins with a rough breathing or

tau. Think of the two as interchangeable. This is important in distinguishing the feminine

demonstrative (αὗται) from αὐτός, which always has a smooth breathing (αὐταί). 3. The first stem

vowel used in οὗτος depends upon the final stem vowel. ■ If the final vowel is alpha or eta, the

demonstrative will have alpha in the stem (e.g., ταύταις, ταύτης). ■ If the final vowel is omicron, the

stem will have omicron (e.g., τούτου). 13.7 Pronoun. If a demonstrative is functioning as a pronoun,

it will not modify a word (just like the substantival adjective). οὗτος ἐκεῖνος οὗτος this (man/one)

ἐκεῖνος that (man/one) αὕτη this (woman) ἐκείνη that (woman) τοῦτο this (thing) ἐκεῖνο that (thing)

οὗτοι these (men/ones) ἐκεῖνοι those (men/ones) αὗται these (women) ἐκεῖναι those (women)

ταῦτα these (things) ἐκεῖνα those (things) As a pronoun, the translation of the demonstrative may

require an additional word such as those in parentheses above. Pick whatever makes the best sense,

following natural gender. For example, ἐκείνη would not be translated “that man.” 13.8 Adjectives. If

a demonstrative is functioning as an adjective, it occurs in the predicate position although it

functions as an attributive adjective. οὗτος ὁ ἄνθρωπος This man ὁ ἄνθρωπος οὗτος This man

ἐκεῖνοι οἱ ἄνθρωποι Those men This is the opposite of regular adjectives, so do not get them

confused. The noun it modifies will always have the article. How would you tell a group of people

that Jesus loves them? ὁ Ἰησοῦς ὑμᾶς ἀγαπᾷ. 13.9 Sometimes the demonstrative pronoun weakens

in its force and functions as a personal pronoun. οὗτος ἔσται μέγας καὶ υἱὸς ὑψίστου κληθήσεται

(Luke 1:32). He will be great and will be called “Son of the Most High.” As you might have guessed,

there is substantial overlap among the article, the personal pronoun, and the demonstrative

pronoun. Vocative 13.10 The fifth, and final, case is the vocative, the “case of direct address.” A noun

uses vocative case endings when it is being directly addressed. In the following example, the person

is addressing the “Lord” directly. Οὐ πᾶς ὁ λέγων μοι, Κύριε κύριε, εἰσελεύσεται εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν

τῶν οὐρανῶν (Matt 7:21). Not everyone saying to me, “Lord, Lord,” will enter into the kingdom of

heaven. The forms of the vocative, for the most part, are quite simple. It is usually obvious from

context when the word is in the vocative. ■ In the plural, the vocative is always identical to the

nominative plural. ἄνδρες Γαλιλαῖοι, τί ἑστήκατε ἐμβλέποντες εἰς τὸν οὐρανόν; (Acts 1:11). Men of

Galilee, why do you stand staring into heaven? ■ In the singular first declension, the vocative is the

same as the nominative. ἐρῶ τῇ ψυχῇ μου· ψυχή, ἔχεις πολλὰ ἀγαθά (Luke 12:19). And I will say to

my soul, Soul, you have ample goods. ■ In the singular second declension, the vocative ending is

usually epsilon. ἄνθρωπε, ἀφέωνταί σοι αἱ ἁμαρτίαι σου (Luke 5:20). Friend, your sins are forgiven

you. ■ In the singular third declension, the vocative is usually the bare stem of the word, sometimes

with the stem vowel being changed (ablaut). Πάτερ ἡμῶν ὁ ἐν τοῖς οὐρανοῖς (Matt 6:9) Our Father

who is in heaven There are a few other forms of the vocative, but this information is enough for now.

Normally context will warn you when a form is in the vocative. Now go find someone, introduce

yourself, and tell them that Jesus loves them. You: “Hello. My name is ——. What is your name?”

Them: “My name is ——.” You: “Jesus loves you.” Them: “Yes. Jesus loves me.” You: “Goodbye.”

Them: “Goodbye.” Don’t be shy! There is too much at stake in learning the heavenly language. Oh,

didn’t you know that Greek is the heavenly language? It’s true. We will all speak Greek in heaven (1

Cor 13:1). So while everyone else is learning Greek, we get to speak with Jesus! Odds ’n Ends 13.11

Degrees of an adjective. An adjective can have three “degrees.” ■ The positive degree is the

uncompared form of the adjective: “large” (μέγας). ■ The comparative degree denotes the greater of

two items: “larger” (μείζων). ■ The superlative degree describes the greatest, or a comparison of

three or more: “largest” (μέγιστος). In Koine Greek the superlative was dying out and its function

was being assumed by the comparative (see BDF, #60). For example, someone might use μείζων

when context technically requires μέγιστος. As usual, context is the key in translation. 13.12 Crasis is

when a word is formed by combining two words. In this chapter you will meet κἀγώ, which is a crasis

of καί and ἐγώ. See the Appendix for a list of all forms of crasis in the New Testament, page 342.

13.13 Πολύς. You also meet the word πολύς, meaning “much” or “many.” It looks like a cross

between a second and third declension word. 2 1 2 masc fem neut nom sg πολύς πολλή πολύ gen sg

πολλοῦ πολλῆς πολλοῦ dat sg πολλῷ πολλῇ πολλῷ acc sg πολύν πολλήν πολύ nom pl πολλοί πολλαί

πολλά gen pl πολλῶν πολλῶν πολλῶν dat pl πολλοῖς πολλαῖς πολλοῖς acc pl πολλούς πολλάς πολλά

Summary 1. The demonstrative “this/these” is οὗτος and “that/those” is ἐκεῖνος. οὗτος always

begins with either a rough breathing or tau. Neither uses a case ending in the nominative/accusative

neuter singular. 2. When they function as a pronoun their case is determined by their function in the

sentence, number and gender by their antecedent. You can supply a helping word if you wish,

determined by natural gender. 3. When they function as an adjective, their case, number, and gender

agree with the word they are modifying. They will always be in the predicate position although they

are translated as attributive adjectives. 4. A demonstrative can weaken in force and be used as a

personal pronoun. 5. The vocative is the case of direct address. ■ In the plural, it is identical to the

nominative regardless of declension. ■ In the singular first declension, it is identical to the

nominative. ■ In the singular second declension, it usually has the case ending epsilon. ■ In the

singular third declension, it usually is the bare stem. Vocabulary γυνή, γυναικός, ἡ woman, wife (215;

*γυναικ) γυνή is declined like σάρξ (n-3b[1]). The ικ is lost in the nominative singular. δικαιοσύνη, -

ης, ἡ righteousness (92; *δικαιοσυνη) δώδεκα twelve (75). Indeclinable. ἑαυτοῦ, -ῆς, -οῦ singular:

himself/herself/itself plural: themselves (319; *ἑαυτο) ἑαυτοῦ is the reflexive pronoun. While it

occurs predominantly in the third person, it can be used in the first and second person as well

(“myself,” “yourself”). Because of the word’s meaning, it can never occur in the nominative; so for

this word the lexical form is the genitive singular. It follows the same inflectional pattern as αὐτός.

ἑαυτοῦ in the plural can also be translated as first (“ourselves”) or second (“yourselves”) person, if

the verb in the sentence calls for that. ἐκεῖνος, -η, -ο singular: that man/woman/thing plural: those

men/women/things (265; 2-1-2; *ἐκεινο) ἤ or, than (343) Do not confuse this with the article ἡ,

which always has a rough breathing. κἀγώ and I, but I (84). Indeclinable. κἀγώ is a crasis of καί and

ἐγώ. The frequency includes the forms κἀμέ and κἀμοί. μακάριος, -ία, -ιον blessed, happy (50; 2-1-2;

*μακαριο) μέγας, μεγάλη, μέγα large, great (243; 2-1-2; *μεγαλο) πόλις, -εως, ἡ city (163; *πολς)

πολύς, πολλή, πολύ singular: much (416; 2-1-2; *πολλο) plural: many adverb: often πῶς how? (103)

σημεῖον, -ου, τό sign, miracle (77; *σημειο) Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162

Number of words learned to date: 151 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 2,445 Number

of word occurrences to date: 88,624 Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 64.14%

Previous Words οὗτος, αὕτη, τοῦτο singular: this; he, she, it (1388; 2-1-2; *τουτο) plural: these

workbook summary Chapter 14 Relative Pronoun Exegetical Insight One author refers to the author

of the first of our four canonical Gospels as “meticulous Matthew.” Matthew regularly displays

intentional precision in his account of the Savior’s earthly life and ministry in order to accentuate

truths that are important for devotion and doctrine. This precision is quite evident in the genealogy

Matthew uses to introduce Jesus the Christ at the beginning of his gospel. When he comes to the

listing of Jesus he says, “… and Jacob the father of Joseph, the husband of Mary, of whom was born

Jesus, who is called Christ” (Matt 1:16, NIV). To whom do the italicized words “of whom” refer?

Joseph as father? Mary as mother? Both Joseph and Mary as parents? It is possible for the English

words “of whom” to mean any of these. However, behind the English words “of whom” stands the

Greek relative pronoun ἧς. The feminine gender of the relative pronoun points specifically to Mary as

the one from whom Jesus Christ was born. The genealogy regularly emphasizes the male who fathers

a child, but here “meticulous Matthew” delivers a precise statement of the relationship of Jesus

Christ to Joseph and Mary. While the genealogy establishes that Joseph is the legal father of Jesus,

Matthew emphasizes that Mary is the biological parent “of whom” Jesus was born. Further, the

passive voice of the verb ἐγεννήθη (“was born”)—the only passive among the forty occurrences of

γεννάω in the genealogy—prepares for Matthew’s emphasis upon divine action in the conception

and birth of Jesus (1:18–25). In his comment on this verse, R. H. Gundry says, “the feminine gender

of ἧς prepares for the virgin birth by shifting attention from Joseph to Mary.” The Greek relative

pronoun is a subtle signature of the relationship of one substantive to another. Here, by the use of

the feminine form the author intentionally stresses that Mary is the mother of our Lord, and later he

will clarify that the conception is miraculous, brought about by the Spirit of God coming upon her.

Jesus Christ is indeed the son of David, the son of Abraham (1:1), but he is also the Son of God,

Immanuel, “God with us” (1:23). This is no ordinary king in the line of David. This is our Savior and

Lord, born of the virgin Mary. Michael J. Wilkins Overview In this chapter you will learn: ■ the relative

pronouns “who,” “that,” and “which”; ■ that like any pronoun, their gender and number are

determined by their antecedent, while their case is determined by their function in the relative

clause; ■ relative clauses are always dependent clauses, so they cannot contain the main subject and

verb of the sentence. English 14.1 The relative pronouns in English are “who,” “whom,” “that,”

“which,” and “whose.” Usage of these words today differs widely, and therefore the following

examples merely reflect general usage. ■ “Who” and “whom” are used to refer to humans (e.g., The

teacher, whom the students love, won the teacher of the year award.). ■ “Who” is used for

masculine and feminine concepts and “which” for neuter. ■ “That” can refer to either (e.g., The glass

that broke was my favorite. I helped the boy that fell off his bike.). ■ “Whose” often refers to

humans, but generally speaking it is accepted for non-humans as well (e.g., I sold the car whose color

made me ill. I love the girl whose eyes sparkle in the moonlight.). Notice that the relative pronouns

can refer back to a singular (“the student who”) or plural (“the students who”) antecedent. 14.2

Relative pronouns do not introduce questions. They always refer to a noun or a noun phrase. For

example, a relative pronoun is not used in a question like, “Whose eyes sparkled in the moon light?”

The word “whose” in this example is an interrogative pronoun. 14.3 A relative pronoun introduces a

clause that usually modifies a noun. In the examples just given, ■ “whom” introduces the clause “the

students loved” and modifies the noun “teacher”; ■ “that” introduces the clause “broke” and

modifies the noun “glass.” Note how little the pronoun is inflected. 14.4 A relative clause is the

relative pronoun and the clause it introduces. “The teacher who has a halo around his head teaches

Greek.” 14.5 Do not forget that clauses can perform many of the same functions as nouns and

adjectives. A relative clause can be the ■ subject (“Whoever is with me is not against me.”), ■ direct

object (“I eat what is placed before me.”), ■ or object of a preposition (“Give the Bible to whoever

asks for it.”). This becomes important in our translation procedure because the relative clause must

be viewed as a unit. Greek 14.6 The relative pronoun in Greek functions basically the same way as

the English except that it has case, number, and gender. They are ὅς, ἥ, and ὅ. 14.7 The forms of the

relative pronoun 2 1 2 masc fem neut translation nom sg ὅς ἥ ὅ who/which/that gen sg οὗ ἧς οὗ of

whom/which/whose dat sg ᾧ ᾗ ᾧ to whom/which acc sg ὅν ἥν ὅ whom/which/that nom pl οἵ αἵ ἅ

who/which/that gen pl ὧν ὧν ὧν of whom/which/whose dat pl οἷς αἷς οἷς to whom/which acc pl οὕς

ἅς ἅ whom/which/that The accent helps distinguish the relative pronoun from the article in the

nominative, which has no accent in the masculine and feminine (ὁ, ἡ; οἱ, αἱ). Characteristics of

Relative Pronouns 14.8 Form. Notice the similarities between the relative pronouns and the noun

endings. They are almost identical. The neuter nominative and accusative singular do not have the

nu but only the omicron, just like αὐτός and the demonstratives. The relative pronouns are also

similar to the article. The key for distinguishing the two is noting the breathings and accents. The

relative pronouns always have a rough breathing mark and an accent. The article always has either a

rough breathing mark or a tau, and may be unaccented. See the Appendix, page 347, for a

comparison. 14.9 Antecedent. The number and gender of a relative pronoun are the same as its

antecedent, just like αὐτός. You can see how looking for the antecedent will help check your

translations and make them accurate. Sometimes the antecedent will not be in the same verse as the

relative pronoun; you will have to look at the preceding verse(s). Even then sometimes you will find

no antecedent. How then do you determine what the relative pronoun is referring to? Context! 14.10

Case of the relative pronoun. The case of the relative pronoun is determined by its function in the

relative clause, not in the sentence. ὃς οὐ λαμβάνει τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ καὶ ἀκολουθεῖ ὀπίσω μου,

οὐκ ἔστιν μου ἄξιος (Matt 10:38). Whoever does not take his cross and follow me is not worthy of

me. ἰδοὺ ὁ ἀστήρ, ὃν εἶδον ἐν τῇ ἀνατολῇ (Matt 2:9) Behold, the star that they had seen when it

rose Do not confuse the relative pronoun with the adjective, whose case is determined by the word

it modifies. ὁ ἄνθρωπος ὃν γινώσκομεν διδάσκει ἡμᾶς. The man whom we know teaches us. In this

example you can see that even though the antecedent (ἄνθρωπος) is nominative, the relative

pronoun (ὅν) is accusative because it is the direct object of the verb γινώσκομεν inside the relative

clause. 14.11 Translation. A relative pronoun is translated various ways depending upon the function

of the relative clause. This is an issue of English grammar and not Greek. 1. If the relative clause

modifies a word, then the relative pronoun is translated with the simple “who,” “which,” or “that.”

The man who is sitting at the table is my pastor. 2. Relative clauses can also function as the subject,

direct object, indirect object, object of a preposition, etc. In other words, they can perform almost

any function that a noun can. In these cases, it may be necessary to add a pronoun to the clause to

make better sounding English. For example, in the sentence “Who will be first will be last,” the

relative clause is the subject of the verb “will be.” To make the translation smoother you could add a

personal pronoun, “He who will be first will be last.” ὃς οὐ λαμβάνει τὸν σταυρὸν αὐτοῦ … οὐκ ἔστιν

μου ἄξιος (Matt 10:38). He who does not take his cross … is not worthy of me. You can also add a

demonstrative pronoun (“Give the good grade to those who deserve it.”) Use your educated

common sense to determine the appropriate pronoun. Translation Procedure 14.12 As was the case

with prepositional phrases, it is important to keep the relative clause together as a unit when you are

dividing up the sentence. ὁ Ἰησοῦς / ἐλάλησεν / ὅ ἐστιν δίκαιον. Jesus spoke what is righteous. 14.13

Relative clauses are always dependent; they will never contain the main subject and verb of the

sentence. Summary 1. Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, which are capable of performing

many of the tasks of nouns and adjectives. 2. The relative pronouns are ὅς, ἥ, and ὅ. They follow the

normal 2-1-2 declension patterns (like αὐτός) and always have a rough breathing and an accent. 3.

Like other pronouns, the case of a relative pronoun is determined by its use in the relative clause,

and its number and gender by its antecedent. 4. You can add a pronoun to your translation of a

relative clause; use your educated common sense and context to determine the best pronoun. 5.

Relative clauses are always dependent. Vocabulary ἀλήθεια, -ας, ἡ truth (109; *ἀληθεια) εἰρήνη, -ης,

ἡ peace (92; *εἰρηνη) ἐνώπιον gen: before (94) ἐπαγγελία, -ας, ἡ promise (52; *ἐπαγγελια) ἑπτά

seven (88). Indeclinable. θρόνος, -ου, ὁ throne (62; *θρονο) Ἰερουσαλήμ, ἡ Jerusalem (77)

Ἰερουσαλήμ is indeclinable. However, the article will be inflected. κατά (κατʼ, καθʼ) gen: down from,

against (473) acc: according to, throughout, during When κατά is followed by a word beginning with

a vowel and smooth breathing, the alpha elides (κατʼ ἐμοῦ). If the following word begins with a

rough breathing, the alpha elides and the tau aspirates to a theta (καθʼ ὑμῶν). κεφαλή, -ῆς, ἡ head

(75; *κεφαλη) ὁδός, -οῦ, ἡ way, road, journey, conduct (101; ὁδο) Notice that although this word

appears to be masculine, it is really feminine. It is a second declension feminine noun. It looks like

λόγος but is feminine. The article that modifies it will always be feminine. ὅς, ἥ, ὅ who (whom),

which (1,407) ὅτε when (103) οὕτως thus, so, in this manner (208) πλοῖον, -ου, τό ship, boat (68;

*πλοιο) ῥῆμα, -ατος, τό word, saying (68; *ῥηματ) τε and (so), so (215) τε is a postpositive and

weaker in force than καί. χείρ, χειρός, ἡ hand, arm, finger (177; *χειρ) ψυχή, -ῆς, ἡ soul, life, self

(103; *ψυχη) Total word count in the New Testament: 138,162 Number of words learned to date:

169 Number of word occurrences in this chapter: 3,571 Number of word occurrences to date: 92,195

Percent of total word count in the New Testament: 66.73% Previous Words ἄν When used in

conjunction with a relative pronoun, ἄν makes the pronoun indefinite (e.g. “who” becomes

“whoever”). ἐάν if, when, -ever We have already learned this word in Chapter 9, but now you know

to use “-ever” in your translation when it is associated with a relative pronoun. Advanced

Information 14.14 Attraction. Greek, as is the case with any language, does not always follow the

basic rules. All spoken languages are in a constant state of flux, so nice, neat grammatical rules often

break down. This is the case with the relative pronoun. Its case is supposed to be determined by its

function inside the relative clause, but in certain situations you will see that it is altered to be the

same case as its antecedent, as if it were modifying it. This is called “attraction.” Attraction usually

happens when the relative pronoun occurs in the immediate proximity to the antecedent, when the

antecedent is dative or genitive, and when the relative pronoun normally would be accusative.

ἤγγιζεν ὁ χρόνος τῆς ἐπαγγελίας ἧς ὡμολόγησεν ὁ θεὸς τῷ Ἀβραάμ (Acts 7:17). The time of the

promise that God promised to Abraham was drawing near. The relative pronoun ἧς should have been

the accusative ἥν because it is the direct object of ὡμολόγησεν, but it was attracted to the genitive

case of its antecedent ἐπαγγελίας. You aren’t still referring to the books of the Bible by their English

names, are you? Here are their names in Greek. There is too much here to learn all at once, but over

time you should get them down. Μαθθαῖον Ῥωμαίους Ἑβραίους Μᾶρκον Κορινθίους αʹ Ἰακώβου

Λουκᾶν Κορινθίους βʹ Πέτρου αʹ Ἰωάννην Γαλάτας Πέτρου βʹ Πράξεις Ἀποστόλοων Ἐφεσίους

Ἰωάννου αʹ Φιλιππησίους Ἰωάννου βʹ Κολοσσαεῖς Ἰωάννου γʹ Θεσσαλονικεῖς αʹ Ἰούδα Θεσσαλονικεῖς

βʹ Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάνναυ Τιμόθεον αʹ Τιμόθεον βʹ Τίτον Φιλήμονα In your Greek Bible, the name of

the Gospels are preeded by Κατά, which explains why they are in the accusative. Paul’s letters and

Hebrews are preceded by Πρός. workbook summary Part III: Indicative Verb System Overview 3

Chapters 15–20 It is now time to study verbs. There is much you have already learned. ■ Verbs are

formed with a stem and personal endings. ■ Verbs are first, second, or third person, singular or

plural. ■ Verbs agree with their subject in person and number. ■ Verbs do not require an expressed

subject. ■ You have also learned some of the forms of εἰμί. Chapter 15 Just as I started nouns with an

overview of English noun grammar (Chapter 5), so also Chapter 15 gives you an overview of English

verbal grammar. There is not much new to learn, but this can be a central reference point. Chapter

16 The present active indicative is the form of a verb used to describe an action that normally occurs

in the present. You form it by combining the present tense stem with a connecting vowel and

personal endings. I will give you a chart like the following for each part of the verb system; it is key to

memorize. Present tense stem + Connecting vowel + Primary active personal endings λυ + ο + μεν ▶

λύομεν Remember, a verb must agree with its subject in person and number. It does this by adding

personal endings onto the end of the verb. Because there are three persons and two numbers, there

are six personal endings for the present active. There are only four sets of these endings, or 24

forms. It is not that much to memorize. After showing you the chart, I show you the paradigm of how

the personal endings attach to the verb (see next page). I also introduce you to the Master Verb

Chart. This is the other chart you must memorize; it shows you how the verb is put together in the

different tenses. You can memorize this chart, or you can memorize hundreds and hundreds of verbal

forms. I think this is easier. (You’re welcome.) form translation connecting vowel personal ending 1 sg

λύω I am loosing ο —— 2 sg λύεις You are loosing ε ς 3 sg λύει He/she/it is loosing ε ι 1 pl λύομεν We

are loosing ο μεν 2 pl λύετε You are loosing ε τε 3 pl λύουσι(ν) They are loosing ο νσι Master Verb

Chart Tense Aug/Redup Tense stem Tense form. Conn. vowel Personal endings 1st sing paradigm

Present act pres ο/ε prim act λύω Chapter 17 Contract verbs are verbs whose root ends in a vowel,

like ἀγαπάω. They use the same personal endings you learn in Chapter 16, but the ending contracts

with the stem vowel. And so you have ἀγαπῶμεν (cf. λύομεν). The αο contracted to omega. Chapter

18 In Chapters 16 and 17 you learned active verbs. This means that the subject of the sentence does

the action of the verb. λύομεν means “we loose.” If the verb is passive, it means the subject receives

the action of the verb. Greek forms the passive by using a different set of six personal endings.

λυόμεθα means “we are loosed.” Chapter 19 The future form of the Greek verb is formed by adding

a tense formative to the end of the verb (a sigma), before adding the connecting vowel and personal

ending. λύσομεν means “we will loose.” If it is a contract verb, the final vowel lengthens before the

tense formative. ἀγαπήσω means “I will love.” Chapter 20 This chapter may be a bit of a challenge,

but its basic message is pretty easy. The most basic form of a word is its root. The root of ἀγαπάω is

ἀγαπα. From this root is formed related noun and adjectival forms, and also different tense stems. In

other words, the form of a verb in the future is not formed from the present tense form, but from

the root. In some words, this makes no difference. ἀγαπα goes to ἀγαπάω in the present and

ἀγαπήσω in the future. You can see the root clearly in both the present and the future forms of the

verb. But there are other verbs in which the root is altered to form the present. The key is to realize

that the other tenses are formed from the root, not from the present tense. So, for example, the root

βαλ goes to βάλλω in the present (the lambda is doubled), but in all the other tenses there is only

one lambda. The future is βαλῶ. (The sigma tense formative drops out for other reasons.) Chapter 15

Introduction to Verbs Exegetical Insight In some translations of Matthew 18:18, it sounds like Jesus

promised his disciples that whatever they bound on earth would be bound in heaven, and whatever

they loosed on earth would be loosed in heaven. In other words, they had the power to bind and

loose, and Heaven (i.e., God) would simply back up their decrees. But the matter is not quite so

simple; the actions described in heaven are future perfect passives—which could be translated “will

have already been bound in heaven … will have already been loosed in heaven.” In other words, the

heavenly decree confirming the earthly one is based on a prior verdict. This is the language of the

law court. Jewish legal issues were normally decided in Jesus’ day by elders in the synagogue

community (later by rabbis). Many Jewish people believed that the authority of Heaven stood behind

the earthly judges when they decided cases based on a correct understanding of God’s law. (This

process came to be called “binding and loosing.”) Jesus’ contemporaries often envisioned God’s

justice in terms of a heavenly court; by obeying God’s law, the earthly court simply ratified the

decrees of the heavenly court. In Matthew 18:15–20, Christians who follow the careful procedures of

verses 15–17 may be assured that they will act on the authority of God’s court when they decide

cases. Just as we struggle to affirm absolutes in a relativist culture, Christians today sometimes

wonder how to exercise discipline lovingly against a sinning member of the church. In this text, Jesus

provides an answer: when the person refuses to turn from sin after repeated loving confrontation,

the church by disciplining the person simply recognizes the spiritual reality that is already true in

God’s sight. Craig S. Keener Overview In this chapter We will learn: ■ the basic grammar relating to

English verbs; ■ the following terms: agreement, person, number, tense, time, voice, mood; ■ the

main components of the Greek verb (stem; connecting vowel; personal ending); ■ the concept of

“aspect” and its significance for a proper understanding of the Greek verb. English Grammar 15.1 In

Chapter 5, I covered the basic grammar relating to nouns. Now it is time to begin with verbs.

However, you already know much of the verbal grammar from our discussion of εἰμί (Chapter 8).

Most of the following will be a review. 15.2 Verb. A verb is a word that describes action or state of

being. “I am studying Greek.” “Greek is the heavenly language.” 15.3 Person. There are three

persons: first, second, and third. ■ First person is the person speaking (“I,” “we”). ■ Second person is

the person being spoken to (“you”). ■ Third person is the person/thing being spoken about (“he,”

“she,” “it,” “they,” all nouns and pronouns). 15.4 Number refers to whether a verb is singular

(referring to one thing) or plural (referring to more than one thing). ■ “I am the teacher.” ■ “They are

the students.” 15.5 Agreement. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. This means

that if a subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is third person, the verb must be

third person. For example, you would not say “Bill say to the class that there are no test.” Since “Bill”

and “test” are singular, you would say, “Bill says to the class that there is no test.” The presence or

absence of the “s” at the end of “says” is an example of agreement in English. You also would not say,

“I were here.” “I” is singular but “were” is plural. You would say, “I was here.” 15.6 Time refers to

when the action of the verb takes place. In English the different “times” are past, present, and future.

15.7 Tense in English refers to both the time when the action of the verb takes place and the form of

the word. ■ If you study your Greek right now, then the verb is in the present tense (“I study”). In the

sentence, “I see the ball,” the verb “see” is in the present tense and indicates an action occurring in

the present time. ■ If you are planning on doing it tomorrow, then the verb is in the future tense (“I

will study”). English forms the future with the helping verbs “will/shall.” ■ If you did it last night, then

the verb is in the past tense (“I studied”). English often forms the simple past tense by adding “-ed”

to the verb (“study” to “studied”). While it is obvious, it bears emphasis that the time of the verb is

from the standpoint of the speaker/writer, not the reader. What is present to the biblical writer may

or may not be present to us. 15.8 Aspect. The concept of aspect is a contribution from the relatively

new field of linguistics. Aspect is not the same as tense although it is related to it. What is the

difference between saying “I studied last night” and “I was studying last night”? ■ “I studied last

night” says that an event was completed last night. It does not give you a clue as to the precise

nature of your study time other than that it was accomplished. It views the event as a completed

whole. This is called the completed aspect. It is usually used of events in the past. The completed

aspect is formed in English by using the simple form of the verb (“I eat”; “I ate”). ■ “I was studying

last night” describes the studying as an ongoing action, a process, something that took place over a

period of time. This is called the continuous aspect. The continuous aspect is formed with helping

words (“I am eating; I was eating”). Aspect can be designated in the different times. Consider the

following. present past future completed I study I studied I will study continuous I am studying I was

studying I will be studying 15.9 Completed and punctiliar. The completed aspect is not the same as

what is called punctiliar. The punctiliar describes an action as occurring in a single point of time. It is

like the difference between a movie (continuous) and a snapshot (punctiliar). While the completed

aspect can describe an action that is in fact punctiliar, completed actions are not necessarily

punctiliar. Only context (such as the meaning of the verb) can determine if the action is in fact

punctiliar. καὶ φωνὴ ἐγένετο ἐκ τῶν οὐρανῶν· σὺ εἶ ὁ υἱός μου ὁ ἀγαπητός, ἐν σοὶ εὐδόκησα. (Mark

1:11). And a voice came from heaven, “You are my beloved Son; with you I am well pleased.” The

aorist in ἐγένετο is clear: a voice simply came from heaven. But the aorist in εὐδόκησα is a real

challenge. God, as it were, looks at the entire life of Jesus, from beginning to end (even though it has

not yet happened) and says “I am well-pleased.” That is a function of the aorist. 15.10 Voice refers to

the relationship between the subject and the verb. ■ If the subject does the action of the verb, then

the verb is in the active voice. “Bill hit the ball. “Hit” is in the active voice because the subject, Bill,

did the hitting. ■ If the subject receives the action of the verb, the verb is in the passive voice. “Bill

was hit by the ball.” “Was hit” is the passive voice because the subject, Bill, was hit. The passive voice

is formed in English by adding a helping verb (“was” in the example above) to the past participle.

15.11 Mood refers to the relationship between the verb and reality. A verb is in the indicative mood

if it is describing something that is, as opposed to something that may or might be. This includes

statements and questions. For example, “I am rich.” “Are you rich?” Every verb you encounter until

Chapter 26 is in the indicative mood. When you learn the other moods, the precise meaning of the

indicative will become clearer. I can’t believe you’ve gotten this far in Greek and haven’t learned to

count in Greek. Shame on me! Here are the cardinals 1 through 10. 1. εἷς 2. δύο 3. τρεῖς 4. τέσσαρες

5. πέντε 6. ἕξ 7. ἑπτά 8. ὀκτώ 9. ἐννέα 10. δέκα There was variety in the spelling of these numbers

depending on dialect. The cardinals 5 through 199 are indeclinable. Greek Grammar 15.12 Do not try

to learn the Greek forms you see in this chapter. They are given just to expose you to the concepts.

You will start learning the actual forms in the next chapter. 15.13 Agreement. In Greek, the verb

agrees with its subject. It accomplishes this by using personal endings, which are suffixes added to

the end of the verb. For example, ω is a first person singular personal ending, and therefore λέγω

means “I say.” ουσι is a third person plural personal ending, and therefore λέγουσι means “they say.”

The verbal stem *ἀκου means “to hear.” ἀκούω I hear ἀκούεις You hear ἀκούει He/she/it hears

ἀκούομεν We hear ἀκούετε You hear ἀκούουσι They hear 15.14 Person. As in English, there are

three persons. ■ First person is the person speaking (ἐγώ, ἡμεῖς): εἰμί, ἐσμέν, ἀκούω, ἀκούομεν. ■

Second person is the person being spoken to (σύ, ὑμεῖς): εἶ, ἐστέ, ἀκούεις, ἀκούετε. ■ Third person is

the person/thing being spoken about (αὐτός, λόγοι): ἐστίν, εἰσίν, ἀκούει, ἀκούουσι. A verb must

agree with its subject in person. It does this by using the appropriate personal ending. ■ εις is a

normal ending for second person singular. Therefore, if the subject is “you” (σύ) the verb would end

in εις. σὺ λέγεις means “You say.” ■ If the subject is “we” (ἡμεῖς) the verb would end in ομεν. ἡμεῖς

λέγομεν means “We say.” Because the Greek verb always indicates person, the Greek sentence does

not require an expressed subject. A verb by itself can be a complete sentence. Both ἐγὼ λέγω and

λέγω mean “I say.” 15.15 Number. As with nouns, verbs are either singular or plural. Different

personal endings are used to differentiate number. ■ If the subject is “I,” then the personal ending

will be a first person singular (ἀκούω). ■ If the subject is “we,” then the personal ending is a first

person plural (ἀκούομεν). ■ If the verb is referring to one individual, then the personal ending is

third person singular (ἀκούει); but if there are many people, then the ending is third person plural

(ἀκούουσι). 15.16 Tense. The term “tense” is used differently in Greek grammars from English; it is

easy to become confused. It perhaps would be easiest at first simply to use “tense” and “time”

interchangeably. But this would build a misconception into your basic thinking that will constantly get

in the way of proper exegesis down the road. So, from the very beginning, I will use precise

terminology. The problem is that in Greek a tense carries two connotations: aspect and time. For

example, the aorist tense describes an undefined action (aspect) that normally occurs in the past

(time). ■ I use the term “tense” to refer only to the form of the verb (e.g., present tense, future

tense, aorist tense). ■ I use the term “time” to describe “when” the action of that verb occurs. Do

not confuse “tense” and “time.” 15.17 Aspect. This is perhaps the most difficult concept to grasp in

Greek verbs, and yet it is the most important and most misunderstood. The basic genius of the Greek

verb is not its ability to indicate when the action of the verb occurs (time), but what type of action it

describes, or what we call “aspect.” In Greek there are three aspects. ■ The continuous aspect means

that the action of the verb is thought of as an ongoing process. This is like the English continuous

aspect. “I am eating.” “They were studying.” ■ The undefined aspect means that the action of the

verb is thought of as a simple event, without commenting on whether or not it is a process. “I ate.”

“She left.” The continuous is like viewing a parade from the street. The undefined is like viewing a

parade from a helicopter. An example that shows the importance of these distinctions is Jesus’ words

to his disciples: “If anyone wishes to come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and

follow me” (Mark 8:34). “Deny” and “take up” are undefined while “follow” is continuous. The

aspect of “deny” and “take up” does not tell us anything about the nature of those actions except

that they are to occur. But the aspect of “follow” emphasizes that the commitment to discipleship

involves a continual action, which in this context is a day to day action. Another example is Jesus’

trial. In Mark 15:19 we read, “And they were striking his head with a reed and spitting on him and

kneeling down in homage to him” (ESV). You get the sense from the English that they beat him over

and over again, but you may not get that they spit on him repeatedly. ἐνέπτυον is explicitly

continuous; they did it over and over again, which is expressed in the TNIV as, “Again and again they

struck him on the head with a staff and spit on him.” This is then countered by Jesus’ words of

forgiveness from the cross. “And Jesus said, ‘Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do’ ”

(ESV, Luke 23:34). What this translation obscures is that Jesus “said” it over and over; ἔλεγεν is

explicitly continuous. There is a third aspect in Greek, the “perfective,” but you will not meet it until

Chapter 25. 15.18 Voice. Greek uses a different set of personal endings to differentiate the active

from the passive. ἐσθίω means “I eat,” while ἐσθίομαι means “I am being eaten.” Greek has a third

voice called the middle. Although it has several different nuances, for the time being equate the

middle with the active. I will discuss the middle voice in Chapter 25. Here are the ordinals first

through tenth. 1. πρῶτος 2. δεύτερος 3. τρίτος 4. τέταρτος 5. πέμπτος 6. ἕκτος 7. ἔβδομος 8. ὄγδοος

9. ἔνατος 10. δέκατος The Main Components of the Greek Verb 15.19 Chart. For the time being, I will

say that the Greek verb is comprised of three parts. Stem + Connecting vowel + Personal endings λυ

+ ο + μεν ▶ λύομεν 15.20 Stem. The stem of a verb is the part that carries its basic meaning. It is like

the stem of a noun. The form λύομεν means “We destroy.” The stem is *λυ. 15.21 Connecting vowel.

Often Greek adds a vowel after the stem. This is to aid in the pronunciation of the word because

Greek will also add suffixes after the connecting vowel. λέγετε means “You say.” The stem is * λεγ.

The connecting vowel is the second ε, and τε is the personal ending. 15.22 Personal endings. As you

have seen, personal endings are suffixes that are added to the end of the verb and indicate person

and number. ■ The stem * λεγ means “say” and the personal ending ω means “I,” therefore λέγω

means “I say.” ■ λέγομεν means “we say,” because the personal ending μεν means “we.” (“ο” is the

connecting vowel.) 15.23 Parse. When you parse verbs, I suggest you do it as follows: person,

number, tense, voice, mood, lexical form, definition of inflected form. For example, “λέγομεν is first

person plural, present active indicative, of λέγω, meaning ‘we say.’ ” Because the only mood you will

learn for quite a while is the indicative, just get used to saying “indicative” in your parsing. 15.24

Lexical form. The lexical form of verbs is the first person singular, present indicative. Always! BBG

always lists words in the Vocabulary section in their lexical forms. Conclusion 15.25 This chapter is

not intended to teach you the specific forms of Greek verbs. The examples are intended merely to

give you a general idea of the types of things you will be learning in the next several chapters. Verbs

are the most exciting part of the Greek language. Many times the theology of a passage, or a clearer

insight into the nuance of the passage, is hidden in the aspect of the verb. But knowing verbs

requires work, and without a good knowledge of verbs you will never enjoy the language. So hang in

there, and keep on working. Incidentally, it will be quite easy to mix nouns and verbs unintentionally.

For example, verbs do not have case or gender; but in parsing verbs you might get confused and say

that a verb is in the accusative. One of the main reasons why I taught you nouns first and then verbs

is to help minimize this natural confusion. Summary 1. A verb agrees with its subject in person (first;

second; third) and number (singular; plural). 2. Agreement is accomplished through the use of

personal endings. 3. The true significance of the Greek verb is its ability to describe aspect. A verb

can be continuous, which means the process it describes is an ongoing action. Or a Greek verb can

be undefined, which means that the author is not giving us a clue as to the true nature of the action

other than to say that it occurred. 4. “Tense” describes the form of the verb. 5. “Time” describes

when the action of the verb occurs. 6. Voice can be active (i.e., the subject does the action), passive

(i.e., the subject receives the action of the verb), or middle (which we are equating with the active

for the time being). 7. The indicative mood is the dominant mood, used to make a statement of fact

or ask a question. This third group is how the Greeks would write the numbers (e.g., “1”). 1. αʹ 2. βʹ

3. γʹ 4. δʹ 5. εʹ 6. ϛʹ 7. ζʹ 8. ηʹ 9. θʹ 10. ιʹ Notice that ζ was not used for “6” but rather ϛ, which is called

a stigma. This letter came between epsilon and eta. This is an old letter in the alphabet that dropped

out of use centuries before Koine, but it did show up periodically in counting. (For more information

see 17.12.) You will discover that other letters had dropped out of the alphabet, most notably

digamma and the consonantal iota (see 20.27). Chap

William D. Mounce, Basics of Biblical Greek: Grammar, ed. Verlyn D. Verbrugge, Third Edition. (Grand

Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 99–130.

NGRK 520 LIBERTY UNIVERSITY GREEK TEXTBOOK CHAPTER 1_15 STUDY MATERIALS 2023.pdf

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