CHAPTER 1
- single man or woman who has no connection to other men and women is
an extraordinarily rare human being.
group: two or more individuals who are connected by and within social
relationships.
- some members put their own personal needs above those of the group.
- GROUPS CAN BE dyads (two members) and triads (three members) to huge
crowds, mobs, and assemblies (Simmel, 1902).
- groups tend to “gravitate to the smallest size, two” (Hare, 1976, p. 215;
Jorgenson & Dukes, 1976; Ruef, Aldrich, & Carter, 2003).
- A family is a group because the members are connected, not just by blood
but also by social and emotional relationships.
- The relations that link the members of groups are not of one type. In
families, for example, the relationships are based on kinship, but in the
workplace, they are based on task-related interdependencies.
-Categorization: “Two or more individuals … [who] perceive themselves to
be members of the same social category” (Turner, 1982, p. 15).
-
-Communication: “Three or more people…who
- (a) think of themselves as a group,
- (b) are interdependent (e.g., with regard to shared goals or behaviors that
affect one another), and
c) communicate (interact) with one another (via face-to-face or
technological means)” (Frey & Konieczka, 2010, p. 317).
-
-Influence: “Two or more persons who are interacting with one another in
such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other
person” (Shaw, 1981, p. 454).
-
-Interdependence: “A dynamic whole based on interdependence rather than
similarity” (Lewin, 1948, p. 184).
-
- Interrelations: “An aggregation of two or more people who are to some
degree in dynamic interrelation with one another” (McGrath, 1984, p. 8).
-
-Psychological significance: “A psychological group is any number of people
who interact with each other, are psychologically aware of each other, and
perceive themselves to be in a group” (Pennington, 2002, p. 3).
-
-Relations: “Individuals who stand in certain relations to each other, for
example, as sharing a common purpose or having a common intentionality,
or acting together, or at least having a common interest” (Gould, 2004, p.
119).
-
-Shared identity: “Two or more people possessing a common social
identification and whose existence as a group is recognized by a third party”
(Brown, 2000, p. 19).
-
-Shared tasks and goals: “Three or more people who work together
interdependently on an agreed-upon activity or goal” (Keyton, 2002, p. 5).
-
-Size: “Two or more people” (Williams, 2010, p. 269).
-
-Social unit: “Persons who recognize that they constitute a meaningful social
unit, interact on that basis, and are committed to that social unity” (Fine,
2012, p. 21; Kerr & Tindale, 2014).
-
-Structure: “A social unit which consists of a number of individuals who
stand in (more or less) definite status and role relationships to one another
and which possesses a set of values or norms of its own regulating the
behavior of individual members, at least in matters of consequence to the
group” (Sherif & Sherif, 1956, p. 144).
-
-Systems: “An intact social system, complete with boundaries,
interdependence for some shared purpose, and differentiated member
roles” (Hackman & Katz, 2010, p. 1210).
Sociologist Charles Horton Cooley (1909) labeled the small, intimate clusters of
close associates, such as families, good friends, or cliques of peers
Varieties of Groups
-primary groups . These groups profoundly influence the behavior, feelings,
and judgments of their members, for members spend much of their time
interacting with one another, usually in face-to-face settings with many of
the other members present.
Social (Secondary) Groups
In earlier eras, people lived most of their lives in primary groups that were
clustered together in relatively small tribes or communities. But, as societies
became more complex, so did our groups. We began to associate with a wider
range of people in less intimate, more public settings, and social groups emerged
to structure these interactions.
Social groups are larger and more formally organized than primary groups, and
memberships tend to be shorter in duration and less emotionally involving. Their
boundaries are also more permeable, so members can leave old groups behind
and join new ones, for they do not demand the level of commitment that primary
groups do. People usually belong to a very small number of primary groups, but
they can enjoy membership in a variety of social groups. Various terms have been
used to describe this category of groups, such as secondary groups (Cooley, 1909),
associations (MacIver & Page, 1937), task groups (Lickel, Hamilton, & Sherman,
2001), and Gesellschaften (Toennies, 1887/1963).
- 35.7% of Americans reported they belonged to some type of religious group
(e.g., a congregation) and 20.0% said they belonged to a sports team or
club. The majority, ranging from 50% to 80%, reported doing things in
groups, such as attending a sports event together,
- Americans are above average in their involvement in voluntary associations,
but some countries’ citizens—the Dutch, Canadians, Scandinavians—are
groupier still (Curtis, Baer, & Grabb, 2001).
-
Collectives
-
- Some groups come into existence when people are drawn together by
something—an event, an activity, or even danger—but then the group
dissolves when the experience ends. Any gathering of individuals can be
considered a collective , but most theorists reserve the term for larger, less
intricately interconnected associations among people (Blumer, 1951). A list
of examples of collectives would include crowds watching a building burn,
audiences seated in a movie theater
- The members of collectives are joined by their common interest or shared
actions, but they often owe little allegiance to the group.
- Putnam concluded that Americans’ withdrawal from groups and
associations signals an overall decline in social capital . Like financial or
economic capital, social capital describes how rich you are, but in
interpersonal terms rather than monetary or commercial terms.
- Putnam’s findings suggest that the types of groups people join are
changing. People are not as interested in joining traditional types of
community groups, such as garden clubs, fraternal and professional
organizations, or even church-based groups. But some types of groups, such
as book groups, support groups, teams at work, and category-based
associations (e.g., the American Association of Retired Persons), are
increasing in size.
-social category is a collection of individuals who are similar to one another
in some way. For example, citizens of Ireland are Irish, Americans whose
ancestors were from Africa are African American
-social identity —is “that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives
from his knowledge of his membership of a social group (or groups)
together with the emotional significance attached to that membership”
(Tajfel, 1974, p. 69).
-social categories can also influence the perceptions of people who are not
part of the category. When perceivers decide a person they encounter is
one of “those people,” they will likely rely on any stereotypes they have
about the members of that social category to formulate an impression of
the person. Social categories tend to create divisions between people, and
those divisions can result in a sense of we and us versus they and them.
Characteristics of Groups
Composition: Who Belongs to the Group?
To understand a group, we must know something about the group’s composition :
the qualities of the individuals who are members of the group. The Adventure
Expedition team, for example, differed from the other teams on Mt. Everest that
year because each member of that group was a unique individual with specific
talents, weaknesses, attitudes, values, and personality traits.
- In open groups membership is fluid; members may voluntarily come and go
as they please with no consequences, OR MAY VOTE members out of the
group or invite new ones to join. In closed groups the membership roster
changes more slowly, if at all.
- closed groups often more cohesive as competition for membership is
irrelevant
-Social networks are in most respects very group-like. Their members are
linked to each other by social relationships, which can vary from the
inconsequential and ephemeral to the deeply meaningful and long-
enduring. Networks, however, lack clear boundaries that define who is in
the network and who is not. To become part of a social network, an
individual need only establish a relationship of some sort with a person who
is already part of the network.
- social networks tend to be more fluid in terms of membership than groups
with clearly identified boundaries, but they can also attract more diverse
members to their ranks (Svensson Neumayer, Banfield-Mumb, &
Schossböck, 2015).
- A group’s size also determines how many social ties—links, relationships,
connections, edges—are needed to join members to each other and to the
group.
-As groups increase in size, the number of relationships needed to link
each member to every other member increases. Only one relationship is
needed to form a dyad (two members), but 3, 6, 10, and 15 relations are
needed as groups increase in size from three to six members. In even larger
groups, the number of relations needed to link all members to each other
becomes so great that some members are only linked indirectly to each
other.
-In larger groups, members may only feel connected to the group as a whole,
or to subgroups within the larger group (Katz et al., 2005). Larger groups are
more schismatic; they more easily break up into smaller groups.
- Interaction: What Do Members Do?
-
- Groups are the setting for an infinite variety of interpersonal actions. If we
were to watch a group for even a few minutes, we would see people doing
all sorts of things: talking over issues, getting into arguments, and making
decisions. They would upset each other, give each other help and support,
and take advantage of each other’s weaknesses. They would likely work
together to accomplish difficult tasks, find ways to not do their work, and
even plot against the best interests of those who are not a part of their
group. Many of the most interesting, influential, and entertaining forms of
human action are possible only when people join with others in a group.
-
- Sociologist Robert Freed Bales (1950, 1999 observed two types: those that
focused on the task group was dealing with and those that sustained,
strengthened, or weakened interpersonal relationships within the group.
Task interaction includes all group behavior that is focused principally on
the group’s work, projects, plans, and goals. In most groups, members must
coordinate their various skills, resources, and motivations so that the group
can make a decision, generate a product, or achieve a victory. When a jury
reviews each bit of testimony, a committee discusses the best course of
action to take, or the Adventure Expedition plans the approach they will
take to the summit, the group’s interaction is task-focused.
-
- But groups are not simply performance engines, for much of what happens
in a group is relationship interaction (or socioemotional interaction). If
group members falter and need support, others will buoy them up with
kind words, suggestions, and other forms of help. When group members
disagree with others, they are often roundly criticized and made to feel
foolish. When a coworker wears a new suit or outfit, others in his or her
work unit notice it and offer compliments or criticisms. Such actions sustain
or undermine the emotional bonds linking the members to one another
and to the group.
-
- Why Do Humans Have Such Big Brains?
-
- Anthropologist Robin Dunbar’s (2008) social brain hypothesis assumes that
group life is more psychologically demanding than a more isolated,
independent one. With groups come not only survival advantages, but also
substantial amounts of new information to continually process. Individuals
must be able to recognize other members of the group, track shifting
patterns of alliances and coalitions, and remember who can be trusted and
who is likely to refuse to share. To deal with the increasing complexity of
their social worlds, humans’ ancestors needed bigger brains capable of
processing more information.
-
-To avoid taxing the processing capacity of members, limit your groups to
150 members or fewer.
The business executive’s success and salary are determined by how well her staff
complete their work; if her staff fail, then she fails as well. members are obligated
or responsible to other group members, for they provide each other with support
and assistance. This interdependence means that members depend on one
another; their outcomes, actions, thoughts, feelings, and experiences are partially
determined by others in the group.
Other groups, such as gangs, families, sports teams, and military squads, create
far higher levels of interdependency since members reliably and substantially
influence one another’s outcomes over a long period of time and in a variety of
situations. But even the interdependencies in these tightly meshed groups are
rarely invariant or undifferentiated. As Figure 1.3 suggests, in symmetric groups
with a flat, nonhierarchical structure, the influence among members is equal and
reciprocal (Figure 1.3a).
Typically interdependencies are asymmetric, unequal, and hierarchical. In a
business, for example, the boss may determine how employees spend their time,
what kind of rewards they experience, and even the duration of their membership
in the group (Figure 1.3b). In other cases, the employees may be able to influence
their boss to a degree, but the boss influences them to a much greater extent
(Figure 1.3c). Interdependency can also be ordered sequentially, as when C’s
outcomes are determined by B’s actions, but B’s actions are determined by A
(Figure 1.3d).
Examples of interdependence among group members.
Structure: How Is the Group Organized?
Group members are organized and predictable patterns. In all but the most
ephemeral groups, patterns and regularities emerge that determine the kinds of
actions that are permitted or condemned: who talks to whom, who likes whom
and who dislikes whom, who can be counted on to perform particular tasks, and
whom others look to for guidance and help. These regularities combine to
generate group structure —the complex of roles, norms, and intermember
relations that organizes the group. Roles specify the general behaviors expected of
people who occupy different positions within the group. The roles of leader and
follower are fundamental ones in many groups, but other roles—information
seeker, information giver, and compromiser—may emerge in any group (Benne &
Sheats, 1948). Group members’ actions and interactions are also shaped by the
group’s norms that describe what behaviors should and should not be performed
in a given context.
Chapter Review
Groups
No two groups are identical to each other.
-Group is two or more individuals who are connected by and within social
relationships.
- Groups vary in size from dyads and triads to very large aggregations, such
as mobs and audiences. The most commonly found groups include only two
or three members (James, 1951).
- The relations that connect members vary in type, strength, and duration;
some are more psychological than interpersonal.
- Definitions of groups vary, with some focusing on such qualities as
communication, influence, interdependence, shared identity, and so on.
four basic types of groups?
Primary groups are relatively small, personally meaningful groups that are
highly unified. Cooley (1909) suggested such groups are primary agents of
socialization.
- Members of social groups, such as work groups, clubs, and congregations,
interact with one another over an extended period of time. Such groups are
a key source of members’ social capital (Putnam, 2000).
-
- Collectives are relatively large aggregations or groups of individuals who
display similarities in actions and outlook.
-
- Members of a social category share some common attribute or are related
in some way.
-
-Social categories, even though based on similarity rather than interaction,
often influence members’ social identity (Tajfel, 1974) and perceivers’
stereotypes.
What distinguishes one group from another?
- Composition: Each person who belongs to a group defines, in part, the
nature of the group.
- Boundaries: Groups’ boundaries define who is a member and who is not,
although open groups and social networks are more permeable than closed
groups.
-Size: The number of possible relations in a group increases exponentially as
groups increase in size. The social brain hypothesis suggests humans’
advanced cognitive capacity evolved to meet the informational demands of
living in large groups (Dunbar, 2008)
-Interaction: Bales’ (1950) Interaction Process Analysis (IPA) system
distinguishes between task interaction and relationship interaction.
-Interdependence: Groups create various types of dependencies among
members (e.g., unilateral, reciprocal).
-Structure: Group interaction is patterned by group structure, including
roles, norms, and interpersonal relations.
-Goals: Groups seek a variety of goals, such as those specified by McGrath
(1984): generating, choosing, negotiating, and executing.
-Origin: Planned groups (concocted and founded) are deliberately formed,
but emergent groups (circumstantial and self-organizing) come into
existence gradually over time (Arrow, McGrath, & Berdahl, 2000).
-Unity: Group cohesion, or cohesiveness, is the unity of a group.
-Entitativity: The perception of entitativity (groupness), according to
Campbell (1958a), is substantially influenced by common fate, similarity,
and proximity cues within an aggregation.
- Research conducted by Lickel and his colleagues (2000) suggests that
people spontaneously draw distinctions among primary groups, social
groups, collectives, and more general social categories.
-The Thomas Theorem, applied to groups, suggests that if individuals think
an aggregate is “real”—a true group—then the group will have important
interpersonal consequences for those in the group and for those who are
observing it (Thomas & Thomas, 1928).
- Groups that are high in entitativity are assumed to have a basic essence
that defines the nature of their members (essentialism).
What are group dynamics?
-Group dynamics are the interpersonal processes that occur in and between
groups over time, including the following:
-Formative processes, such as the need to belong to and affiliate in groups,
contextual factors that promote the formation of groups, and the
development of group cohesion (Chapters 3, 4, and 5)
-Influence processes, including aspects of group structure (norms, roles,
relationships), conformity and dissent, social power, obedience to group
authority, and leadership (Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9)
-Performance processes, such as group productivity, social motivation,
working in teams, and collaborative decision making (Chapters 10, 11, and
12)
- Conflict processes within groups—intragroup conflict—and between
groups—intergroup conflict (Chapters 13 and 14)
- Contextual processes that are dependent on the group’s physical setting
and specific purpose, including change-promoting groups and large
collectives (Chapters 15, 16, and 17)
- Tuckman’s (1965) theory of group development assumes that over time
most groups move through five stages: forming, storming, norming,
performing, and adjourning
Why study groups and their dynamics?
- Lewin (1951) first used the phrase group dynamics to describe the
powerful processes that take place in groups, but group dynamics also
refers to the scientific study of groups (Cartwright & Zander, 1968).
-Individuals are commonly members of groups rather than isolated from
them, so to understand people one must understand groups.
- Due to the fundamental attribution error, the influence of groups on
individuals is often underestimated, particularly by individuals raised in
more individualistic, Western cultures.
-Groups alter their members’ attitudes, values, and perceptions. Triplett’s
(1898) study of group performance demonstrated the impact of one person
on another, but some groups (primary groups, cults, etc.) influence
members in substantial and enduring ways.
- A review of 25,000 studies indicated that hypotheses about groups yielded
clearer findings than studies of other social psychological topics.
Groups influence society.
-Groups mediate the connection between individuals and society at large
(Fine, 2012).
-Hofstede’s theory of national cultures identifies the key dimensions of
variation that influence groups and their members, including power
distance, individualism, masculinity, and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede
et al., 2010).
- Applied studies of groups and their dynamics yield solutions to a number of
practical problems making the study of groups relevant to many
professional and scientific fields of study (Hare et al., 1955).
- Despite the many problems caused by groups (competition, conflict, poor
decisions), humans could not survive without groups.
