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Research Paper: The Evolution and Continuity of
American Leadership Across Major U.S. Wars
Megan Boisvert (Stumpner)
College of Arts & Sciences, Liberty University
HIUS-380: Modern American Military History
Dr. Herbert Pieper
June 10, 2025
Introduction
Presidential leadership in the United States has been involved in the response to the
pressures of War, national crises, and shifting global dynamics. Throughout American history,
presidential leadership during wartime has demonstrated continuity and transformation,
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
U.S. Wars
shaped by the demands of each conflict and the personal leadership styles of individual
presidents. The leadership approaches of George Washington during the Revolutionary War,
Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War, Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, and George W.
Bush during the War on Terror reveal a dynamic pattern of leadership characterized by
adaptability, rhetorical influence, strategic decision-making, and the expansion of executive
power in times of crisis.
George Washington and the Revolutionary War
George Washington was the President during the American Revolutionary War, and his
leadership had set a precedent for presidential misconduct in times of a crisis. President
Washington had lacked formal military education, but his strengths had laid in discipline,
emotional control, and moral integrity (Cox, 1997). His leadership was deeply personal,
emphasizing character over charisma.
Harry M. Ward discusses how George Washington confronted many immense challenges
in managing an undisciplined Continental Army and often relied on improvising justice and
harsh disciplinary practices. Despite the structural weaknesses, Washington's moral authority
inspired unity and perseverance. He was the first Founding Father to free his slaves and align a
personal action with Republican ideals (Cox, 1997). His leadership style was a collective civic
responsibility over personal ambition, contrasting with the more centralized executive powers
wielded by future wartime presidents.
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
U.S. Wars
Abraham Lincoln and the Civil War
Abraham Lincoln had inherited a broken nation that was on the brink of collapse. Lincoln
faced immediate military and constitutional crises. Despite the initial disadvantages in
leadership and strategy, Lincoln remained committed to preserving the Union and redefining the
War's purpose to include emancipation (Library of Congress, 2009). Lincoln had moral clarity,
particularly in transforming the Civil War into a struggle for liberty, and echoes Washington's
commitment to republicanism. However, Lincoln expanded executive powers far more
aggressively. He had suspended the habeas corpus and expanded the Army without
Congressional approval. President Lincoln was able to redact the press's actions that were
considered controversial and justified by the national emergency (Library of Congress, 2009).
Lincoln's leadership was a major turning point in history that showed that presidential power
could be both a guardian and a challenger of civil liberties.
Franklin D. Roosevelt and World War II
Franklin D. Roosevelt's leadership during World War II was characterized by strategic ambiguity
and pragmatic expansion of executive authority. Initially, it was constrained by isolationist public
sentiment and Congressional hesitation. Roosevelt was able to maneuver the nation toward
War through legal workarounds such as the Lend-Lease Act (Kimball, 2004). He used the radio to
address to shape the public's opinion and used the executive authority to aid the Allies before a
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
U.S. Wars
formal Declaration of War was represented. Roosevelt's leadership also marked a global
redefinition of American power, positioning the U.S. as a democratic counterforce to fascism
and as a global hegemon (Harvard Law School, 2022). While his strategies were controversial,
Roosevelt demonstrated how wartime leadership could expand both national unity and
America's role on the world stage.
George W. Bush and the War on Terror
On September 11, 2001, President George W. Bush planned the War on Terror as a moral
imperative and a call to protect the United States' freedom. His leadership drew on the
rhetorical tradition of the "call to arms," using persuasive discourse to justify military
engagement (Graham, Keenan, & Dowd, 2004). During President Bush's presidency, the
executive authority was expanded, and Congress's oversight of the War was decreased and
limited. The President ended up having emergency powers that were used to authorize
warrantless surveillance, indefinite detention, and unauthorized military actions, and raised
concerns about the Constitutional overreach.
Bush's leadership during the War on Terror reflected a significant shift from reactive to
preemptive military strategy, and it was a new era of persistent conflict with no clear end. While
Bush evoked national unity much like Lincoln or Roosevelt, the tools he used represented a stark
departure from traditional checks and balances.
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
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Continuity and Change in Presidential Leadership
Across these four presidencies, certain leadership traits persist: appeals to moral clarity, efforts
to unite a disconnected group, and the invocation of presidential authority during a crisis.
Washington and Lincoln both emphasized liberty and civic virtue, whereas Roosevelt and Bush
leaned more heavily on executive power to address international threats. The presidential
authority expanded dramatically throughout the four presidencies. Washington's restrained
leadership that evolved into Lincoln's constitutional stretching, Roosevelt's global influence, and
Bush's post-9/11 emergency powers. As Klarman (2022) notes, modern presidents wield greater
influence due to the expansion of federal regulations and global entanglements.
Conclusion
President Washington's disciplined republicanism to President Bush's wartime prerogatives, the
American presidential leadership in times of War reflects continuity and transformation. While
each of the four President faced different challenges that united with the nation and justifying
the moral basis for War. Over time, Presidential power has grown by the increasing global
conflict and domestic politics. Evolution is important to understand not only to assess historical
leadership but also to preserve democratic accountability in future crises.
Megan Boisvert (Stumpner)
June 16,2025
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
U.S. Wars
HIUS 380 –
The Evolution and Continuity of
American Leadership Across
Major U.S. Wars
Peer-Reviewed Journal Article:
Cox, H. B. (1997). What I Hope a High School Graduate Knows about George
Washington. The Social Studies, 88(4), 151–154. https://doi.org/10.
1080/00377999709603764
This article discusses President George Washington's leadership as a skilled military leader
during the Revolutionary War. Washington was an experienced politician and statesperson. Even
though he had limited formal education, Washington pursued lifelong learning and civic
responsibility. Washington's leadership during the War and presidency was marked by
discipline, emotional control, honesty, and moral integrity. Washington was the first Founding
Father to free slaves and advocated for the Republican ideal and his legacy through the Society
of Cincinnati.
Kimball, W. F. (2004). Franklin D. Roosevelt and World War II. Presidential Studies
Quarterly, 34(1), 83-99. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00036.x
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
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This article explores President Franklin D. Roosevelt's complex and often controversial path to
leading the United States into World War II. Historian Warren F. Kimball argues that while
Roosevelt may have acted with calculated ambiguity and political maneuvering, Congress and
the public ultimately supported America's entry into World War II. President Roosevelt avoided
the direct declarations of War early on instead of using his executive power and his legal
workarounds to aid the Allies.
Scholarly Website:
"4 Ways Presidential Power Has Changed since 9/11: News: School of Public Affairs: American
University in Washington, D.C." American University, 8 Sept. 2016,
www.american.edu/spa/news/presidential-power-since-sept11-09082016.cfm.
Chris Edelson's book explains how U.S. presidents have overstepped their emergency powers
particularly after 9/11. The Constitution grants Congress the power to declare War, and the
Presidents have taken broader actions without approval. Edelson identifies four primary areas
of overreach: the indefinite War on Terror, the use of torture during interrogations, warrantless
surveillance, and unauthorized military strikes in Libya and against ISIS. He argues that
Congress's failure to assert authority enables modern presidents to act.
Lincoln, A., Ives, C. &, Brady, M. B., Whitman, W., Hotchkiss, J., Lee, R. E., Weed, T.,
Gardner, A., Sherman, W. T., Waud, A. R., Waud, W., Volck, A. J., & Forbes, E. (2009,
February 12). With malice toward none: The Abraham Lincoln bicentennial exhibition
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
U.S. Wars
Lincoln as commander in chief. Library of Congress.
https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/lincoln/lincoln-as-commander-in-chief.html
Lincoln's inauguration, the Southern secessionists acted swiftly and had an early advantage that
favored the South in leadership. If the War had been short, the Union likely would have lost.
Lincoln's commitment to liberty helped the Northern resolve the problems; despite the struggle
with poor military leadership, he eventually found capable generals like Grant and Sherman. As
the War progressed, the purpose evolved from preserving the Union to freeing enslaved people,
making it a fight for national unity and human liberty.
Presidential Power Surges. Harvard Law School. (2022, September 8).
https://hls.harvard.edu/today/presidential-power-surges/#:~:text=While%20wars%20may
% 20be%20among,of%20FDR’s%20actions%2C%20notes%20Feldman .
Professor Michael Klarman explains that the U.S. initially embraced an isolationist stance as
outlined by George Washington. The global role expanded after World War II, especially after
the Cold War. The President's authority naturally grew as the U.S. became the dominant
Country with power. Klarman States that the presidential power increased as the federal
government began regulating the modern economy, with the President's influence through
them appointment with administrative agencies like the EPA and FCC.
Scholarly Book:
GRAHAM, P., KEENAN, T., & DOWD, A.-M. (2004). A call to arms at the end of history: a
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major
U.S. Wars
discourse—historical analysis of George W. Bush's declaration of War on terror.
Discourse & Society, 15(2/3), 199–221.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/42888448
This article examines how political leaders throughout history have used persuasive speech
before physical or political coercion to convince people to wage war and sacrifice lives. The
author focuses on George W. Bush's 2001 "War on Terror "speech and analyzes it within the
broader genre of historical "call to arms" discourses. President George W. Bush's speech was
one of the major historical turning points in how leaders use fundamental shifts in political,
social, and economic systems.
Ward, H. M. (2006). George Washington's Enforcers: policing the Continental Army.
Southern Illinois Univ. Press.
Harry M. Ward's book talks about how George Washington's Enforcers explores the disciplinary
systems of the Continental Army during the American Revolution, highlighting the improvised
and harsh nature of military justice. Maintaining order was crucial for success, yet policing the
army faced significant challenges due to a mix of undertrained
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The Evolution and Continuity of American Leadership Across Major 0 U.S. Wars
and overly authoritative officers and guards. Ward reveals a biased justice system where
ordinary soldiers received severe punishments for infractions while officers often evaded
consequences.
