DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 1
Detailed Analysis of Disaster Management
Michael Cullars
Helms School of Government, Liberty University
Author Note
Michael Cullars
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Michael Cullars
Email: michaelcullars1@liberty.edu
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 2
Detailed Analysis of Disaster Management
Disasters can harm people's lives and properties and cause economic hardship to
communities. Historically, individuals, secular or religious charitable organizations, or
community-based groups were left to deal with disasters and emergencies caused by natural
forces or non-human causes (Sylves, 2019). Before emergency management became a
profession, the American Red Cross and Salvation Army undertook most relief operations to aid
catastrophe victims (Phillips et al., 2016). With the onset of the Cold War, ties between Western
nations and the Soviet Union deteriorated steadily (Nemeth, 2017). As a result, civil defense
efforts grew prevalent in the United States in the early 1950s due to the threat of nuclear war
with the Russian Empire (Phillips et al., 2016). Throughout the 1950s and into the late 1970s,
the American government established various offices to support its civil defense initiatives,
protecting its citizens from nuclear and chemical attacks (Phillips et al., 2016).
Before the 1950s, the federal government had a limited role in disaster-related issues
involving municipal and state governments (Phillips et al., 2016). Additionally, the federal
government's ability to aid local and state governments in a disaster was discretionary and
limited by special legislation (Phillips et al., 2016). As Sylves (2019) notes, disaster-affected
states, localities, and victims were required to wait for legislative enactments that frequently took
months to complete. Severe floods in the United States' Midwest region inspired Congress to
enact the Disaster Relief Act in 1950 (Phillips et al., 2016). As Sylves (2019) explained, the act
established the first permanent system of disaster aid without the necessity for post-event
congressional intervention. The legislation also made federal disaster assistance more accessible
by removing the requirement for specific congressional legislation for each new disaster and
allowing the President to determine when federal assistance is necessary (Sylves, 2019).
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 3
The federal government had dual roles, focusing mainly on civil defense measures and
reacting to natural catastrophes and specific technological calamities (Phillips et al. 2016).
However, this duality presented difficulties for the American government. According to Phillips
et al. (2016), these issues include redundancy between civil defense and disaster relief efforts and
the absence of a centralized emergency management office, many of which were housed within
federal bureaucracies. As a result, President Carter took measures in the late 1970s to eliminate
inefficiencies within the federal government caused by the tensions inherent in its dual functions
and lack of a centralized disaster agency (Phillips et al., 2016).
President Carter consolidated all emergency management functions practically under one
federal agency in 1978 as part of Reorganization Plan three (Phillips et al., 2016 President Carter
established the Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA] by executive order in 1979,
bringing together multiple disaster agencies (Nemeth, 2017). Additionally, FEMA was
instrumental in developing the American government's integrated emergency management
system (Nemeth, 2017). Throughout the early1990s, hurricanes and other natural disasters
pushed FEMA's ability to respond to catastrophes to the test (Nemeth, 2017).
However, Phillips et al. (2016) note that the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks
reintroduced emergency management into the public consciousness, exposing flaws in the
government's readiness and disaster response capabilities. As a result, FEMA was merged into
the Department of Homeland Security [DHS] in March 2003 as part of the American
government's response to the terrorist attacks (FEMA, n.d.-a). In addition, the Homeland
Security Act of 2002 established the DHS as a separate agency to better coordinate and unify
national homeland security efforts (DHS, 2022).
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 4
Fundamental Concepts, Definitions, and Viewpoints
A disaster's characteristics have various elements that distinguish it from a routine
emergency event. To begin, Phillips et al. (2016) assert that disasters have a detrimental effect
on human society. For example, disaster events caused by hurricanes and flooding could
generate extensive property damage and cost many people's lives. In addition, the physical and
psychological impact of these occurrences could have long-term effects on survivors' quality of
life. Following that, as Phillips et al. (2016) point out, disasters generate an environment that
disturbs the social lives of a specific set of groups. For example, businesses, government offices,
and public education institutions may temporarily close or completely close altogether,
impacting the local populace's quality of life, economic health, and education. Finally, unlike
routine emergencies, addressing disasters in localities requires aid from outside resources such as
those derived from emergency services, for-profit and non-profit sectors, and higher levels of
government.
Emergencies are common in many localities and may include traffic accidents, human-
related health conditions and injuries, and home fires (Phillips et al., 2016). However, these
situations are considerably more manageable by local emergency response teams (Phillips et al.,
2016). Catastrophes have a more significant effect on people's lives than disasters do.
Catastrophes damage the majority, if not the entire infrastructure and facilities of an area
(Phillips et al., 2016). As a result, individuals' lives and the routines of whole communities are
completely disturbed (Phillips et al., 2016). For example, Hurricane Katrina in 2002 severely
disrupted people’s lives in the areas in Louisianna caused by its catastrophic winds and waters.
The floods overwhelmed the incomplete levees and dikes through their seams and entered
beneath them (Greenberg, 2020). Consequently, over 1800 people were killed, over 30,000 were
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 5
rescued from flooding, and thousands more were displaced (Greenberg, 2020). African
Americans, particularly the destitute, endured most of Hurricane Katrina's devastation
(Greenberg, 2020).
Key Legislation
Concerning essential emergency management laws, as FEMA (n.d.-a) mentioned, the
1988 Stafford Act revised the 1974 Disaster Relief Act, further clarifying and increasing FEMA's
role in disaster response. Furthermore, FEMA (n.d.-b) notes that all emergency and significant
disaster declarations are entirely issued at the discretion of the American President under the
Stafford Act's provisions. Also, the 2006 Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act
distinguished FEMA from other DHS entities (FEMA, n.d.-a). The measure designated FEMA
as the primary counselor to the American President, the Secretary of DHS, and its council
members on emergency management concerns affecting the national government (FEMA, n.d.-
a). Finally, as FEMA (n.d.-a) highlighted, the Sandy Recovery Improvement Act of 2013
accelerated the process of rebuilding public infrastructure and empowered federally recognized
tribes to seek a Presidential Declaration promptly.
Emergency Management's Function
McEntire (2019) describes emergency management as the managerial function
responsible for reducing community vulnerability to risks and coping with disasters. Among the
eight principles for emergency management mentioned by McEntire (2019), emergency
managers must adopt an integrated approach to all hazards, phases, stakeholders, and
repercussions associated with disasters. Also, emergency managers must build networks and
collaborate with individuals and organizations abroad to foster trust, teamwork, consensus, and
communication (McEntire, 2019). Finally, McEntire (2019) underlines the need for emergency
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 6
managers to utilize risk management techniques such as hazard identification, risk analysis, and
impact analysis to aid resource allocation and priority setting.
The Disaster Life Cycle
According to Phillips et al. (2016), the disaster life cycle entails four phases that capture
the bulk of emergency managers’ duties. Islam and Ryan (2016) identified these phases as
preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation from a comprehensive emergency management
perspective. The emergency management cycle never ends, and the conclusion of one phase
results in the commencement of the subsequent phase (Islam & Ryan, 2016).
Exploring the Disaster Life Cycle Phases
Preparedness. McEntire (2019) characterizes preparedness as preparatory steps
conducted in anticipation of disasters. preparedness comprises systematic efforts to enhance
emergency response and recovery (McEntire, 2019). Preparedness measures include emergency
staff training, response protocols, and evacuation route planning (Islam & Ryan, 2016).
Furthermore, readiness entails networking, information distribution, and community engagement
(Islam & Ryan, 2016). Also, Islam and Ryan (2016) note that local emergency management
should establish and maintain a comprehensive emergency operations plan [EOP] that is both
coherent and comprehensive. The EOP should also identify shelters for personnel and animals
before a disaster. Mechanisms for communication should also be devised and included in the
EOP. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (n.d.) proposes constructing a
communication strategy by establishing spokespersons, resources, and resource methods.
Additionally, as the CDC (n.d.) notes, a crisis communication strategy should include a
plan for conducting training, refining the plan, and refining the messaging. Finally, establishing
an Emergency Operation Center [EOC] is also essential in the preparedness phase. FEMA
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 7
(2021b) describes an EOC as a physical or virtual location from which leaders of a jurisdiction or
organization coordinate information and resources to support crisis management activities.
Planning consideration for EOCs during the preparedness includes equipment readiness,
identifying all relevant stakeholders, and conducting training exercises. Performing tabletop
exercises, which McEntire (2019) describes as informal discussions about hypothetical events in
an office setting, may be included in the training plan. Building public and private partnerships
is also an essential aspect of the planning process in the preparedness stage. Public-private
partnerships increase a community's safety, economic security, and resilience (FEMA, 2021a).
In addition, individual families and businesses lay the groundwork for the intricate networks that
connect a community (FEMA, 2021a).
Response. The response phase entailed the steps necessary to respond rapidly to a
disaster. According to FEMA (2019), the national response framework establishes the nation's
emergency management policy for responding to all sorts of crises. Moreover, according to
FEMA (2017), the national incident management system guides all government, non-profit, and
private entities in preventing, protecting, mitigating, responding, and recovering from incidents.
The EOC becomes activated during the Response phase and the established EOP. According to
FEMA (2017), the Incident Commander is responsible for the incident's leadership function. The
Incident Commander interacts with the Public Information Officer, Safety Officer, and Liaison
Officer to coordinate the response to the incident (McEntire, 2019).
Response activities also involved activating warning systems and the weather news
stations guiding as they track threatening and potentially catastrophic atmospheric systems such
as tornadoes. Temporary sheltering and evacuation are the primary protective measures for
community members during a large-scale catastrophe (Phillips et al., 2016). For instance, as
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 8
Phillips et al. (2016) remark, tornadoes are a frequent cause for individuals to seek shelter in
place. In contrast, public sheltering encourages individuals to flee their houses and seek safety in
specified locations such as schools, religious organizations, and convention centers (Phillips et
al., 2016).
Recovery. According to Islam and Ryan (2016), the recovery phase starts when the
response phase's life-saving activities wind down. The recovery phase's main aim is to
immediately restore community infrastructure (Islam & Ryan, 2016). The long-term objective of
recovery is to restore normalcy to the community (Islam & Ryan, 2016). Damages assessments
and debris removal operations are also conducted during the recovery phase. The Environmental
Protection Agency [EPA] (2021) of the National government note that cleaning actions
associated with resuming normal operations in homes and businesses after a catastrophe can
present significant health and environmental risks.
McEntire (2019) characterizes damage assessments as surveys conducted to ascertain
physical destruction, economic losses, deaths, and social disruptions and evaluate recovery
needs. Also, during the recovery phase, faith-based institutions may provide spiritual support
and counseling for first responders and survivors of disasters from a short-term or long-term
perspective. Disaster Unemployment Assistance provides survivors with unemployment benefits
and reemployment assistance and mass care, and emergency assistance (FEMA, n.d-c). In
addition, according to FEMA (n.d.-c), Disaster Legal Services provides legal services to
survivors of presidentially declared major disasters.
Mitigation. According to Nemeth (2017), mitigation is attempting to diminish the
impact of a disaster to prevent fatalities and property damage. The mitigation approach is more
effective when dealing with natural hazards, fires, and other catastrophes than homeland security
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT 9
concerns (Nemeth, 2017). Mitigation may entail identifying risks to vital infrastructures and
extending this assessment to structural and nonstructural components of communities. Structural
mitigation efforts may include strengthening buildings to withstand blasts from a bomb device or
designing facilities located in hurricane-prone areas that endure hurricane winds and reduce the
potential of being overwhelmed by floodwaters. Nonstructural mitigation includes purchasing
insurance, local and state entities submitting their mitigation plans to receive federal funding,
and buying insurance by individuals, communities, and businesses to help cover losses in case of
a disastrous event.
Biblical Perspective
Disasters and other hazards pose a threat to human existence and necessitate a
collaborative effort from all levels of government to the individual level to prepare for, plan for,
and mitigate against these calamities constantly. According to Proverbs 15:22, "without counsel,
purposes fail, but with many counselors, they are established" (King James Bible, 1769/2022).
Moreover, "The heart's preparations and the tongue's response are from the LORD" (King James
Bible, 1769/2022, Proverbs 16:1).
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References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). Crisis Emergency Risk Communication:
Crisis Communication Plans.
https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/ppt/CERC_Crisis_Communication_Plans.pdf
Department of Homeland Security. (2022, January 30). Creation of the Department of
Homeland Security. https://www.dhs.gov/creation-department-homeland-security
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.-a). History of FEMA. FEMA.Gov.
https://www.fema.gov/about/history
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.-b). How a Disaster Gets Declared. FEMA.Gov.
https://www.fema.gov/disaster/how-declared
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (n.d.-c). Programs to Support Disaster Survivors.
FEMA.Gov. https://www.fema.gov/assistance/individual/disaster-survivors
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2017, October). National Incident Management
System: Third Edition. FEMA.Gov. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-
07/fema_nims_doctrine-2017.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2019, October 28). National Response Framework:
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04/NRF_FINALApproved_2011028.pdf
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public-partnerships.pdf
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King James Bible. (2022). King James Bible Online. https://www.kingjamesbibleonline.org
(Original work published 1769)
McEntire, D. A. (2019). Introduction to homeland security: Understanding terrorism prevention
and emergency management (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
Nemeth, C. P. (2017). Homeland Security. Taylor & Francis.
Phillips, B. D., Neal, D. M., & Webb, G. R. (2016). Introduction to Emergency Management
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https://bookshelf.vitalsource.com/books/9781315394688
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security (3rd ed.). CQ Press.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2021, December 10). Dealing with
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