NATIVE AMERICAN WOMEN
1
The Effects of Poverty on Native American Women
Julie Peyton
School of Behavioral Sciences, Liberty University
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Abstract
Once vibrant and self-sufficient, the indigenous peoples of North America lived symbiotically
with the land. Following the arrival of Spanish explorers onto Atlantic shores in the 15th Century, white
people from Europe began to settle native lands in droves in escape of religious persecution. Eventually,
colonization of American led to both assimilation and annihilation of many indigenous tribes, ultimately
pushing Eastern tribes from their lands and onto federal reserves. Contemporarily, effects of white
influence and colonization can be seen far and wide across Native peoples, especially in the subgroup of
Native women. Now, Native American women who live on reservations largely remain marginalized,
grossly underserved and in extreme poverty. Their seclusion and lack of resources puts them at risk for
higher rates of victimization to violent crimes, discrimination, wage gaps, poor healthcare, and mental
health issues, all of which can lead to despairing ends. But despite this, these women have a propensity
for resiliency and positive outcomes.
Keywords: Native American, women, disparities, colonization, resiliency
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The Effects of Poverty on Native American Women
Despite generations of private, public, and governmental efforts to improve the quality of life
for Native American women, statistics show that they continue to live within a gap of inequality in such
areas as domestic safety, wages, medical care, and education (Findling, et al., 2019).
History of Poverty
During his State of the Union address on January 8, 1964, President Johnson declared an
“unconditional war on poverty” (Kempf, et al., 2020). He observed that while poverty did not
discriminate – presenting across the spectrum of race and region – it did tend to give special attention to
those Native Americans living on reservations (2020). Despite ongoing efforts to thwart poverty in
distressed areas, by 1965 over 57% of Native families on reservations were living below the poverty
threshold (Jones, et al., 2021). Poverty continued to increase, and by the 1970s, over half of all
Indigenous American families on these reservations were in poverty (2021). Over the 20th Century,
Native women rose to the role of sole provider for their families (Burnette & Zhang, 2019).
Subsequently, they now rank among the most impoverished people groups in the United States.
Governmental Involvement
A once self-sufficient people, the indigenous of North America lived symbiotically with the land
and nature (Gonzales, 2021). Early exploration of the Americas in the 15th Century brought some of the
first known challenges, albeit atrocities, to Native American life, including new illnesses, rape, forced
marriages, slavery, and even genocide (2021). But it was during the colonial period of the 17th and 18th
Centuries that a great chasm began to occur – forcing tribes from their land, thus depleting resources,
and diminishing their ability to trade and even survive (Lindell, 2022). By the 19th Century, many of the
Eastern tribes were assimilated into white communities or driven West – by force, or of their own
volition – to escape racial persecution (2022).
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Treaties, legislative acts, and religious coalitions are some of the major driving forces behind
governmental involvement in the poverty and travesties suffered by Natives, with the Indian Removal
Act of 1830 being a historical catalyst (Martin, 2022). On December 6, 1830, while informing Congress
on its progress, President Jackson declared that the ongoing removal of Indigenous People would
"incalculably strengthen the southwestern frontier…and enable those states [west of the Mississippi
River] to advance rapidly in population, wealth, and power” (Kempf, et al., 2023). By the end of his
presidency, Jackson’s administration had negotiated nearly seventy treaties to remove Native Americans
from areas of the eastern United States to the “Indian Territory” (2023) – the most infamous being the
Treaty of New Echota, (more modernly known as the “Trail of Tears” (2023)), to remove Cherokees from
the Southeast. The Trail of Tears cost this tribe of nearly fifty-thousand people life and livelihood en
masse, forecasting an ominous future for many Native Americans (2023).
In addition to treaties and legislative acts, during the 18th and 19th Centuries, the government
turned to religious coalitions to further removal efforts (Gray, et al., 2021). Where military forces were
used to push Natives out of eastern territories, organized religions, such as the Catholic Church, became
an instrument of assimilation (Martin, 2022). Through off-reservation boarding schools, and under the
blessing of the government, Native children were taken from their families and placed in these boarding
schools, where they would live until they graduated – or sadly, died (2022). The separation of families
strengthened poverty inclinations, as healthy adolescents were no longer available to help the family in
farming and trade endeavors (Kempf, et al., 2023). In a snowball effect, large numbers of men
abandoned their families or were forced to move away as soldiers or to work, and women, in a greater
number, found themselves isolated and alone to care for themselves, their parents, and non-school-
aged children (2023).
Environmental Factors
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It was during this era of Native American history that a shift to hopelessness can be observed
(Sockabasin, 2023). Both the sorrow and powerlessness mothers experienced by their children’s
captivity led to the abuse of teratogens, depression, susceptibility to domestic abuse and assault, and
increased suicide rates (Altekruse, et al., 2020). Those who remained on the reservation became
vulnerable to medical, physical, and financial fragility (2020), and while tribal councils remained intact,
their presumed obligations to gender roles, as well as treaties, provided little to no help for the women
on the reservation (Jones, et al., 2021). Cultural adherences and regulations often worked against
women as well, by prioritizing tradition and ceremony above the overall well-being of the person and
family (2021). Women wanted to work, and they longed to have their children returned to them, but
with racial biases, few opportunities for growth, and the overarching powers of tribal and United States
government, they were in effect, trapped (2021). Those who remained on (or were abandoned to) the
reservation found themselves in a legacy of poverty and disadvantage (Sockabasin, 2023).
Rate and Statistics of Poverty among Native American Women
As of the 2022 Census, approximately 64% of Native American mothers are the primary
providers, meaning their households rely heavily on their wages for basic amenities (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2022). Out of 500,000 Native American households, one in four are headed by women, with
30% of those living below the poverty level (2022). Modern advances, social change, and even time have
brought about some positive gains in closing the gap in poverty among Native Americans (Burnette &
Zhang, 2019). Despite this, the gaps in wages and income for Native women, compared to the national
average, along with the effects of poverty, are despairing (2019).
Disparities
As a rule, marginalized people are more susceptible to a host of disparities (Findling, et al.,
2019), and Native American women are no exception. Some of the main disparities of Native women
include lower wages, healthcare, and education gaps, as well as domestic safety concerns (Burnette &
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Zhang, 2019). Psychologically, a study measuring historical trauma among indigenous populations found
that 33.4% of “adolescents and adults think about historical loss daily or more, which leads to emotional
distress and depressive symptoms” (Burns, et al., 2020). The emotional burden of historical trauma,
together with poverty, racial discrimination, isolation, and other factors, has created a higher risk of
teratogen use, which often leads to incarceration (Jones, et al., 2021).
Domestic and Personal Safety
From a young age, Native American women suffer the highest rates of homicide and violence in
the United States (Jones, et al., 2021). According to research, the propensity for both violent and sex
crimes against girls and women has escalated to such a crisis that is now referred to as “Missing and
Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls” (Burns, et al., 2020), with more than 5,000 young women
having “suffered homicide, kidnapping or trafficking in the USA” (2020). When compared to non-Native
populations of women and girls, there is a significantly higher number of emotional, physical, and sexual
abuse being reported, which is also true for emotional and physical neglect (2020). In most cases,
victims named a male family member, or family friend as their assailant, but reports of same-sex partner
violence are not uncommon (Jones, et al., 2021).
Wages
According to the 2022 Census, Indigenous American women typically earn a mere 50 cents for
every dollar paid to white, non-Hispanic men (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2022). The median wage for
Native women stands at $30,584 per year, compared to median wages of $55,859 annually for white,
non-Hispanic men, a difference of $25,275 (Winkle & Fasang, 2022). Closing the wage gap will not only
make Native American women and families more financially secure, but it will serve as a conduit to
access better medical care and education, thus interrupting generational poverty cycles (2020).
Following the Indian Welfare Act of 1978, casinos began to emerge across reservations
nationwide (Burnette & Zhang, 2019). The goal of these casinos was to increase jobs and revenue, thus
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disrupting poverty within the tribal areas (2019). Initially, this was a fruitful endeavor, but due to the
lack of accountability, eventually led to the corruption of some tribal leaders, the exploitation of
women, and organized crime on these reservations (Jones, et al., 2021). While the approach to casinos is
not considered a total loss and does bring jobs and income to women, qualitatively casinos often do
more harm than good (2021).
Medical Gaps
Another symptom of extreme cultural poverty is that of inadequate healthcare and healthcare
education for women (Findling, et al., 2019). Medical workers are consistently faced with these
shortcomings in their respective fields, driving them to both a moral and ethical responsibility to work
towards responsible solutions in confronting health care disparages among the Native American women
they serve (Lindell, 2022).
Mental and Physical Health
Access to healthcare is available free of charge to any member of a federally recognized tribe,
whose income falls within the designated range of the national poverty level (Findling, et al., 2019).
Statistically, this would mean most women living on a federal reservation would qualify for free
healthcare for themselves and their minor children (2019). Yet, when speaking of both mental and
physical health, indigenous populations have the poorest health outcomes overall in the United States
(McKinley, 2024). Among this same control group, many studies report notable gender gaps, with
greater disadvantages for Indigenous women (2024). The result is many treatable illnesses such as
diabetes go undiagnosed and untreated until secondary problems like cardiovascular disease arise
(Lindell, 2022).
One of the ways Native American women cope with the effects of poverty is to avoid them
altogether (Lindell, 2022), which can be viewed by the lack of seeking out medical help, or the
unwillingness to report malfeasance when discrimination by a medical professional is suspected (Jones,
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et al., 2021). Longitudinally, mortality rates among Native women remain higher than their non-Native
counterparts, and the presentations of depression and anxiety are often self-medicated with teratogens,
multiple sexual partners, the perpetuation of abuse, or suicide (2021).
Maternal and Reproductive Health
In governmental efforts to eradicate Native culture, the practice of forced sterilization came to
be (Shepherd, 2021). Through treaties, Native women were consistently forced into sterilization by both
American and tribal governments, along with the Catholic Church (2021). By the 1930’s this atrocity was
at its height, leaving many women of the 20th Century childless and traumatized (2021). The emotional
and psychological result was leeriness towards white authority figures and medical professionals,
however well-intentioned they were (Martin, 2022). This view of non-Natives perpetuated decades of
healthcare refusal (Lindell & Herzberg, 2022). Such perspectives towards non-Natives, along with a lack
of education, resources, and a sense of personal worth, made Indigenous women and girls more prone
to issues such as early sexual activity and unplanned pregnancy, untreated reproductive illness, and
STDs (2022).
Another ongoing effect of colonization of the 18th and 19th Centuries is newborn morbidity and
mortality (Lindell, 2022). In Native pregnancies, morbidity, and mortality, as well as maternal co-
morbidity, remain disproportionately high, compared to that of the national average (2022). American
Indian women in South Dakota have a mortality rate of 121.77 maternal deaths per 100,000 births,
which is nearly seven times the 2018 national maternal mortality rate (17.9 maternal deaths per 100,000
births) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2023). This is especially concerning considering that
American Indian women make up only 18% of births within the state, while White women make up 75%
of births in South Dakota (2023).
Risk of Teratogens
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Of all available teratogens in 2024, Native women use alcohol and cigarettes at a higher rate
(Altekruse, et al., 2020). The lack of cessation programs and support among tribal peers leads to
generational abuse of substances (Jones, et al., 2020). In prenatal reports, clinicians are reporting that
higher rates of alcohol and tobacco use during pregnancy are a growing concern on federal reservations
(Lindell, 2022).
A secondary effect of teratogens is that of incarceration (Jones, et al., 2020). Statistics show that
Native American women make up less than one percent of the national population, yet in facilities
across the nation, they make up two-and-a-half percent of all female prisoners (2020). Additionally,
Native women are incarcerated at a rate of six times more than that of white women (2020). The
emotional burden of historical trauma, isolation, and inadequate social and legal services are but a few
of the contributors to the teratogen use-incarceration cycle among Native women (2020).
Gaps in Education
Whether it’s schooling or training, educational gaps persist across the spectrum for Indigenous
women and girls (Findling, et al., 2019). According to quantitative research compiled by the Indigenous
advocacy group, The Red Road:
Only 70% of the Native students who start kindergarten will graduate from high school,
compared to a national average of 82 percent, according to NCES. Only 17% of Native students
attend college, as opposed to the national average of 60%. While 28% of the general population
holds a college degree, only 13% of Native Americans have a college degree. A lack of funding
and resources coupled with geographic isolation can be a major obstacle for students who want
to receive a quality education (2019).
As it stands, Native American youth lead the way in lower completion rates beyond middle school, to
speak nothing of high school dropouts, which are the highest across any ethnic group in the United
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States (Burnette & Zhang, 2019). Subsequently, lower completion rates push adolescence into
trajectories of teratogen abuse, teen pregnancy, and criminal-related activity (Jones, et. al, 2020).
Spirituality
Among the Indigenous, spirituality should be viewed culturally – both in tribal history and
tradition, as well as geographically (Gray, et al., 2021). A major part of the makeup of Native American
history includes the territories that a particular tribe lived on (2021). As such, they lived symbiotically
with the land, where nature and natural phenomena were indicative of cultural symbols denoting either
favor or contention from the spirits each tribe revered (2021). In a modern context, Indigenous peoples
continue to view the land with reverence, but due to the long-term effects of colonization, that view is
now marred by traumas of discrimination, genocide, epidemics, and generational poverty (2021). Where
spirituality was once a binding force for Native peoples, modern tribal members can now be indifferent
or irreverent to spiritual matters related to indigenous beliefs (McKinley, 2024). And concerning
spirituality as it pertains to Christianity, over the past 300 hundred years, the uphill battle has been
twofold: viewing Christianity as a white man’s religion, and/or struggling with the concept of the
goodness of God as many atrocities were carried out under the premise of his banner (McKinley, 2024).
Closing the Gaps
The consensus among human services and historians alike is that assistance and atonement for
harm committed against Native peoples began with the civil rights movement of the 1960s (Sockabasin,
2023). While the devastating removal of children from their families living on reservations peaked in the
1950s, advocacy for this ethnic group prevailed, and by 1978, The Indian Child Welfare Act was
instituted, preventing the unjust removal of Native children from their families (Martin, 2022). This
reform was a positive step in the healing and restoration of Native communities, but with an entire
generation of abused and subjugated people still living with the effects, much work is needed to help
diminish subsequent disparities (Gonzales, 2021).
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Tribal Participation
Tribal corruption persists on federal reservations (Martin, 2022), due largely to their sovereignty
from outside government and law enforcement, which is a barrier to the domestic safety of women.
While sovereignty guards the tribe from governmental persecution, the blind side is that there is little to
no accountability for many tribal officials (2022), with reports of malfeasance among tribal police
remaining high (Jones, et al., 2021). To close the gap on disparities in law enforcement, many
reservations have instituted peer review boards that work with tribal officials to monitor and report
misgivings (2021). Providing tribal members with a hotline, as well as confidentiality to report, aids in
thwarting police corruption so that women and girls can have an increased sense of safety on the
reservation (2021). Additionally, the U.S. Department of Justice’s Bureau of Tribal Affairs has instituted a
program to reduce violence against Native women, wherein grant funding is distributed and monitored
by tribal and government counterparts to ensure these programs are accessible, effective, and remain
intact (Sockabasin, 2023).
Medical Community
For the pendulum to swing, the quality of clinical services must be increased for Indigenous
women across the spectrum, along with access to health education and pharmacological needs (Lindell,
2022). Pre and postnatal disparities remain high, prompting the need that, “Culturally appropriate
prenatal care should be provided to reduce maternal and newborn morbidity and mortality, as well as
community-based interventions such as home visiting, that may potentially improve prenatal care”
(Johnson, 2021). Medical providers, especially physicians and hospital administrators, hold the most
power to close this gap, and in many regions of the country, they have created coalitions to initiate
reform with focused efforts to increase maternal and newborn vitality on federal lands (2021).
Incentivizing careers in physical or mental health among Native students who would then return
to work on federal reservations provides a systematic approach to the gap in medical providers
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(Johnson, 2021). These practitioners would not only provide the most modern advances to their patients
but could relate to them through cultural context (2021). In addition, they could offer a level of
education and training to their tribespeople that may be better received than from those non-Native
practitioners (Martin, 2022).
Human Services
The need for human services to assist Native women in finding sustainable income, quality
healthcare, and emotional support is great, but the need for responsible service is even greater (Martin,
2022). Perhaps the most important step for human services professionals in working responsibly to
close disparity gaps is to understand the history and culture of Indigenous peoples (Lindell, 2022). Using
the Life Course Theory (Jones, et al., 2020 ), psychologists suggest that “social pathways, such as
education, work, and family, influence developmental patterns and life trajectories” (2020 ). Focusing on
the individuals' past and present choices (self-made and those choices made for them), as well as
environmental factors, gives insight into current behaviors as well as possible outcomes (2020). This
approach can be a powerful framework in which to view the individual’s unique situation, as drivers of
historical trauma, poverty, wage gaps, isolation, lack of education, etc., present as mental and physical
health problems, substance abuse, involvement in abusive relationships, and death by suicide (Cahill,
2020). Taking the time to understand the lives of these women to develop appropriate clinical, practical,
and cultural interventions may interrupt a trajectory of ongoing issues and devastating patterns, all
while preventing further harm (Lindell, 2022).
Resiliency
Cultivating a sense of purpose is viewed as one of the strongest threads of resiliency (Broderick
& Blewitt, 2020) among Native American women. Wage gaps continue as a barrier in women breaking
free from the poverty cycle (Burnette & Zhang, 2019), and while wage reform and human services can
assist them in their quest for a better life, focusing on more than income will improve their overall
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happiness and fervor for life (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020). Seemingly mundane activities, such as learning
a cultural skill such as “beading,” tribal dances, faith-based practices, or a vocation that gives back to
their people, work as agents for coping in times of isolation and abuse (Gray, et al., 2021) And as many
of these practices are naturally shared with peers, a community is found or formed, thus providing a
greater aptitude for resiliency (Broderick & Blewitt, 2020). Overall, coping and resiliency resolve the
tendency for unhealthy devices such as teratogens, and decrease the chances of incarceration and
suicide longitudinally (Gray, et al., 2021).
Honoring Native American Women
Native American women are highly visible in statistics of despair (Sockabasin, 2023). And while
the nearness of shame and persecution may no longer be present, both perception and repercussions
remain (2023). Honoring the history and ethnicity of Native peoples brings about a sense of acceptance
and inclusion from a society they feel hurt and rejected by (2023). Allowing them a voice to express the
uniqueness of the past in the context of their present can serve as a bridge to building trust, which
fortifies relationships between Native women and non-Native persons, including that of human services
professionals (Lindell, 2022). Friendships, healthy working relationships, and alliances are possible when
outsiders recognize and respect the need that Native women must feel valued, not only for who they
are and what they can offer as individuals but as a small part of a greater whole (Sockabasin, 2023).
The Christian Community and Healing through the Gospel
Jesus said, “Do unto others as you would have done unto you” (New American Standard, 2014,
Luke 6:31). Most widely referred to as The Golden Rule, Jesus’ teachings in this account, and throughout
the Bible, is that followers of Christ, must lay aside self to effectively serve others and be a witness for
him (NASB, 2014, Matt. 22:37-38). This golden rule applies to all people and is especially needed for the
marginalized and broken, including Native American peoples (McKinley, 2024). For a non-Native, the
thought of assisting a Native may feel daunting, as their disparities are great (Martin, 2022), but it is
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exactly those people that Jesus came to save (NASB, 2014). One doesn’t have to have shared trauma, or
fully understand the complexities of another life to effectively serve those who do. And while many
Indigenous people are born-again believers, many more may be either curious or hostile towards the
Gospel, with everything in between (McKinley, 2024). It is not a Christian’s job to fix what is broken, but
to point them to the One who can (NASB, 2014, Matt. 5:16). For a Nation that was badly wounded and
historically traumatized by so-called Christians (McKinley, 2024), those who truly reflect Christ (as
demonstrated in Holy Scriptures) will allow Native peoples to see a side of Christianity that brings hope
and healing, instead of heartache and hatred. This selfless act can be the first step towards
reconciliation and freedom for many Indigenous women, creating a new, legacy for generations to come
(2024).
Conclusion
As a result of forced colonization, poverty and wage gaps continue to run rampant among
Native American women, robbing them of fair wages, quality mental and physical health, domestic
safety, sobriety, spiritual aptitude, and community. But with the institution of positive legislative
reform over the past 60 years, and the civil rights movement, inspiring momentum has begun in the
way of change. Where Native women were once lost in a gulf of isolation and exclusion, they now
have professionals and advocates – both on the inside and outside – working alongside leaders from
many arenas (government, tribal, church, non-profits), together with individuals, to shift the status
quo. With transparency, humility, genuineness, consistency, and most importantly the favor of the
Lord, the next 60 years could prove to be a great awakening for America's First Peoples. The barriers
are great, and the statistics are disheartening, but with the Lord nothing is impossible and in Christ,
Native Nations can rise from the ashes into a greater purpose.
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