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EXAMINING DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Examining Disaster Management
Andrew J. Cichon
Introduction to Disaster Management, HLSC 600-B02
Helms School of Government, Liberty University
Prof. Angel Perez
Author Note
Andrew J. Cichon
I have no known conflict of interest to disclose
Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed to Andrew J. Cichon
Email: acichon@liberty.edu
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Abstract
Ever since the terrorist attacks which occurred on September 11th, 2001 in New York City, the
concepts and principles of disaster management have become increasingly important in the field
of emergency management. The Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA, has
become the national leader in emergency management and disaster research, and constantly
reviews best practices which are made available to all communities throughout the nation to help
in the management of disasters. Tremendous amounts of research and analysis into thousands of
disasters over the past few decades has helped emergency managers continually evaluate the
readiness within their communities to the events of every phase of the disaster life cycle.
Mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery are the four key phases of this cycle and will be
broken down into the functions that occur throughout each phase, identifying key concepts and
definitions for each. Examples of concepts and definitions will be applied that can relate to the
emergency manager’s role during a disaster, and an overall understanding of National Incident
Management System will be discussed.
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Examining Disaster Management
There have been many catastrophic events throughout history that would likely have been
able to be called disasters, but the ever-evolving meaning of disaster has not remained the same.
Noah can be viewed as the first emergency manager, facing many similar challenges to disaster
that emergency managers face to this day (Phillips et al., 2017). Although the Great Flood
occurred over 5 millennia ago, disasters still remain a major challenge, even in developed nations
and throughout all communities. On September 11th, 2001, the United States faced its greatest
man-made disaster after the terrorist hijackings of commercial airliners which led to the deaths of
over three-thousand people, resulting in a national emergency declaration on September 14th of
the same year.
In response to the September 11th attacks, Pennsylvania Governor Tom Ridge became the
first Director of the Office of Homeland eleven days later, who helped form the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS) in November 2002 (U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2022).
The DHS took control over the Federal Emergency Management Agency, or FEMA, which has
since become a leader in disaster management, both natural and manmade. The mission of
FEMA is to help people before, during, and after disasters, and provides resource material to
households and communities alike, as well as physical resources to local, state, and federal
communities (FEMA, 2022a).
As previously stated, FEMA is the national leader in emergency management for the
United States and is critical to the efforts of all phases in the disaster life cycle, those being
mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Each phase prepares for the next step, while
building off of the previous steps in the process. Whether it is before, during, or after a disaster,
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communities across the nation are always in one or more of these phases, making the
management of disasters an ongoing process that never ceases.
Mitigation
Disaster mitigation can be viewed as the cornerstone of emergency management, creating
ongoing efforts to lessen the impacts that disasters have on communities, specifically to people
and property (New Bedford, n.d.). There are two forms of mitigation which are pursued:
structural and nonstructural. Structural mitigation revolves around the built environment or
physical barriers that can prevent further loss of life or property damage. Nonstructural
mitigation is the disaster reduction effort which is not tangible or built, including enforcement-
related efforts and insurability.
One of the most common structural mitigation efforts is the building of levees along
waterways and areas that are susceptible to flooding. As stated by Alabbad et al. (2022), “the
impact of flooding can never be diminished, [but] minimizing future losses is possible by taking
structural mitigation actions.” While structural mitigation efforts are effective at minimizing
damage during a disaster, one common issue faced by emergency managers in the creation of
such physical barriers is the financial toll it can take. At the individual and household level, safe
rooms and blast resistant structures can be created or purchased, but there is little to no financial
aid available for these to the individual. Although a cost versus benefit analysis would conclude
that these structures can prove to be life-saving and property-saving, it is solely up to the
individual to decide what their commitment level is in the prevention of a disaster. All forms of
structural mitigation, both at the household and governmental level, are best calculated for long-
term prevention.
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Nonstructural mitigation includes important prevention practices that are executed in the
form of building codes and insurance. The implementation of building codes in a community
requires developers, builders, and homeowners to obtain permits to complete construction,
schedule inspections of the structure, and comply with codes on a local as well as state level.
This increases public safety by ensuring structures are ready for area-related disasters, but can be
viewed by builders and developers as a nuance and added cost to production. Financial stability
plays a major role in nonstructural mitigative efforts, as seen in the earthquakes which occurred
in Haiti and Chile in 2010. Chile, whose economic base was stronger and enforced more building
codes than Haiti, suffered a stronger earthquake but experienced a substantially lower loss of life,
with 800 people dying in Chile and over 300,000 people losing their lives in Haiti (Phillips et al.,
2017). This factor alone proves that funding for mitigative efforts should be taken seriously and
viewed as a necessity in all communities, and that mitigative humanitarian efforts should also
emphasize enforcement-related issues.
At the household level, carrying personal insurance is a mitigative effort that can save
individuals hundreds of thousands of dollars in the event of a disaster. Disaster insurance may be
viewed as a high-risk, low-frequency afterthought, but can cover all types of disasters such as
natural flooding, tornadoes, and earthquakes to manmade disasters like natural gas explosions
from a residential gas line. Disaster coverage will increase an individual’s insurance premium
(Phillips et al., 2017), but although someone has coverage this does not guarantee that they are
sufficiently covered. The issue of underinsurance can cause financial devastation for property
owners, leaving individuals homeless because they cannot afford to rebuild their homes (Olick,
2019). Mitigation planning requires stakeholders, both public and private, to take an active role
in doing their part, and can lead to the sufficient preparedness of a disaster.
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Preparedness
Preparedness is the most important phase in the disaster life cycle prior to the onset of a
disaster, and involves various levels of stakeholders. There are different activities and efforts that
each level can take to prepare for a disaster, and ranges from the individual, organization, and
community that is preparing for a disaster to occur (Phillips et al., 2017). Regardless of the
specific actions taken at all levels, successful preparedness comes from the efforts and
responsibilities of the whole community.
Individual preparedness is dependent on several factors such as risk perception and the
human behavior of the individual. Individuals who have previous disaster experiences are likely
to be better prepared for another disaster, whereas those without any disaster experiences will
depend on their exposure to knowledge and resources made available to them, such as through
agencies like FEMA (Guo et al., 2021). One of these resources includes the Make a Plan
initiative from FEMA which assists in the planning process for individuals, a subsection of the
preparedness phase in the disaster life cycle. These available reading resources can help
individuals and households prepare for some of the less-than-often thought of safety measures,
such as storing first aid kits. Human behaviors also contribute to the preparedness of an
individual and can be either beneficial or detrimental to the individual’s safety. Someone who
does not take the threat of a disaster seriously is less likely to evacuate their home or respond
appropriately, whereas someone who follows recommended practices during disaster events will
more than likely have a more positive outcome from a disaster, whether it be their health or
property loss.
Not only does human behavior have an effect on the individual, but it also affects those
around the individual. Because human behavior is subjective to the individual, people’s reactions
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to disasters and events surrounding disaster are unpredictable. While some individuals may panic
and cause hysteria, others could potentially look to help their neighbors and come together as a
community to wade the waters of a disaster.
At the organizational level, disaster plans can help organizations prepare their employees
in the event a disaster were to occur while the employees are on the job. Without say, this
includes emergency services such as police, fire, and EMS, but the caveat is that those agencies
typically prepare for and train for disasters, whereas private businesses and organizations may
not do more than the minimum recommended training. Training also plays a major role in the
preparedness of an organization, and therefore should be a top priority for directors and
executive when formulating training plans within their organizations. However, training should
also occur with agencies outside of an emergency planner’s organization. These coordinated
efforts provide for the sharing of resources and provide an efficient response to a disaster as well.
For communities, the scope of a disaster is much larger than that of an individual or
organization. As mentioned previously, preparedness is a collaborative effort between many
entities and should therefore reflect that in training. Fire departments can train with police
departments and public works employees to coordinate resources necessary during a disaster,
community-wide disaster exercises can be held, and public education campaigns can help inform
households and individuals of steps to take prior to a disaster (Phillips et al., 2017). Communities
should also look at those with special needs in their area and how they may require assistance if a
disaster were to occur. As an example, if a city is aware that there is a nursing home in their
jurisdiction with disabled members who would require assistance evacuating, a city official and
the head of the nursing home should collaborate to devise a plan for the efficient evacuation of
those community members. These vulnerable populations in the community are often hit the
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hardest by disasters, and preparedness efforts that place a focus on these individuals in the
community can be especially effective (Center for Disaster Philanthropy, 2021).
Response
When discussing response in the disaster life cycle, one of the first thought of events that
unfold is the literal response and resources that are brought to areas of disaster. Prior to the
emergent response of resources to a disaster, an emergency operations center (EOC) may be
opened at a predesignated area. The EOC should not be viewed as a command post, but rather a
communications hub where the emergency management professionals and representatives from
responding organizations can meet and discuss emergency response needs (Phillips et al., 2017).
These coordinated efforts by managers of different emergency response entities can contribute to
the efficient and effective response to disasters. From the EOC, agencies can monitor changing
conditions of disasters and determine the need to provide additional warnings to the public.
Warnings can vary by community, but some common forms of warnings include tornado sirens,
emergency alert systems (EAS) which are overseen by the Federal Communications
Commission, and emergency notification systems through reverse calling by community
agencies.
When a warning is issued during a disaster, one of two main messages will be relayed to
the public: take shelter or evacuate. When a predicted disaster may cause significant damage to
property but potentially no loss of life, or if there is not enough time to react to a disaster, a take
shelter notice will be given to the public. This will provide the public with the information that
some significant event will be disrupting the normalcy of the community, and by taking shelter
the community can respond accordingly to minimize injury. If there is enough notice to a
significant disaster, such as during the hurricane seasons in the southern states, and a potential
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for a high loss of life, evacuation notices will be recommended. While property may be
destroyed, the safety and security of people’s lives is far more important that any physical item.
Depending on the area being evacuated, governmental authorities may assist be redirecting
traffic flow, such as by having southbound lanes of traffic opened for traffic to flow northbound,
greater enhancing the evacuation abilities of those traveling by car.
During disasters, there are numerous agencies that respond to and send resources to the
community or communities affected. Following the September 11th attacks, thousands for
emergency response workers and volunteers from hundreds of agencies responding to provide
assistance, whether to the actual site at Ground Zero, or to assist in other areas where help was
needed. Establishing a clear goal and objectives can become difficult, but this is why the
National Incident Management System (NIMS) exists. NIMS guides all levels of government,
nongovernmental organizations, and private organizations to work together to complete all
phases of the disaster life cycle (FEMA, 2022b). Under NIMS, there is one designated incident
commander of the event that communicates with designated individuals of all branches within
the framework. This does not only involve the operations-level response to a disaster, but also
the behind-the-scenes tasks such as logistics, planning, and information distribution. Since there
are numerous organizations that have tasks that need to be completed, a unified command is
established where representatives from each department and organization discuss response
efforts and resource allocation.
Media relations are handled by a designated public information officer (PIO) that releases
only that information which unified command deems appropriate or necessary for the public to
be aware of. Through this dissemination of information, ways that the general public can help
during a disaster are also discussed, whether it is by financial means or other sources of help
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such as blood donations. After the initial response phases of a disaster, unified command will
discuss their resources necessary to begin the recovery phase.
Recovery
The recovery process from a disaster includes more than just the removal of a hazard
from a community following a disaster. Recovery is best seen as a process that involves a series
of steps that can be classified as short-term or long-term recovery efforts (Phillips et al., 2017).
Short-term recovery efforts refer restoring critical infrastructure and utilities to a community,
whereas long-term recovery efforts focus on moving toward a consensus-based vision of
normalcy. Prior to performing any activities, this vision helps establish what resources would be
necessary and a damage assessment should be performed.
Disaster assessments within a community can help officials determine the who, what, and
where recovery resources would be necessary. During rescue and recovery efforts, triaging
individual and community needs may be necessary. Those items on a recovery list which are key
to critical infrastructure and utilities would be given priority over other less-critical items in an
effort to do the greatest amount of good to the community as a whole, and help the majority of
individuals rather than focusing on a select group of people. Two major recovery efforts
following the September 11th attacks included rehousing or relocating those affected by the
tragedy and removing debris from crisis sites. Priority was obviously given to those needing
housing because having a safe, reliable place to live takes precedence over removing the billions
of pounds of debris left from the destruction at Ground Zero.
Presidential disaster declaration requests can only be made by the Governor of an
affected state, and these are sent to the regional FEMA office for that respective state. From
there, a team of assessors along with representatives and officials will conduct a thorough
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assessment of the area affected and a declaration decision will be made. The disaster declaration
will then allow for the community affected to receive the specific federal assistance that was
requested if available to help in the recovery process (FEMA, 2022c). Regardless of the type of
disaster that is experienced by a community, individuals, emergency response workers, and
victims alike may require crisis counseling to help them cope with the events that had unfolded.
Some of the most horrific sights during the September 11th attacks were that of mangled bodies
and bloodied work areas, and considering the tremendous loss of life that no one was prepared
for, even emergency personnel required counseling to cope with and better come to terms with
the events that unfolded. Although this can be extremely difficult to deal with, spiritual healing
may also provide assistance to those who have experienced or worked through a disaster. 2
Corinthians 4: 8-9 (English Standard Bible, 2001) states, “We are afflicted in every way, but not
crushed; perplexed, but not driven to despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; struck down, but not
destroyed.” Times of disaster are some of the most challenging that anyone can face, but rising to
the occasion and meeting every challenge with faith, fortitude, and courage will benefit the
community as a whole and not just as an individual, further spreading God’s love for all people.
Conclusion
Disaster management is a complex and constantly worked on process of all phases of the
disaster life cycle. Emergency managers must be prepared to evaluate and update their mitigative
efforts, preparedness, and responses to and recovery from disasters to be serve their communities
and create positive relationships with outside organizations that provide assistance during such
events. While the general public will typically only see the response phase of the disaster life
cycle, the behind the scenes work that is done in every phase is critical to the success of a
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successful management of a disaster. No matter where a disaster may strike, emergency
managers will always rise to the occasion to perform their duties.
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