Examination of Terrorism 1
An Examination of Terrorism
Tyler J. Gregory
HLSC 610 | Dr. Richards
Helms School of Government, Liberty University
06 June 2023
Examination of Terrorism 2
Abstract
Terrorism is no new topic to the world and has shown no signs of evaporating any time soon.
The author seeks to examine terrorism with a more in-depth view than what one might find
reading a typical news article, yet maintaining a macro view of the topic to ensure complete
coverage of aspects that give the audience a clearer understanding of the “why?”. It is critical to
understand the definitional issues that policymakers and the general public have faced over the
decades of fighting the War on Terror. The definitional objectives are to make terrorism
versatile, help bring the community to a common ground, and to ensure it covers the acts of
violence that align with terrorism for trial purposes. This examination looks at the typologies and
ideologies that terrorist organizations share. These typologies and ideologies explain what it is
that gives the terrorists motivation to carry out violent acts of terrorism. In addition, the tactics
and behaviors of terrorists are discussed, giving insight into a more psychological approach to
why terrorists choose the method of attack they do. The methodology of a terrorist is a crucial
topic as it examines the force multiplier concept, the structure of a terrorist organization, and
operational issues such as finance and administration. From a macro view, the author provides
insight into the differing terrorist groups such as single-interest, domestic, international, right,
and left. Lastly, the biblical implication is discussed as terrorism pertains to the Bible and how
the audience can connect Christianity to such a violent topic.
Keywords: Terrorism; Typologies; Ideologies; Tactics; Behavior; Interests; Definition
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An Examination of Terrorism
Terrorism has been present for much longer than the 9/11 attacks and dates to the French
Revolution in 1793 when the Revolutionary Government would utilize violence against the
citizens who had opposing beliefs. (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2018). Although
international terrorism is the primary and leading form of terrorism, domestic terrorism is not far
behind while boasting an extensive history as well. Regardless of the form or typology of
terrorism, the threat is as real as ever today as it was 225 years ago. It oftentimes is misconstrued
that 9/11 was the beginning of terrorism in the United States. Throughout this examination of
terrorism, the author will point to several instances where terrorism was very present
domestically and internationally within the history of the United States. However, before delving
into the deep examination of terrorism, it is critical to gain an understanding of what terrorism is.
Definitional Issues of Terrorism
Terrorism is arguably one of the most controversial topics in terms of international and
domestic security. Aside from trying to coordinate jurisdictions and state responsibility,
policymakers and state officials struggle with universalizing a definition of terrorism. Within the
United States, the general population can find a variety of definitions for terrorism based solely
on the agency or organization from which they retrieve the definition. For the sake of providing
an example of this matter, the author will compare and contrast the definition of terrorism
between two different federal agencies. The Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI) utilizes two
definitions, one for international terrorism and one for domestic terrorism. Their international
terrorism definition reads, “Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or groups who
are inspired by, or associated with, designated foreign terrorist organizations or nations (state-
sponsored).” (Fbi.gov, 2023). The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) defines
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terrorism as “...the use of force or violence against persons or property in violation of the
criminal laws of the United States for purposes of intimidation, coercion, or ransom.” (FEMA,
2004, p.148). As one can see, the definitions differ slightly but still include “criminal violations”
or similar wording. The main difference between the definitions is the point in which they are
attempting to make. The FBI has a focus on the association with foreign terrorist organizations
whereas FEMA emphasizes the motives that terrorists act with. These definitions, when trying an
individual for charges of terrorist-related activity, can make a significant difference. This is
essentially why the FBI holds two definitions of terrorism, international and domestic. Their
domestic terrorism definition states, “Violent, criminal acts committed by individuals and/or
groups to further ideological goals stemming from domestic influences, such as those of a
political, religious, social, racial, or environmental nature.” (FBI, 2023). Their domestic
terrorism definition relates much closer to the one provided by FEMA in their guide titled: Are
You Ready? As more technological advancements arise in the War on Terror, the definitions will
change ever so slightly to ensure that policymakers and state officials have common knowledge
of what can and cannot be considered terrorism.
Terrorist Ideologies and Typologies
Terrorism can take place for several reasons, making it increasingly difficult to counter
effectively. As mentioned previously when discussing definitions, terrorists typically have a
motive or an intention when committing their criminal acts of violence. From a macro viewpoint,
the professional community would refer to these motives and intentions as “ideologies and
typologies”. Terrorist ideologies typically provide several internal and external beliefs that
justify and warrant their behaviors, giving the terrorists the idea that the presented behaviors are
for a meaningful cause. (Borum, 2004, p.4). The psychology of a terrorist is best understood
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when their ideologies and typologies are discovered first. Typologies can range from political
extremism, religious extremism, civil disorder, political terrorism, non-political terrorism, quasi-
terrorism, limited-political terrorism, to state terrorism. (crimemuseum.org, 2022). A typology
such as political terrorism is likely more common than the others listed due to the history of
terrorism committed towards the West and their political ideologies. Political terrorism or
political extremism has a leading mission to coerce movements within the targeted government
and its political agendas. Another effective typology of terrorism is the limited-political terrorism
typology. This particular typology has limited to no interest in overthrowing a government.
Rather, this typology will focus on areas of concern such as social, religious, or human rights.
Religious extremism is another typology that is widely used by terrorists globally. This typology
targets religious individuals and locations who have differing spiritual views from the terrorist. A
strong example of this typology provided by the Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point
would be the deadly shooting taken place in Christchurch, New Zealand. The terrorist entered the
Al Noor Mosque before gunning down and killing 51 individuals who were of the Muslim
religion. This attack had no interest in coercing the government to make any political changes or
policy changes, however, the terrorist had an objective to rid New Zealand of the “invaders”
(individuals of Muslim descent), so he claimed. (Macklin, 2019). While the other listed
typologies1 are extremely important, it was of great importance to examine the more common
typologies used in today’s scene of terrorism. As the ideologies and typologies are critical to
understanding when examining terrorism as a whole, they simply mean nothing if we cannot
correlate a set of tactics and behaviors to these typologies.
Tactics and Behaviors of Terrorists
1 See: CrimeMuseum.org/terrorism-typologies
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The tactics and behaviors that align with terrorists are oftentimes the reason for their
failed attempts at an attack. Much like every individual with a heartbeat, terrorists give indicators
that show the general public that their behavior does not align with that of a given society.
Behavior pertaining to terrorism is undeniably best explained by author Randy Borum in the
book titled, Psychology of Terrorism. Borum explains how nature vs. nurture is widely outdated
when viewing terrorism from as many typologies as the public is today. He goes on to mention
how viewing terrorism behaviors from a psychological approach using common theories can
help professionals understand why a terrorist might behave in the way they do. Using theories
such as the “Drive Theory” which looks at frustration and aggression, essentially what is driving
the individual to feel aggression. He also examines the “Cognitive Theory” which is the notion
that these terrorists interact with the environment based on how they view or interpret their
surroundings. (Borum, 2004, p.10-14). Although the previous information is a more scientific
approach to the behaviors of terrorists, it has a significant impact on how individuals with that
knowledge might view an unknown terrorist in a public setting. Terrorists, in particular lone-
wolf terrorists, will display excluded, non-socialistic behaviors in mass settings. Once spoken to,
the individual will likely share frustrations and behavior that would point to aggression and the
“Drive Theory”. (Hamm & Spaaj, 2015, p.7). These behaviors, when spotted in time can lead to
the mitigation and intervention of a potential terrorist attack. Therefore, using the knowledge
gained from author Randy Borum, an average civilian can understand the behaviors that
terrorists are exemplifying.
Tactics used by terrorists have evolved and will continue to do so as long as
advancements continue to be made over time. The MI5 (United Kingdom’s elite security service)
has published a page dedicated to the methods and tactics of terrorists, foreign and domestic. It is
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common knowledge that the favored tactic of terrorist attacks is explosives. This tactic allows for
concealment, a sizeable number of victims, and damage to infrastructure. Terrorists are also
known for shootings and close-quarter attacks, kidnappings, chemical and biological attacks, and
cyber-attacks. (mi5.gov.uk, 2023). Tactics will differ based on the typology and ideologies that
are present within the terrorist or terrorist organization. If terrorist organizations wish to cause
mass amounts of damage to infrastructure and life, they may choose to use explosives as their
preferred tactic. However, as seen in the Orlando Pulse Nightclub shooting, the lone-wolf
terrorist only wished to harm the LGBTQ+ community, therefore his chosen tactic was a close-
quarter attack by firearm. (Byman, 2016).
Methodologies of Terrorist Activity
As discussed previously, terrorists use many methods and tactics such as explosives,
close-quarter attacks, or biological and chemical attacks. More importantly, when examining the
methodologies of terrorists, it is crucial to focus on the targets rather than the tactics in which
they use. Terrorists typically target US-affiliated individuals domestically and abroad. Their
targets ultimately stem from the focus by which the terrorist organization stands by. For
example, a far-right extremist group might target and commit violent acts of domestic terrorism
against the far-left or those who demonstrate opposing ideas. (US Army Cyber Command, 2022).
Terrorists also have a preferred method of attacking weak and “soft” targets, those who pose
little to no chance of interfering with terrorist operations.
Aside from targets for potential attacks, one terrorist methodology is the use of social
media. Terrorists tactfully use social media to radicalize, recruit, and promote finances. The
recruitment used through social media is a method that aids in the allegiance of extremists and
young terrorists globally. (Interpol.int, 2023).
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Force Multipliers
Force multipliers is a rather common term that is used widely in the topic of international
and domestic relations. A force multiplier essentially multiplies the outcome without requiring
additional input variable resources. Terrorists, for example, utilize force multipliers to make it
seem as if they have the power to compete at the level of global superpowers such as the US and
China. (Emery, et al. 2004). Force multipliers can be a variety of different resources or weapons
in this case, such weapons and resources would be weapons of mass destruction (WMD),
biochemical weapons (such as the intentional spreading of a virus or disease), radicalization,
mass protests, or state sponsors. The effectiveness of force multipliers allows small, relatively
weak terrorist organizations to climb themselves to the top of a global watch/threat list.
Terrorist Structures
In the past, terrorist organizations would structure themselves similarly to military
organizations, including commanders and a stereotypical chain of command. However, once the
chain of command began deteriorating due to arrests and assassinations, the longevity of the
organization significantly declined. In a more modern world of terrorism including the second,
third, and fourth waves of terrorism, organizations are generally structured under one of the
following alignments: religious, nationalist, right-wing, and left-wing. These structures provide
longevity much greater than the first wave of terrorism proved to have with a typical chain of
command. (Enders & Sandler, 2012, p.238-268). Although it is quite obvious that every terrorist
organization still hails to a primary leader, there is a gaggle of commanders that can relieve the
commander of their duties in times of crisis.
Finance and Administration Problems
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One of the largest battles the US and its allies face in the War on Terror is the topic of
finance and administration assistance to terrorist organizations. Assistance to terrorist
organizations pours in the heaviest from states who sponsor the organization. Obviously enough,
the question must roll across the general public’s mind: Where do terrorist organizations gather
all their funds and resources? Thanks to state sponsors of terrorist organizations, leading groups
such as Al Qaeda and ISIS gain access to force multipliers such as WMD and surface-to-air
missiles, giving them a fighting chance against states much more powerful. (State.gov, 2023).
Terrorist organizations and extremist groups also receive mass amounts of assistance from the
administration that is present within a given state. A prime example of this would be the January
6th Capitol riots. Although the current president at the time (Donald J. Trump) did not organize
and order riots at the US Capitol, his take to social media as well as his failure to penalize those
involved suggests that he was equally as guilty in the domestic terrorist attack. The results of his
administration’s acts or lack thereof towards these violent actions set thousands of violent
extremists free from punishment for committing domestic terrorism on their nations’ Capitol.
Internationally, administrations support terrorist organizations by turning a blind eye to terrorist
activity. In these occasions, terrorist activity might be coercing opposing states into a position
that makes them vulnerable to international policy or trade changes. (georgewbush-whitehouse-
archives.gov, 2002, p.7). Financial and administrative assistance from foreign and domestic
actors will forever keep terrorist organizations in the fight against global superpowers.
Terrorist Groups
Although it was touched on very briefly when discussing terrorist typologies, the author
will examine the various types of terrorist groups that make up the organizations that are present
globally. In this case, the examination of groups is not intended to look at established
Examination of Terrorism 10
organizations such as ISIS, Al-Shabaab, and Al Qaeda, but rather is intended to examine the
macro view of the groups such as domestic, international, single-interests, left, and right.
Single-Interest Groups
According to the Combatting Terrorism Center at West Point military academy, single-
interest terrorism is when a terrorist organization shifts its focus and motives toward one specific
issue rather than a large topic that the group seems to have an issue with. (ctc.westpoint.edu,
2023).
Domestic Groups
Domestic terrorist groups are based out of the home state and will focus on topics that
include issues within their state. Furthermore, a domestic terrorist group will likely not take up
violent acts against international religious or political groups. However, the most international
involvement a domestic terrorist group would have is the concern for immigration into the
group's home state. Domestic terrorist groups will also likely include extremist groups on both
spectrums of the political world (left and right), as well as lone-wolf terrorists who act on
domestic-related focuses.
International Groups
International groups will focus on international issues and groups that are likely affecting
their rank in power or the jurisdiction of their home state. For example, many Middle Eastern
terrorist organizations carry hatred toward the West because they feel as if the West is forcing
their way of life on the remainder of the globe. The problem with this lies in the fact that
loyalists of the Middle Eastern states want a stable figure of power, working towards democracy,
and for no additional groups to interfere with that regime. In addition, large groups such as ISIS
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are trying to become the governing body in the Middle East. When Western powers support and
defend the Middle Eastern state under fire, these terrorist groups grow bitter. (Rudman, 2014).
Biblical Implication
Although terrorism was not quite around when the original scripture of the Bible was
drafted, it is important to find takeaways that relate to the struggle followers of Christ face within
the topic of terrorism. Psalm 34:14 states, “Turn away from evil and do good; seek peace and
pursue it.” (openbible.info, 2016). The verse can be used in all aspects of life and across any
profession, however, the ability to recognize evil, turn your back to it and choose good is what
makes a civilian from a violent criminal such as a terrorist.
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