Discussion 4_Week 4_Hazard Identification_Hazard Mitigation

Discussion 4

Hazard Identification

A. Atmospheric Hazards

Risk assessment begins by identifying hazard events that potentially occur in the

planning area. It is necessary for emergency managers and mitigation planners to have a

clear understanding of various natural hazards—their characteristics, formation, and all

pertinent information in order to develop an effective mitigation plan. Communities

adjacent to tropical and subtropical waters are susceptible to violent coastal storms

known as tropical cyclones. A tropical cyclone is a rotating, organized system of clouds

and thunderstorms that originates over warm water and has a closed, low-level

circulation. Cyclones are low-pressure systems; in the Northern Hemisphere, the winds

rotate counterclockwise, while it is the opposite in the Southern Hemisphere. A typical

tropical cyclone is about 300 mi (483 km) wide, although they can vary considerably in

size. The main parts of a tropical cyclone are the rain bands on its outer edges, the eye,

and the eyewall. The center of a cyclone is a relatively calm, clear area approximately

2040 mi (3264 km) across known as the eye. The eyewall is surrounded by dense clouds

that contain the highest winds in the storm. The outer rain bands are composed of

thunderstorms and can extend a few hundred miles from the center.

In order to form a tropical cyclone, several environmental conditions must be in

place. Warm waters act as a fuel for tropical cyclones, and the temperature of the ocean

water should be at least 808F (26.58C) and up to a sufficient depth, which should be at

least 150 feet (50 m). Atmospheric instability is another necessary condition.

Thunderstorm activity allows heat to be released from warm ocean waters, which

contributes to cyclone development. High humidity near the mid-troposphere (3 mi/5 km)

is required, as dry conditions are not conducive to thunderstorm activity. Tropical

cyclones generally occur between 108 and 308 on both sides of the equator and do not

form between 08 and 58, as the Coriolis force due to the Earth’s rotation is weak near the

equator, which is needed to maintain the low pressure. Tropical cyclones cannot be

developed spontaneously, so a preexisting disturbance is required near the surface. Low

vertical wind shear (i.e., difference in wind speed and direction) is required so that it

cannot prevent the tropical cyclone formation.

Tropical cyclone activity usually peaks in the late summer; however, each tropical

cyclone basin has its own seasonal pattern. In the Atlantic basin, tropical cyclones are

commonly known as hurricanes; in the Pacific region, they are known as typhoons. The

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is the main authority for issuing names to

tropical cyclones worldwide. An international committee of the WMO solely maintains

and updates the names. However, if a major hurricane that causes significant casualties or

costs occurs, its name is retired from the list, and a new name adopted by the WMO

committee. Usually, a name is assigned in alphabetical order from the current year’s list

when a storm intensifies into a tropical storm in the Atlantic basin.

In the United States, National Weather Service (NWS) watches and warnings are

critical to being prepared for any dangerous weather hazard including hurricanes. A

watch means that weather conditions are favorable for a hazard to occur. During a severe

weather watch, it is important for people to continuously monitor the weather and discuss

emergency/ evacuation plans with their families in the case of threatening conditions. The

NWS issues a tropical storm or a hurricane watch 48 h in advance of the anticipated onset

of tropical-storm-force winds.

Consequently, a warning is issued when a weather hazard is imminent and

requires immediate action. In the case of tropical storms or hurricanes, warnings are

issued 36 h in advance of the anticipated onset of tropical-storm-force winds. A tropical

storm warning means that tropicalstorm conditions are expected within the specified area.

Similarly, a hurricane warning means that hurricane conditions are expected within the

specified area. So storm preparations need to be taken, and people should leave the

threatened area immediately if directed by local officials.

B. Tornadoes

A tornado is a violently rotating column of air in contact with the ground that

extends from a thunderstorm. Although tornadoes dissipate within a very short time after

formation, they are capable of making large-scale destructions as wind speeds may reach

more than 300 mph (480 kmph). Tornadoes can be seen in many shapes and sizes, but

typically, they appear as a funnel encircled with dust and debris. If the violently rotating

column of air has not touched the ground, it is called a funnel cloud. Tornadoes on water

are known as waterspouts. Tornadoes are more common in the United States than any

other country. About 1200 tornadoes hit the United States each year on average. Most of

these occur in a particular region known as “Tornado Alley”.

Scientists do not fully understand all the mechanics behind the formation of

tornadoes. By far, the best-studied and the most common process of tornado formation is

associated with supercell thunderstorms. A supercell is a thunderstorm characterized by

the presence of a high-level, rotating storm known as a mesocyclone. When warm, moist

air rises and mixes with cold air, it makes the weather unstable and creates

thunderstorms. Then if winds change their speed and direction, it starts to rotate and

produces a mesocyclone. Although not all tornadoes form mesocyclones, most of the

larger and stronger ones are spawned from supercell storms with mesocyclones.

Tornadoes that are formed through supercells or mesocyclones usually follow a

particular pattern or life cycle. The back of a mesocyclone is wrapped in a region of dry,

descending air known as the rear flank downdraft (RFD). This RFD also drags the

mesocyclone toward the ground with it. The rainfall from the storm cools the air, and the

mesocyclone, as it travels toward the ground, takes in cool, moist air. The convergence of

this cool and warm air in the updraft causes a rotating wall cloud to form. The RFD also

focuses the mesocyclone’s base, causing it to siphon air from a smaller and smaller area

on the ground. As the updraft intensifies, it creates an area of low pressure at the surface.

This pulls the focused mesocyclone down in the form of a visible condensation funnel.

In 1971, Dr. T. Theodore Fujita of University of Chicago in collaboration with

Allen Pearson of the National Severe Storms Forecast Center (currently known as the

Storm Prediction Center) introduced a rating system to measure tornado intensity called

the Fujita scale, commonly known as the F-scale. The original F-scale was a 13-level

scale (F0F12) designed to correlate with the Beaufort scale and the Mach number scale.

The scale was intended to use only F0F5, though, as they covered all possible levels of

damage to structures. Since its implementation in 1973, NOAA updated its tornado

database retrospectively, applying the F-scale to measure tornado strength. However, the

wind speeds associated with the damage to each category in the F-scale was found higher

than the actual wind speeds required to incur such damage. According to NOAA,

“precise wind speed numbers are actually guesses and have never been scientifically

verified. Different wind speeds may cause similar-looking damage from place to place—

even from building to building. Without a thorough engineering analysis of tornado

damage in any event, the actual wind speeds needed to cause that damage are unknown”.

Similar to hurricane watches and warnings, tornado watches and warnings are

also issued in the United States to protect citizens. A tornado watch is generally released

by the NOAA Storm Prediction Center (SPC) when conditions are favorable for

tornadoes. A tornado watch can cover parts of a state or several states, and citizens in that

region should prepare for severe weather and stay tuned to radio or local TV channels to

know when a warning is issued. A thunderstorm is defined as a local storm produced by a

cumulonimbus cloud and accompanied by lightning and thunder (NWS, n.d.c).

Thunderstorms usually occur in areas where masses of cold and warm air meet; these are

known as fronts. A thunderstorm, which is sometimes referred to as a thunder event, is

composed of lightning and rainfall, but it can intensify into a severe thunderstorm with

damaging hail, high winds, tornadoes, and flash flooding.

Besides the most dangerous supercell thunderstorms that produce tornadoes, the

other two common types of thunderstorms include single cell thunderstorms and squall

line (multicell) thunderstorms. Single-cell thunderstorms are individual or clusters of

thunderstorms that are not usually severe. These are slow-moving storms, with the main

hazards being lightning strikes and possible flooding that follows heavy rainfall. This

type of thunderstorm usually occurs in the summer when the atmosphere is warm and

unstable, but winds are weak.

Extreme heat can be defined as a temperature that is over 108F (5.58C) or more

from the average high temperature for a region and persists for a prolonged period, such

as more than a week. Exposure to extreme heat can be dangerous and even life

threatening, as the high temperature along with high humidity slowdown evaporation and

requires the body to work extra hard to maintain a normal temperature. A heat wave is an

extended period of extreme heat, often combined with very high humidity. Due to human

activities and built-up environments, urban areas, especially large metropolitan areas, are

significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas, a phenomenon known as the Urban

Heat Island (UHI) effect. Thus, the effect of a prolonged heat wave may be greater for

people who live in urban areas than people living in rural areas.

Heat waves cause casualties, catastrophic crop failures, and severe power outages

due to excessive use of air conditioning. More than 1250 people died in the United States

from the disastrous heat wave of 1980, and about 700 people died during the 1995

Chicago heat wave (NWS, n.d.f). An infamous heat wave that occurred in 2003 killed

more than 70,000 people in several countries in Europe. An avalanche is a layer or mass

of snow that slides or falls down a sloping surface. Avalanches are generally of three

types—slab avalanches, loose snow avalanches, and wet avalanches. When a more

cohesive or harder slab of snow sits on top of a less cohesive or weaker layer of snow, the

weaker layer can barely support the harder slab. Any additional weight or stress on the

harder layer causes the weaker slab to collapse, which fractures the snowpack and causes

an avalanche. The factors that contribute to the occurrences of avalanches are the slope of

the terrain, snowpack conditions, and the trigger. Avalanches are most common on slopes

steeper than 30 deg. But a slope of such magnitude is not liable to cause an avalanche by

itself. The snow on inclined terrain must be unstable for an avalanche to occur. Snow

accumulated on the surface forms different layers due to the varying temperature, wind,

and humidity during storm events throughout the winter. These layers are called

snowpack. Weather conditions such as rain, temperature, pressure, and wind cause

changes in the surface and subsurface layers. An unstable snowpack is developed when a

slab (i.e., strong layer) sits on top of a weak layer. The lower weak layer can just barely

hold up the upper slab. In such a situation, only slight additional weight on the upper slab

causes the lower layer to collapse. As a result, avalanche occurs. A trigger is the source

of stress that overloads the weak layer, causing it to collapse and the snowpack to

avalanche. Triggers can be natural or due to human activities. Natural triggers include

new snow, wind-driven snow, and rain, as well as rising temperatures that cause the snow

to thaw. Human activity triggers include snowboarding, skiing, snowmobiling, and the

use of explosives.

During winter, severe storms can create several hazardous weather conditions,

such as snowstorms, blizzards, freezing rain, extreme cold, and wind chill. Each type of

hazard is defined in the following sections. A snowstorm is described as any storm

marked by heavy snowfall. Snows are nothing but precipitation in frozen form, which

occur generally when the temperature in the atmosphere is below the freezing point.

Frequent snowstorms can totally disrupt day-to-day activities. In the United States, the

Northeast Snowfall Impact Scale (NESIS) ranks the severity of an East Coast snowstorm

based on the snowfall amount and affected population. According to the NWS, a blizzard

is a weather condition that persists more than 3 h with large amounts of falling or

blowing snow, wind speed greater than 35 mph (56 kmph), and visibility of less than one-

quarter of a mile (0.4 km).

Freezing rain is precipitated as rain, but it freezes upon the impact of the cold

surface. Rain freezes when it makes contact with frozen surfaces such as the ground,

trees, roofs, and cars. Even small accumulations of freezing rain over surfaces can create

a significant hazard. Typically, this results in downed power lines, impassable roads, and

closure of businesses and schools. Raindrops that freeze before hitting the surface is

referred to as sleet. Sleet does not stick to the surface; rather, it accumulates like snow

and causes hazardous conditions for driving and other forms of transportation.

Winter storms often accompany periods of extreme cold. Extreme cold can also

happen after a windstorm. Extreme cold and its effects can vary in different regions. In

the southern United States, near-freezing temperatures can be considered as extreme cold.

Such conditions can cause severe damage to crops and vegetation, which is harshly

affected by freezing temperatures. In the north and the mountainous regions, subzero

temperatures are normally considered extreme cold. Wind chill is defined as the

temperature that the human body feels outdoors due to the combined effect of air

temperature and wind speed. In the same temperature conditions, we feel colder when the

wind speed is higher. The heat emitted from the human body forms a layer of warm air

adjacent to the skin. High winds rapidly move the heat away from the body, which makes

humans feel colder. Frostbite or hypothermia can occur due to exposure to low wind

chill.

C. Hydologic Hazards

Flooding is defined as the accumulation of water within a body of water and the

overflow of excess water onto adjacent floodplain lands. A floodplain is the land

adjoining the channel of a river, stream, ocean, lake, or other watercourse or water body

that is susceptible to flooding. Riverine flooding is flooding that occurs along a channel.

Channels are defined as features (e.g., river, stream, creeks, etc.) that carry water through

and out of a watershed, also known as a basin or catchment area. Coastal flooding is type

of flooding occurs in coastal areas when storm surge results from coastal storms such as

hurricanes. Tsunamis may also cause flooding in coastal areas. According to the

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), sea level rise from climate change

could be a significant factor for coastal flooding in the next 100 years, as it may cause

permanent inundation of low-lying areas. Also, climate change would increase the

frequency and intensity of hurricanes, and as a result, storm surge would become more

frequent.

Shallow flooding occurs in flat areas where water cannot drain away easily,

mainly due to lack of channels. In areas where there are no defined channels, floodwaters

drain out at a uniform depth over a large area known as sheet flow. This usually occurs

during extended periods of rainfall, as the ground cannot absorb all the rainwaters. In

some areas, it can create a ponding effect (i.e., floodwaters do not drain off, but remain in

the temporary ponds until they evaporate or infiltrate the soil. Urban drainage systems

can also cause shallow flooding. An urban drainage system (comprising of ditches, storm

sewers, retention ponds, and other facilities) is typically designed to handle the amount of

water expected during a 10-year rainstorm (describes a greater rainfall event that is likely

to occur once every 10 years). When the system is overloaded by a larger storm, it creates

shallow flooding in the area.

Drought is usually defined as a water shortage for an extended period of time

caused by a deficiency of rainfall. During severe droughts, agricultural crops do not

mature, wildlife and livestock are undernourished, land values decline, and

unemployment increases. Meteorologists define drought on the basis of the degree of

dryness and the duration of the dry period. It is defined by comparing the current

precipitation or dryness to the average or normal precipitation or dryness. Since

meteorological conditions that result in drought vary greatly from region to region, the

definition of a meteorological drought must be region specific. For instance, the average

or normal precipitation of a high-rainfall area is not similar to that of a low-rainfall area,

so the baselines are different. Many indices attempt to define the severity of different

types of drought. These include the Palmer Drought Severity Index, Percent of Normal

Index, Standardize Precipitation Index, Crop Moisture Index, Surface Water Supply

Index, and Reclamation Drought Index (FEMA, 1997). According to Redmond (1991), a

single index cannot describe everything about the original data, and an index can only

give an approximation of the real event. However, in the United States, the Palmer

Drought Severity Index (PDSI) has been used frequently in research studies, as well as in

operational drought monitoring (NCDC, n.d.b). Many U.S. government agencies and

states rely on the PDSI to initiate the drought relief program.

Coastal erosion is defined as the wearing away of land surfaces and loss of beach,

shoreline, or dune material as a result of natural or coastal processes or human-induced

influences (Skaggs & McDonald, 1991). Natural processes that cause coastal erosion

include the actions of winds, waves, and currents, while human influences include the

construction of seawalls, groins, and jet ties, navigation of inlets and dredging, and other

interruptions of physical processes (FEMA, 1997). Coastal erosion can occur from rapid,

short-term, daily, seasonal, or annual episodic events, such as storm waves, storm surge,

overwash, and rip currents. This can occur within a short term (e.g., hours to days) or

over a long-term period.

D. Geologic Hazards

An earthquake or a seismic activity is a sudden, rapid shaking of the Earth caused

by the breaking and shifting of rock beneath the surface (American Red Cross, n.d.). In

Greek, the word seismos means to quake, so seismology refers to the study of

earthquakes. The outermost shell of the Earth is comprised of the crust and upper mantle

(see Figure 5.15) and is known as the lithosphere (lithos, rocky; and sphaira/sphere,

rigid). The lithosphere is broken up into a number of tectonic plates (see Figure 5.16).

These tectonic plates are able to move because the lithosphere is cooler and more rigid

than the layer beneath it (known as the asthenosphere). Earthquakes are largely caused by

the movement of these thin tectonic plates.

The action of plate tectonic forces cause fractures on the Earth’s crust, with the

largest forming the boundaries between the plates. The process by which one tectonic

plate moves under another plate and sinks into the mantle at convergent boundaries is

known as subduction, and the area is called a subduction zone (Defant, 1998). Energy

releases associated with active faults are the cause of most earthquakes. The surface

where the fracture happens or two blocks slip is called the fault or fault plane (see Figure

5.17). The location below the Earth’s surface where the earthquake starts is called the

hypocenter, and the location directly above it on the surface of the earth is called the

epicenter.

The Richter scale, developed by Charles Francis Richter of the California Institute

of Technology in 1935, uses a logarithmic scale to measure the energy released during an

earthquake. Seismic waves, or the vibrations from earthquakes, are recorded by an

instrument called a seismograph. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the

logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs (USGS, n.d.d). The

Richter scale assigns a number to express the magnitude of an earthquake. For instance, a

moderate earthquake can be rated as magnitude 5.1, and a strong earthquake could be

computed as magnitude 6.1. Since it is based on the logarithmic scale, each whole

number represents a tenfold increase in magnitude and the release of about 31 times more

energy than the preceding whole number.

There are numerous intensity scales that measure the intensity or effect (damage)

of an earthquake on the Earth’s surface. In the United States, the Modified Mercalli

Intensity Scale has been used for this purpose. American seismologists Harry Wood and

Frank Neumann developed this scale in 1931. The scale is composed of 12 levels that

represent increasing intensity based on observed effects (USGS, n.d.c). The scale has no

mathematical basis; the lower numbers in Roman numerals generally deal with the

manner in which the earthquake is felt by people, and the higher numbers are based on

observed structural damage.

A large number of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions occur in a zone

surrounding the Pacific Ocean basin known as the Ring of Fire (see Figure 5.19). This

area, also called the Circum-Pacific belt, is a direct result of plate tectonics and

movement of lithospheric plates. About 90% of the world’s earthquakes occur here

(USGS, n.d.a), and 75% of the world’s active and dormant volcanoes are found in this

region (Rosenberg, n.d.). The area is comprised of a series of oceanic trenches, volcanic

arcs, belts, and plate movements. “Landslide is the movement of a mass rock, debris, or

earth down the slope” (Cruden, 1991). The primary reason for landslides is the action of

gravity as it exceeds the strength of the Earth’s materials. However, there are other

contributing factors (either natural or human-induced) that can affect slope stability and

cause landslides.

Land subsidence, commonly known as subsidence, is a gradual settling or sudden

sinking of the Earth’s surface due to subsurface movement of the Earth’s materials. The

main causes of subsidence include underground mining; extraction of natural gas;

earthquakes; dissolution of limestone, which can result in sinkholes; and groundwater-

related events (e.g., aquifer-system compaction, drainage of organic soils, and

hydrocompaction). Subsidence is a global problem. In the United States, more than

17,000 sq. mi. (44,000 sq. km) in 45 states (an area roughly the size of New Hampshire

and Vermont combined) have been directly affected by subsidence.

A sinkhole is a natural depression in the ground caused by some form of collapse

or natural processes (Robertson, 2013). Sinkholes are common in “karst terrain” (named

after the Karst Plateau, a region in Slovenia where this occurs regularly), where rock

below the land surface can be dissolved by groundwater circulating through it. Soluble

rocks include salt beds, gypsum, limestone, and other carbonate rock. When it rains,

water moves down through the soil, and the rocks begin to dissolve and spaces and

caverns develop underground. When the space becomes too big, it cannot hold the land

surface above it, which can lead to a sudden collapse and create a sinkhole. Places with

such topography are highly susceptible to sinkholes. For instance, Florida is largely

underlain by limestone and therefore is highly vulnerable to damage from sinkholes.

About 20% of the United States is underlain by karst terrain and hence susceptible to

sinkholes.

E. Tsunami and Wildfire

A tsunami is a series of water waves generated by any disturbance that displaces a

large water mass (Boyarsky & Shneiderman, 2002). Tsunami is a Japanese word that

translates in English to “harbor wave.” Although a tsunami is a water-related hazard,

most of them (about 9095%) are caused by earthquakes, and the remainder occur due to

volcanic eruptions, landslides, explosions, meteorites, and other disturbances (refer to

Figure 5.21). Tsunamis are different from storm surges in that they are not windgenerated

and do not resemble a normal sea wave. Wind-generated waves typically have high

frequencies and short wavelengths (i.e., distance between wave crests) as compared to the

low frequencies and long wavelengths of tsunami waves.

Tsunamis have been reported since ancient times. The Global Historical Tsunami

Database at the NOAA National Geophysical Data Center contains a worldwide tsunami

database spanning from 2000 B.C. to the present. About 80% of tsunamis occur in the

Pacific Ocean due to earthquakes and volcanic activity in the Ring of Fire. However, they

can occur anywhere near large water bodies, including lakes. The Indian Ocean tsunami

that occurred on December 26, 2004, was one of the deadliest natural disasters on record,

killing more than 200,000 people in 14 countries. On March 11, 2011, a powerful

earthquake of 9.0 magnitude hit the coast of Japan, which also caused tsunami and

nuclear accidents in the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant. According to the World

Bank estimates, it caused about $235 billion in losses (Kim, 2011) and killed more than

15,000 people.

A wildfire is an uncontrolled fire that spreads quickly over a large wild area, such

as grasslands and primary forests. It differs from other fires in hat it takes place in the

wilderness or in an outdoor wooded area that acts as a source of fuel for the wildfire

(FEMA, 1997). Although wildland fires (i.e., fires fueled by natural vegetation) are the

most common form, there can be other types of wildfires as well. Either natural

conditions or humans can cause wildfires with little effort. A lightning strike or the sun’s

heat can spark a fire in dry conditions. Human carelessness can also cause wildfires

during campfires, fireworks, smoking, or trash burning (Discovery Channel, n.d).

According to experts (IRIN, 2011) “Fire activity is increasing in many global

regions, for many different reasons, including climate change, changes in vegetation, and

changing impacts of people.” Wildfires occur all over the United States, but they are a

common occurrence in the western parts of the country because of arid conditions. In

southern Australia, wildfires (commonly also known as bushfires) happen frequently

during the summer months due to the hot and dry climate. Wildfires also occur in Israel,

Russia, Botswana, Greece, Brazil, Indonesia, and in many other countries around the

world

F. Techonological Hazards

The purpose of this chapter is to inform the reader of the wide spectrum of

technological hazards that should be considered by every emergency manager planning

mitigation strategies for his or her community. Technological hazards, or manmade

hazards, are wide ranging and emanate from manufacturing, transportation, and the use of

substances such as radioactive materials, chemicals, explosives, flammables, pesticides,

herbicides, and disease agents; oil spills on land, coastal waters, or inland water systems;

and even debris from space (FEMA, 2001). Cutter (1993) also described them as “... the

interaction between technology, society, and the environment” and that they “arise from

our individual and collective use of technology.”

Instructors using this textbook may wish to break up this chapter into two separate

lessons to allow students ample time to review all the materials and consider the

implications. Students may ask “Why give us so much technical information about

technical hazards?” Well, in the immortal words of Sun Tzu (2002), “Know your

enemy.” To truly develop effective strategies that will lessen or prevent the effects of

technical hazards, you must understand them, know where to find information about

them, and possibly even reach out to subject matter experts that can assist you. So, the

details here need not be memorized. The reader should come to appreciate how much

potential these hazards have for doing harm and how difficult it can be to mitigate their

effects, which is especially noteworthy when they are utilized in acts of terrorism.

Hazardous materials (hazmat) are classified according to their physical state.

These materials exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous states. The U.S. Department of

Transportation (DOT) has placed hazardous materials into nine classes. As we go about

our busy lives, most of us do not notice the hazardous materials (hazmat) being

transported daily via road, rail, waterway, and air. Next time you’re out on an interstate

highway, take note of some of the hazmat placards on the 18-wheelers that pass you.

Then, consider the potential for small- and large-scale disasters that would occur if one of

those vehicles were involved in a major accident.

Pure chlorine is a very useful chemical agent—an element that touches our daily

lives in many ways. It is used to disinfect water (as in swimming pools) and is part of the

process of sanitizing sewage and industrial waste. During the production of paper and

cloth, chlorine is used as a bleaching agent. It is also used in cleaning products, including

household bleach, which is chlorine dissolved in water. A 90-ton railcar filled with

chlorine is a common sight in rail yards all over the world. Chlorine, also transported as a

liquid, has a very pungent odor and a yellowishgreen color. In its gaseous state, chlorine

is approximately twice as heavy as air.

How dangerous would it be if a rail car filled with 90 tons of chlorine were to

derail and leak its contents rapidly into a populated area? On a cold morning in January

2005, that exact scenario played out in Graniteville, in South Carolina. With a population

of a little more than 5000, this small town played host to a major chlorine spill (Figure

6.2). An improperly set switch caused a slow-moving freight train to collide with a

parked train on a spur leading to a steam plant. One of the two train cars that were

carrying liquid chlorine ruptured. When all was said and done, 9 people were killed and

more than 250 people were injured. More than 5000 people had to be evacuated, and it

took hazmat crews nearly two weeks to clean up the contaminated area.

Another commodity that touches our daily lives is oil and related petroleum

products. Oil is what makes the world go around! Indeed, this statement can be taken

literally. Our reliance on oil to drive the world’s economy through transportation and

industry is ever present. This has led to extracting oil from the ground and offshore oil

well sites. The inherent risk here is that the oil may escape in a dramatic fashion, such as

when the Deepwater Horizon oil rig caught fire and exploded in the Gulf of Mexico on

April 20, 2010. This oil spill, which flowed continuously into the ocean for 87 days, is

the largest accidental marine oil spill in history, with an estimated discharge of 4.9

million barrels.

G. Civil Unrest

Civil unrest, sometimes referred to as civil disorder or civil strife, is a term that is

used by law enforcement agencies to describe one or more types of conflict generated by

a group of people. This typically comes in the form of protests against political or social

issues. Some examples of this are reactions to acts of discrimination, immigration reform,

opposition to war efforts, and religious persecution. Civil disorder or unrest can turn into

uncivil and even criminal activity when the people take to illegal parades, sit-ins, and

other forms of obstruction. Rioting, vandalism, and even blatant brutality may ensue.

Groups that resort to civil unrest aim to demonstrate their displeasure with government

institutions or other agencies, but only rarely do they intend for their actions to degrade

into something that requires police action. However, emergency managers and the

government officials they serve should realize that the world is a turbulent place, and

emotions run high over numerous “hot button” issues. What can start as a peaceful

demonstration can soon evolve into general chaos and lawlessness.

In Los Angeles, California, in 1991 a man named Rodney King was arrested by

police officers following a high-speed car chase. The beating that he received from four

police officers during his arrest was captured on film and showed repeatedly on

television. The officers charged with his beating were acquitted of all charges in April

1992. This outraged people all over the country, but in particular, it sparked six days of

riots in South Central Los Angeles. The rioting escalated into acts of arson, ooting, and

civil disturbance throughout Los Angeles County. The Rodney King riots were the

largest acts of unrest seen in the United States since the race riots of the 1960s. The

military was needed to quell the riots, but not before 53 people were killed and more than

2000 were injured. The only U.S.-based riot to exceed these numbers was the New York

City draft riots in 1863, where, after five days of mayhem, an estimated 120 people were

killed.

In Ferguson, Missouri, in August 2014, 18-year-old Michael Brown, Jr., was shot

dead by a police officer. The use of force against this unarmed African American young

man sparked weeks of civil unrest and chaos, making national news coverage and

drawing protestors from afar. In the end, intervention from the Office of the U.S.

Attorney General and the National Guard was necessary to restore peace and general

order to that community. The incident brought national attention to this small community

of about 21,000 people and renewed the debate about the militarization of police forces in

the United States and racial inequality in our communities.

H. Terrorism

Terrorism did not begin on September 11, 2001. Such violent events have been

scattered throughout history, with attacks against U.S. domestic and international

interests. Consider the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln in 1863 and the

assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, and their effects on American

actions and policy (Budinsky, 2013). With the continuing daily attacks on U.S. interests

around the world, American history has been marked by terrorism. Terrorism has been

highly successful as an ideology and even an institution, due to adaptation to the

environment it operates within. The development of democratic states resulted in a

philosophical change among terrorist groups. Modern governments are designed to be

more dependent upon processes and structure than individuals, so the death of an

individual, even a president or prime minister, no longer necessarily produces the major

disruption that terrorists want. Terrorists have reacted to this development by turning

from targeting prominent individuals toward those historically considered immune, such

as a country’s infrastructure, national landmarks, emergency first responders (i.e., fire,

police, and emergency medical service personnel), or the population in general. Terrorists

believe that causing death and destruction will bring attention to their causes.

Yesterday’s ideologies have, in many cases, given way to random acts of violence

perpetrated by individuals with no real aim beyond causing pain and suffering to a

government they feel has wronged them. Some terrorist groups are evolving into new

organizational structures that are harder to detect and infiltrate. These groups are often a

collection of factions with common interests. Accordingly, they form, change, and

regroup in response to specific agendas or planned actions. The large number of these

groups, an absence of central direction, and changing organizational structures make

them very difficult to track.

Terrorist groups have become increasingly self-sufficient by exploiting the global

environment to support their operations. They can now use the advantage of technology

to distribute leadership, training, and logistics not just regionally, but globally. The

availability of emerging technologies provides the prospect that these trends could result

in unprecedented human disasters. For these reasons, terrorism has become a global

threat that does not recognize governmental or continental boundaries. Few words

provoke such fear in the minds of modern society as does terrorism. That is part of the

point of terrorism. Fear is a powerful emotion, and when manipulated by terrorists, it

becomes an effective device for destabilizing social order, creating dispute, and

undermining societal cohesion. Throughout history, terrorism has shown itself to be a

global threat from which no community is free. Terrorism transcends all geographic and

demographic boundaries; all jurisdictions—suburban, urban, and rural—are at risk.

Terrorists have demonstrated the capability to strike anywhere in the world.

International terrorists continue to pose a threat to the interests of the United

States and other Western civilizations and developed countries. Many terrorist groups and

loosely affiliated extremists view the United States and its allies as enemies. Currently,

Syria, Iran, and Sudan are the three current state sponsors of terrorism. Terrorist acts by

governments are declining, yet terrorist activity by individuals and independent groups

are increasing. Section 2656f(d) of Title 22 of the United States Code defines some key

terms used in this subsection of Chapter 6. International terrorism means “terrorism

involving citizens or the territory of more than one country.” Terrorism means

“premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets

by subnational groups or clandestine agents.” Terrorist group means “any group

practicing, or which has significant subgroups which practice international terrorism.”

Al-Qaeda, Hezbollah, and FARC have demonstrated some of the highest degrees of

hostility from international terrorist organizations, as well as the ability to carry out

sophisticated, simultaneous attacks; each is considered a formal terrorist group (DOI,

2013). All three receive support from state sponsors of terrorism, which enhances its

abilities to receive funding, shelter, and logistical support for their operations.

Al-Qaeda was established in the late 1980s to bring together Arabs who fought in

Afghanistan against the Soviet Union. It helped finance, recruit, transport, and train Sunni

Islamic extremists for the Afghan resistance. AlQaeda became a direct threat to the

United States in February 1998, in a series of showdowns between the United States and

Iraq over UN weapons inspections, and for the continued U.S. support of Israel. Osama

bin Laden, founder of al-Qaeda, issued a fatwa (religious decree) calling for jihad (holy

war) against the United States and its interests around the world. Al-Qaeda members

proved its dedication to the fatwa when it conducted the bombings in August 1998 of the

U.S. embassies in Nairobi, Kenya, and Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, which killed at least 301

people and injured more than 5000. They also claim to have shot down U.S. helicopters

in Somalia in 1993, killing members of the U.S. military, and they were implicated in the

attack on the U.S.S. Cole in the port of Yemen in October 2000. The attack on the U.S.S.

Cole killed 17 U.S. Navy service members and injured another 39.

On September 11, 2001, 19 al-Qaeda members hijacked four U.S. commercial

jets. Two were flown into the World Trade Center in New York City, one into the

Pentagon near Washington, D.C., and a fourth crashlanded in a field in Shanksville,

Pennsylvania, in an aborted part of the attack (Figure 6.6). In total, about 3000

individuals were dead or missing. This was the worst terrorist attack in U.S. history. Al-

Qaeda’s primary goal is to establish an Islamic government throughout the world,

working with allied Islamic extremist groups to overthrow regimes it deems “non-

Islamic,” and expelling Westerners and nonMuslims from Muslim countries. On May

2nd, 2011 Seal Team Six of the U.S. Special Operations Command of the Department of

Defense (DoD), successfully located and killed bin Laden in Abbottabad, Pakistan

(White House, 2011). Military operations against al-Qaeda since 2001 have limited the

group’s scope and reach, but not effectively eliminated it. Al-Qaeda remains one of the

most dangerous active terrorist groups in the world.

Hezbollah is also known as the Islamic Jihad, Revolutionary Justice Organization,

Organization of the Oppressed on Earth, and Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of Palestine.

The group seeks to create a fundamentalist state modeled on Iran, and it formally

advocates the ultimate establishment of Islamic rule in Lebanon and liberating all

occupied Arab lands, including Jerusalem. It has named the elimination of Israel as one

of its goals. Hezbollah is closely allied with and often directed by Iran, but the group may

have conducted several operations not approved by Tehran. FARC was established by the

Colombian Communist Party to defend what were then autonomous communist-

controlled rural areas. It is Latin America’s oldest, largest, most capable, and best-

equipped insurgency. There are approximately 9000 to 12,000 armed combatants and

several thousand supporters, mostly in rural areas. FARC has well-documented ties to a

full range of narcotics-trafficking activities, including taxation, cultivation, and

distribution. Cuba provides the group with some medical care and political consultation

(FAS Intelligence Resource Program, 2008). FARC targets the United States because it

believes that the ideology of the U.S. government has been imposed on the Colombian

people by the ruling class. FARC also believes that, in 1964, the Fuerza Armadas

Revolucionarias de ColombiaEje´rcito de Puelbo (FARCEPEP; Armed Forces of

Colombia) was advised and directed by the United States in a large military operation

attacking peasants who had settled in the region of Marquetalia.

Domestic terrorist groups represent interests that span the full spectrum of

political and economic viewpoints, as well as social issues and concerns. The Federal

Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the lead federal agency in the United States dealing with

domestic terrorism. The FBI views domestic terrorism as “the unlawful use, or threatened

use, of violence by a group or individual based and operating entirely within the United

States or its territories without foreign direction, and which is committed against people

or property with the intent of intimidating or coercing a government or its population in

furtherance of political or social objectives.” Recent domestic terrorist threat primarily

comes from right wing extremist groups, left wing and special interest extremists.

Right-wing terrorist groups often adhere to conservative or reactionary principles.

Such groups endorse racial supremacy, embrace antigovernment and antiregulatory

beliefs, or both. Patriot movements, militias, and common-law groups fall into the right

wing category. Patriot groups define themselves as being opposed to a so-called New

World Order. They often advocate or adhere to extreme antigovernment doctrines. Patriot

groups may overlap with the race- or ethnicity-based hate groups. The proliferation of

antigovernment conspiracy theories is widely accepted among the Ku Klux Klan, neo-

Nazis, skinheads, Christian Identity, Black separatists, and other hate groups. At the same

time, the anti-Semitism (anti-Jewish) and racism that underlies most common-law patriot

doctrine is becoming more apparent.

Left-wing groups profess a revolutionary socialist doctrine and view themselves

as protectors of the people against the “dehumanizing effects” of capitalism and

imperialism. Left-wing terrorists are responsible for bombings, assassinations, robberies,

and planned attacks on infrastructure targets. Another threat posed by left-wing groups is

their potential support of espionage conducted against the United States from supporting

countries such as Cuba. From the 1960s to the 1980s, leftist-oriented extremist groups

posed the most serious domestic threat to the United States.

Often, lone individuals (or sometimes referred to as a lone wolf) are motivated by

causes affiliated on the fringes of right-wing interests. The 1995 bombing of the Alfred P.

Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City was the result of a conspiracy by a couple of

individuals, but executed by a lone person, Timothy McVeigh (refer to Figure 6.7). The

bombing killed 168 men, women, and children and injured approximately 500 others.

McVeigh wrote several letters explaining his reasons for attacking the Murrah Federal

Building. He stated that the bombing was a retaliatory strike—a counterattack for the

cumulative raids (such as Ruby Ridge and Waco) that federal agents had participated in

over the years.

Eric Robert Rudolph (refer to Figure 6.7), a lone individual, bombed the New

Woman All Women Clinic in Birmingham, Alabama, in January 1998. The bombing

killed an off-duty Birmingham police officer working as a security guard at the clinic and

severely wounded a nurse. Rudolph had associations with the racist fundamentalist group

Christian Identity (an extreme right-wing group). Christian Identity describes a religion

that is fundamentally racist, anti-Semitic, and opposed to abortion. Rudolph, after his

capture in May 2003, agreed to plead guilty to three other bombings: the Atlanta

Centennial Olympic Park bombing in July 1996; the attack on a family planning clinic in

Sandy Springs, Georgia, in January 1997; and the bombing of the Otherside Lounge in

Atlanta, Georgia, in February 1997. This lone-wolf attacker is also known for planting

secondary devices at the scene of his bombings that were intended to target emergency

services personnel responding to the initial detonation, and other terrorists have adopted

this tactic as well.

I. CBRNE and WMD

Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and explosives are referred to by the

acronym CBRNE. Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) is another common term used

in homeland security and emergency management programs and reference documents.

WMD is also inclusive of chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological, and high-yield

explosive weapons. The term WMD first arose in 1937 in reference to the mass

destruction of Guernica, Spain, by aerial bombardment. The bombing of the Basque city

was an aerial attack on April 26, 1937, during the Spanish Civil War by the German

Luftwaffe squadron known as the Condor Legion. It was the first aerial bombardment in

history in which a civilian population was attacked with the apparent intent of producing

total destruction. In fact, a New York Times description of the carnage stated that the

Germans had used “weapons of mass destruction” against the Basque people.

Following the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and progressing through the

Cold War, the term came to refer more to nonconventional weapons. The terms ABC

(atomic, biological, and chemical), nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC), and CBRNE

have been used synonymously with WMD, although nuclear weapons have the greatest

capacity to cause mass destruction. The phrase entered popular usage in relation to the

U.S.-led 2003 invasion of Iraq. WMDs cause indiscriminate effects on society because

fear of it has shaped political policies and campaigns, fostered social movements, and has

been the central theme of many films. Support for different levels of WMD development,

and control varies nationally and internationally. Yet understanding of the nature of the

threats is not high, in part because of imprecise usage of the term by politicians and the

media.

According to the U.S. Department of Justice, almost any explosive device or

weapon may be considered a WMD. In addition, 18 U.S.C. 2332a further states that a

WMD may include “any destructive device.” That in turn is defined in 18 U.S.C. 921 to

include almost any type of weapon that is not “generally recognized as particularly

suitable for sporting purposes.” WMD can be categorized as belonging to one or more of

the following groups: chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, or explosive. Incendiary

devices and cyberterrorism can also be added to this list. Title 18, U.S.C. 2332a, includes

the following accepted definition for weapons of mass destruction in the United States.

Explosives have been defined by a variety of sources, ranging from the fire

service to the United States Code. Commonly, these definitions focus on chemical

reactions that produce a shock wave and heat, so this can include those caused by nuclear

fission devices. These and incendiary devices are truly WMD, their purpose being to

cause widespread damage to property and injury to people. Definitions of explosives

include black powder, pellet powder, initiating explosives, detonators, safety fuses,

squibs, detonating cord, igniter cord, and igniters. Incendiary devices include chemicals

that may accelerate or initiate fire. Any individual or combination of the WMD classes

listed can be used as booby traps, mines, and bombs and can be directly or remotely

detonated or initiated. Increasingly, experts are putting efforts into countermeasures

related to cyberterrorism. The global economy’s reliance on transactions and

communications presents an inviting target to terrorists, who can operate in almost any

corner of the globe. Terrorists may consider the use cyberattacks as a force multiplier in a

physical incident to impede first responders, spread misinformation, and promote panic in

the general population.

Why might terrorists consider the use of CBRNE materials in their plan of attack?

According to the U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), there are four primary

reasons: cost, availability, effectiveness, and difficulty of detection. WMD materials are

relatively inexpensive to produce or manufacture. This may be especially true for

biological materials. Information on how to produce WMD materials is readily available

from the Internet. The deadly nature of these agents means that large amounts of nascent

material are not required. Many of the ingredients needed to produce WMD devices and

materials are not strictly monitored and are relatively easy to obtain. For instance,

Timothy McVeigh used the common fertilizer Ammonium nitrate to make the bomb that

was used in the Oklahoma City bombing (1995). New rules and programs have been put

into place to try to control this at the federal level (e.g., the Select Agent Program), and

procurement of some chemical precursors may alarm federal agents. Still, given the long

list of possibilities, terrorists are only limited by their knowledge of the subject and their

imagination.

WMD materials give users the ability to cause mass casualties from a single

weapon—from close up or at a great distance. Chemical agents are excellent weapons for

covert dissemination because they can be spread over large areas by the wind. Some

biological agents present a significant inhalation hazard, and others are spread through

person-to-person contact prior to the onset of serious signs and symptoms of disease.

Biological and chemical agents are difficult to detect without specialized monitoring

devices and training. Many of the effects are delayed, allowing the perpetrator to be far

from the scene before the act is detected. This also limits situational awareness, making it

difficult (if not impossible) to recognize, isolate, and escape the agent.

In June 1994, the Aum Shinryko, a religious-based organization in Japan, released

vaporized sarin nerve agent within the city of Matsumoto, Japan. The group used a

converted refrigeration truck equipped with metal tanks, a heater, and a fan to produce a

sarin vapor that was released from the truck while it was parked outside a residential

apartment building. Despite releasing the vapor in a populated residential area, only 600

of the city’s 200,000 residents were affected. In the incident, 58 people were hospitalized

and 7 died. Explosive materials are a clear choice for terrorists motivated to use WMD.

They are relatively cheap, readily available, and easy to deploy, especially in an unstable

world where combat operations against terrorists are a daily occurrence.

J. Chemical Agents

Chemical agents are classified according to their physical state (DOT Pipeline and

Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, 2012). Chemical agents can exist in solid,

liquid, or gaseous states. This section of the chapter provides an explanation of chemical

agents and toxic industrial chemicals (TICs) and toxic industrial materials (TIMs). Often,

when this subject is broached, we tend to look at chemical hazards in a worst-case

scenario—for instance, pick some of the most toxic substances and imagine them being

disseminated against a large, unsuspecting population of people who are completely

exposed and vulnerable.

Frankly, this type of scenario makes us think long and hard about the issues

related to mass casualty treatment, fatality management, and contamination avoidance. It

is a good exercise and makes for some challenging planning. Fortunately, this is not

representative of our day-to-day concerns about chemical hazards in our communities. In

real life, we are more likely to be dealing with a small-scale, isolated event involving the

transport or storage of a TIC or TIM. In that light, consider the multitude of hazardous

chemical substances being used in your community in both the private (manufacturing,

fuels, health care, etc.) and public (water sanitization, waste treatment, etc.) sectors.

Recognize these everyday chemical hazards for what they are—manageable risks, but

with the potential for doing great harm to a community and its populace.

Then again, the dark specter of terrorism changes everything, and we can view

chemical hazards as having even more deadly consequences and greater potential for

doing harm to a community. Chemical agents were first used in modern warfare on the

battlefields of Europe in World War I. Indeed, these agents, when used as weapons, are

intended to kill, injure, and incapacitate people through their serious physiological

effects. Many chemical agents have been exploited in warfare, and have even been

custom-designed to produce a rapid onset of medical symptoms (in minutes to hours).

When we discuss chemical agents used in warfare, or chemical warfare agents (CWAs),

we include military classifications. Jargon and military acronyms are used to describe and

name these CWAs.

Before getting into any specific CWA groups or compounds, there are several

general characteristics to know. Overall, there are some broad types of groups of CWAs:

nerve agents, blister agents, choking agents, blood agents, and riot control agents. In

addition, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) military organizations use a

two-letter designation to identify specific chemical agents (e.g., GB, sarin, a common

nerve agent). Chemical names, trade names, synonyms, and military classifications are

used interchangeably, which can make this topic confusing to anyone new to it.

Chemical agents have several routes of entry into the body—inhalation, ingestion,

and absorption. Gases or aerosols can be inhaled. Residue that has settled on food or

drink can be ingested. The agent coming into contact with the skin or mucous membranes

(nose, mouth, eyes, open sores, or wounds) can be absorbed into the body. Some

chemical agents are persistent in the environment because their boiling point is very high.

Those with the consistency of motor oil (e.g., VX, methylphosphonothioic acid, a

persistent nerve agent) may persist for days, weeks, or months. Those CWAs with a low

boiling point may persist for only a few minutes after release. Military chemical weapons

experts often refer to the persistence of chemical agents to predict their duration in the

environment.

Today’s emergency manager and hazmat professional must be aware of chemicals

commonly found within their local communities. TICs and TIMs are stored and

transported in vast quantities throughout the industrialized world—quite frankly, they are

all around us. One only needs to grab a hazardous materials reference book (DOT, 2012)

and travel throughout their community to get a sense for what is making its way across

the highways and being stored with or without security and containment measures. These

chemicals and materials alone constitute a tremendous potential hazard in and of

themselves. Chlorine and phosgene are industrial chemicals that are transported in

multiton shipments by road and rail. Accidental or intentional rupturing of their

containers could easily disseminate these gases. Inhalation effects of chlorine and

phosgene are similar to some CWAs (e.g., blister and choking agents).

Chemical agents used in World War I were relatively simple substances. Most

were either common industrial chemicals or their derivatives (Brown, 2005). Chlorine

was one of the first CWAs (Trumpener, 1975). It is cheap to produce and concentrate;

easy to deploy, as it readily goes from a liquid to gaseous state; and, due to its chemical

properties, it is heavier than air, so it tends to “hug” the ground when released. This

makes it even more of a hazard, since this attribute keeps it in close proximity to exposed

people (Figure 6.8 shows military protective gear in World War II for CWAs). Another

CWA is phosgene, which is employed to irritate the eyes and respiratory tracts of

soldiers. Phosgene is used today throughout industry as a chlorinating material. A second

such substance was hydrogen cyanide, a CWA that interferes with the transfer of oxygen

in bodily tissues. Today, hydrogen cyanide is used worldwide in the manufacture of

acrylic polymers. What follows is a brief summary of some CWAs by category (nerve

agents, blister agents, blood agents, and choking agents).

Nerve agents comprise some of the most toxic substances. Most of these were

developed from the late 1930s to early 1940s (Figure 6.9 shows a military stockpile of

nerve agents). These agents are similar in structure to organophosphate insecticides.

Organophosphates are widely used as agricultural insecticides. Malathion, for example, is

commercially available in the United States. However, organophosphates developed for

military use are approximately 100,000 times more toxic to humans. While they are

commonly referred to as nerve gas, nerve agents is the preferred term for these poisons,

which are dispersed as aerosols and form vapor under normal atmospheric conditions.

Blister, or vesicant, agents, produce injuries; however, exposure to these agents

may also be fatal. Thus, individuals are forced to wear personal protective equipment

(PPE). Vesicants blister the skin and any other part of the body with which they come in

contact. Vesicants act on the eyes, mucous membranes, lungs, skin, and blood-forming

organs; they can also damage the respiratory tract if inhaled, and may cause vomiting and

diarrhea if ingested. Mustard is a blister agent (not to be confused with the condiment)

that poses both a contact and vapor hazard. Its color ranges from clear to dark brown,

depending on purity. Mustard is a viscous, oily liquid at room temperature. Its odor is that

of garlic, onion, or the mustard condiment (hence its name). To recognize this smell, a

person would have to be exposed to the agent; therefore, odor should not be relied upon

for detection. Under temperate conditions, mustard evaporates slowly and is primarily a

liquid hazard, but its vapor hazard increases with increasing temperature.

Blood agents affect the body by being absorbed into the bloodstream and

changing red blood cells. Examples of such agents include arsine, carbon monoxide,

cyanogen chloride, hydrogen cyanide, potassium cyanide, and sodium cyanide (Ryan,

2005). The blood agents hydrogen cyanide (AC) and cyanogen chloride (CK) are

colorless-to-pale yellow liquids that will turn into a gas near room temperature. AC has a

characteristic odor of bitter almonds, and CK has an acrid, choking odor and causes

burning pain in the victim’s eyes. These signs may provide enough warning to enable

evacuation or ventilation of the attack site before the agent reaches a lethal concentration.

Sodium or potassium cyanides are white-to-pale yellow salts that can be easily used to

poison food or drink.

Chemical agents that attack the lung tissue, possibly resulting in pulmonary

edema, are classified as lung-damaging, or choking, agents. This classification of CWA

includes phosgene, diphosgene, chlorine, and chloropicrin. Phosgene is the most

dangerous choking agent; the toxic action of phosgene is typical of most choking agents

(FAS, 2004). Because phosgene and chlorine choking agents are heavier than air, they

will settle into low places in the surrounding terrain. Subways, sewers, and manholes, for

instance, would be likely concentration areas if phosgene or chlorine were used.

Therefore, evacuation to higher floors in buildings, evacuations of subways, and so on

would be appropriate.

In warfare, the principal method of disseminating chemical agents has been the

use of explosives. Usually, these have taken the form of central bursters that expel the

agent laterally. Efficiency is not particularly great, in that much of the agent is lost to

incineration in the initial blast and being thrown to the ground. The efficiency of

explosives and pyrotechnics for dissemination is limited by the flammable nature of some

agents. For flammable aerosols, sometimes the agent cloud is totally or partially ignited

(flashing) in the dissemination process. A spray tank, commercially available for

dissemination of agricultural chemicals from aircraft, can be used to disseminate

chemical agents. Similarly, ground-based aerosol generators used to disseminate

pesticides can be used for chemical agent and TIC dispersal purposes. Chemicals stored

or transported in pressurized containers will self-disseminate upon container rupture. This

reinforces the fact that a truck trailer or rail tanker car can be an effective dissemination

device.

One example of a large-scale military chemical release has been well described.

In April 1915, the German military released more than 150 tons of chlorine near Ypres,

France. The chlorine was stored in thousands of canisters placed within the German

trenches and opened when the wind blew toward the Canadian and French troops.

Although politically motivated reports have described thousands of deaths, actual French

and German accounts from the time refer to 625 casualties and three deaths. In March

1988, Iraqi warplanes and helicopters dropped a cocktail of mustard and nerve gas, and

possibly blood agents onto a population of 60,000 in Halabja, Iraq, over the course of

several days. This chemical drop, directed by Saddam Hussein, resulted in the deaths of

over 5000 victims, most of whom were women and children. Thousands more received

irreparable injuries to the skin, the eyes, and the membranes of the nose, throat, and

lungs. Many of those killed and injured were on the roads leading out of Halabja, where

the roadways were showered with chemical munitions by Iraqi pilots who anticipated an

evacuation from the city.

K. Biological Agents

We have all experienced illness from a biological agent, right? Yes, of course.

everyone has had a cold at one time or another, and most of us have had the flu (brought

on by the influenza virus). You may have experienced food poisoning or been exposed to

a 24-h “stomach virus.” Generally speaking, the cause of these common maladies are

bioliogical agents (or pathogenic microorganisms). Biological agents are microorganisms

or toxins that can kill, incapacitate, and sicken people, animals, and crops. There are three

primary types of biological agents that fall into the realm of technological hazards,

especially when used intentionally in an act of bioterrorism—bacteria, viruses, and

toxins.

Bacteria are single-celled organisms capable of causing a variety of diseases in

animals, plants, and humans. They may also produce extremely potent toxins inside the

human body. These single-celled organisms may be cultured in nutrient media. Viruses

are microorganisms smaller than bacteria. They are incapable of metabolism and

completely dependent upon the host cell for reproduction. Toxins are potent poisons

produced by a variety of living organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals. Some

biological toxins are the most toxic substances known.

Certain characteristics are common to most biological agents. They are obtained

from nature, where they cause disease naturally, and they are relatively easy to acquire if

you know where to find them and how to recover them. Biological agents are invisible to

the senses. Because they cannot be felt, tasted, or smelled, biological agents are not

detectable by any human senses, especially when the agent is disseminated in an aerosol

form. Biological agents have a wide range of effects, from causing simple flulike illness

and diarrhea to more damaging symptoms like coma, seizures, and death. The effects that

appear depend on a number of factors, including the age or general health of the victim,

the agent that he or she is exposed to, the dose received, and the route of entry. Generally,

bacteria and viruses do not produce immediate effects. They need time to grow within the

host to result in illness.

Biological agents used intentionally to kill and causes illness are the one aspect of

the terrorist threat that the United States is least prepared for as a nation. There are two

very distinct aspects of this that must be taken into consideration. The first is the reality

of this threat, and the other is the potential of it. From the standpoint of reality, the world

has faced bioterrorism. The first major use of a biological agent came in 1984 when the

Rajneesh cult used Salmonella typhimurium to poison the salad bars of several

restaurants in a small community called The Dalles in the state of Oregon (Ryan &

Glarum, 2008). This attack, intended to influence local elections, managed to put 751

people in the hospital. In addition, recall the “anthrax letters” incident from the fall of

2001, which resulted in 22 cases of anthrax and 5 deaths.

Anthrax is a disease caused by Bacillus anthracis, the bacterium that primarily

causes disease in cattle, sheep, and other hoofed animals. This is a Category A pathogen.

These bacteria are capable of forming spores in conditions that are not ideal for

supporting growth. This inactive stage of the organism makes it more resilient and an

ideal candidate for bioterrorism. Once known as the Black Death, plague is a disease

caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, a Category A pathogen. In the United States, the

last urban plague epidemic occurred in Los Angeles in 19241925. Since that time, human

plague in the United States has occurred as mostly scattered cases in rural areas (with an

average of 515 victims each year). Globally, the World Health Organization (WHO)

reports 10003000 cases of plague every year. In North America, plague is found in

certain animals and their fleas from the Pacific Coast to the Great Plains, and from

southwestern Canada to Mexico. Most human cases in the United States occur in two

regions: (1) northern New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern Colorado, and southern

Utah; and (2) California, southern Oregon, and far western Nevada.

Tularemia is a disease caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis. This is a

Category A pathogen. Known also as rabbit fever or deerfly fever, tularemia is a zoonosis

(i.e., an animal disease that causes disease in humans) found in the Four Corners region

of the United States (the point at which Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, and Colorado meet)

and Martha’s Vineyard, where it affects rodents, rabbits, and hares. Tularemia has great

potential as a biological weapon. The Russians worked extensively with this bacterium,

and one report suggests that they used it against the German army in World War II during

the defense of Stalingrad.

Smallpox is a disease caused by the smallpox virus, Variola major, a Category A

pathogen. Due to a successful global vaccine program, the WHO declared smallpox

eradicated in 1980 (see Figure 6.12). Small quantities of live virus are still held in

freezers at secure research facilities in the United States and Russia. Despite the WHO’s

declaration, a potential dissemination threat remains, because there is the possibility that

some countries that did not sign the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention may have viral

stocks. Viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) are caused by a number of viral agents,

primarily Arenaviruses and Filoviruses. All of these are Category A pathogens. Examples

are Ebola, Marburg, Lassa, Junin, and Machupo viruses. These viruses were named for

places where the first cases of each were reported. Highly contagious and extremely

lethal, they are known to occur naturally. Typically, these viruses are spread by person-

to-person contact, especially contact with the bodily fluids of sick victims.

Botulinum toxin (Botox) is a natural, biological poison produced by the bacteria

Clostridium botulinum. This is a Category A pathogen. Botulism is mostly associated

with the consumption of improperly canned food. Botulinum toxin is the most lethal

substance known to humans. It would require approximately 0.08 micrograms to kill an

average person (176 lbs or 80 kg). By weight, botulinum toxin is about 10,000 times

more toxic than the nerve agent sarin. Botox, which is being used for medical treatments,

can be aerosolized and presented as an inhalation threat. Botulism is not transmissible

from person to person. Ricin is a toxin derived from the water-soluble component of the

castor bean (Ricinus communis). This agent is in Category B. Ricin is very popular

among amateur bioterrorists because it is fairly simple to make a crude extract of the

castor bean. Anyone can buy castor beans from a seed supply company. Once you have

the beans, you can perform a fairly simple, crude extraction to derive a dirty preparation

of ricin. Commercially, the mash from preparing castor oil contains up to 5% ricin.

Because of its lethality, very little ricin is needed to cause great harm (a few hundred

micrograms of ricin is lethal). Ricin can be transmitted to victims through the respiratory

system, ingested in food, or injected. It is not communicable from person to person.

The effects of a biological attack are not likely to be immediately visible at the

scene of the attack. Rather, health-care workers and public health officials would have

the first indication of an attack unless the containers used to disseminate the agent are left

at the scene, or communications from the perpetrators indicated what occurred. In

November 2003, the U.S. Secret Service intercepted a letter addressed to the White

House that contained a vial of the toxin ricin, but never revealed the incident publicly and

delayed telling the FBI and other agencies. Sources said that the letter contained

complaints about trucking regulations and was nearly identical to one discovered a month

earlier at a mail-sorting facility in Greenville, South Carolina, that was accompanied by a

metal vial that contained powdered ricin. In February 2004, three Senate office buildings

were closed after a white powder was found in an office of Senate Majority Leader Bill

Frist. Dozens of Senate workers were monitored and health officials urged Senate staff to

watch for swiftly developing fever, coughs, or fluid in the lungs over a 2- to 3-day period.

Genetic testing by the CDC provided confirmation that the powder was indeed ricin.

When inhaled in sufficient quantities or injected, ricin can be fatal, and there is no known

vaccine or cure.

L. Radiological and Nuclear Threats

Radiation is the invisible energy emitted by certain types of unstable or

radioactive atoms. This energy travels through the air but cannot be seen, felt, smelled, or

tasted. Some types of radiation can penetrate packaging materials, vehicles, and building

walls. When radiation energy reaches a person, he or she is exposed to radiation. The

amount of radiation energy absorbed by a person is the dose that was received. A small

dose of radiation (for example, from a dental x-ray) has a very low risk of health effects.

A high dose of radiation (such as sitting near an industrial radiography source for several

hours) has a high risk of health effects, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, burns, and

possibly even death.

The four types of radiation emitted by radioactive material are alpha, beta,

gamma, and neutron radiation. When radioactive material is properly contained, it still

emits radiation and may be a hazard. The radiation travels from the radioactive material

in all directions and the distance it can travel ranges from 1 /4 inch (5 mm) to hundreds of

feet (meters), depending on the specific type of radioactive material. The farther the

radiation travels from its source, the weaker (and less hazardous) it becomes. The

Emergency Response Guidebook (DOT Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety

Administration, 2012) recommends isolating a spill, leak, or damaged container of

radiological material for at least 25 to 50 meters (80 to 160 feet) in all directions.

Victims who receive a large dose of radiation may suffer from acute radiation

syndrome (ARS), also known as radiation sickness. Symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and

diarrhea may not develop until a few hours after exposure. The larger the dose of

radiation a victim receives, the quicker the symptoms appear and the more severe the

reaction. Victims who receive a high dose of radiation may die in days to weeks, but

proper medical attention may save many of them if the dose is not too high. Victims and

individuals who receive lower doses of radiation may have no symptoms, and they have

only a very small increase in the risk of developing cancer. Some victims may also

receive high enough doses of radiation to increase their risk of developing cancer in the

future, but not high enough to suffer from any of the symptoms of ARS.

Radiation burns may appear on skin exposed to high doses of radiation.

Essentially, the skin of victims may turn red and look “puffy” several hours after

exposure. Radiation burns are not painful while the damage is occurring. After burns to

the skin start to develop, the skin may start to itch and become painful. Radiation burns

may seem to heal, then return a day or more later with more severe pain, blistering, and

swelling. In some cases where people have found or stolen industrial radioactive sources

and taken the containers apart, they suffered burns on their hands.

A radiological dispersal device (RDD) or “dirty bomb” is a conventional

explosive or bomb containing radioactive material. In these instances, a conventional

bomb is used as a means to spread radioactive contamination. It is not a nuclear bomb

and does not involve a nuclear explosion. Any type of radioactive material could be used

in a dirty bomb, but in general, these devices would be unlikely to cause serious health

effects beyond those caused by the detonation of conventional explosives (Zimmerman &

Loeb, 2004). An RDD may be as simple as a pipe bomb or explosives attached to a

shipping container of radiological material. Because of the wide availability of

radiological material throughout the world and the ease of building simple explosives, the

probability of the use of an RDD is much higher than that of a nuclear weapon. The

probable effects of a dirty bomb detonation would be the potential for panic in the

general public and contamination areas near the blast site.

M. High Yield Explosives

According to the FBI Bomb Data Center, approximately 70% of all terrorist

incidents involve the use of explosives and incendiary agents (DOJ, 2014). Because of

the prevalence of use, individuals need to understand explosives. Energetic materials can

be divided into three categories. The first, pyrotechnics, has the least explosive potential

and are produced to create smoke, light, heat, and sound. Examples of pyrotechnics are

fireworks, road flares, smoke grenades, and thermites. Second, there are propellants,

which are also referred to as low explosives. Propellants are designed to provide a

controlled release of gas to perform useful work. This gas can be used to push something

(such as a bullet from a gun or a rocket into space). The vast majority of improvised

explosive devices (IEDs) in the United States has historically incorporated propellants.

Examples of propellants are black or smokeless powders and solid and liquid rocket fuel.

Finally, there are explosives, also referred to as high explosives, which are designed to

yield a near-instantaneous release of energy. Explosives are normally used for destructive

purposes. A bomb designed to cause maximum dispersion of shrapnel is intended to kill

and cause property destruction. Common examples of explosives are TNT, Composition

C-4 (C4), and dynamite.

Most improvised explosives are comprised of chemical constituents easily found

in any home or local community, even in large quantities. Improvised explosives, such as

military and commercial explosives, are typically mixtures of an oxidizer and a fuel.

Regardless of type, all are extremely hazardous. Most improvised explosives are based on

formulations used in commercial applications or research. Legitimate users do not use

improvised explosives very often today. This is due to their sensitivity and unsuitability

to be handled in a safe manner. Improvised explosives can be as effective as

manufactured explosives in many applications. Terrorists employ these in all sizes of

devices. The following sections describe common types of improvised explosives being

utilized today, mainly by terrorists.

Peroxide-based improvised explosives are currently an emerging threat

domestically. However, they have been commonly used by international terrorists for

some time before now. Hexamethylenetriperoxidediamine (HMTD) and

triacetonetriperoxide (TATP) were initially developed 100 years ago. They are both

extremely sensitive and are used as an explosive by bombers as both an initiator (blasting

cap) and as a main charge. TATP is commonly found as the main charge employed by

Middle East terrorists in suicide bombings.

Ammonium nitrate can be procured in powdered form—one example is a

common cold pack. These use either ammonium nitrate in prill or powder form. If

ammonium nitrate is in prill form, such as in fertilizer, it is a simple task to grind it into a

powder. The aluminum powder can be procured at a professional paint store or simply

filed from an ingot. The explosive has 75% the power of TNT and is sensitive to friction

impact. It requires only a blasting cap for initiation.

Urea nitrate is also considered a type of fertilizer-based explosive; in this case, the

two constituents are nitric acid (one of the 10 most produced chemicals in the world) and

urea. A common source of urea is prills used for deicing sidewalks. Urea can also be

derived from concentrated urine. This is a common variation used in South America and

the Middle East by terrorists. Often, sulfuric acid is added to assist with catalyzing the

constituents. A bucket containing the urea is used surrounded by an ice bath. The ice

assists with the chemical conversion when nitric acid is added. The resulting explosive

can be sensitive to a blasting cap. Urea nitrate has a destructive power similar to

ammonium nitrate.

Discussion 4_Week 4_Hazard Identification_Hazard Mitigation

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