Module 1
Introduction
a. Geography
The discipline of geography bridges the social sciences with the physical sciences
and can provide a framework for understanding our world. By studying geography, we
can begin to understand the relationships and common factors that tie our human
community together. The world is undergoing globalization on a massive scale as a result
of the rapid transfer of information and technology and the growth of modes of
transportation and communication.
As we delve deeper into the complexities of our world, it becomes increasingly
evident that a nuanced understanding of geography is indispensable. The multifaceted
nature of our planet demands a comprehensive approach to studying its various regions
and the interconnected themes that shape them. By adopting a regional approach, this
textbook offers a rich tapestry of insights into the diverse landscapes, cultures, and socio-
economic dynamics that characterize different parts of the globe.
Regional studies provide a framework for exploring the intricate interplay
between geography and human activities. Each region possesses its unique set of
challenges, opportunities, and historical legacies, which profoundly influence its
trajectory in the global arena. Through the lens of regional analysis, students gain a
deeper appreciation for the complex interactions between physical geography, political
structures, cultural practices, and economic systems.
Moreover, this textbook emphasizes themes that underscore the ongoing process
of globalization. Globalization has emerged as a defining feature of the contemporary
world, reshaping societies, economies, and environments across the planet. By
elucidating key themes such as migration, trade networks, environmental sustainability,
and geopolitical dynamics, students are equipped with the analytical tools to navigate the
complexities of our globalized world.
Understanding globalization is crucial not only for comprehending contemporary
affairs but also for addressing the pressing challenges that confront our future. From
climate change and resource depletion to geopolitical tensions and socio-economic
inequalities, the issues facing our world are inherently interconnected and require holistic
solutions. By examining these challenges through a geographical lens, students are
empowered to identify the underlying drivers, discern potential solutions, and contribute
to informed decision-making in a global context.
Furthermore, this textbook fosters a deeper sense of global citizenship by
highlighting the interconnectedness of our world. In an era characterized by
unprecedented mobility and communication, the notion of a global community is more
pertinent than ever before. By exploring how different regions are linked through trade,
communication networks, cultural exchanges, and environmental interdependencies,
students develop a sense of empathy, solidarity, and responsibility towards diverse
communities worldwide.
In essence, this textbook serves as a gateway to a deeper understanding of our
world and our place within it. By adopting a regional approach and focusing on
globalization themes, it equips students with the knowledge, skills, and perspectives
needed to navigate the complexities of our globalized world. In doing so, it prepares them
to engage critically with contemporary issues, contribute meaningfully to global
discourse, and shape a more sustainable and equitable future for generations to come.
Spatial analysis includes many of the concepts tied to geographic information
science (GIS): the analysis of the interactions and distribution of many types of
information using computer databases. The GIS data are entered into computer programs
that convert location indicators to points or features on a map. Earth science includes the
study of landforms, climates, and the distribution of plants and animals.
Area or regional studies represent a specialized branch within the broader field of
geography, honing in on specific regions to comprehensively analyze the intricate
interplay between human activity and the environment. These studies delve deeply into
the dynamics of a particular area, aiming to unravel the complex relationships between
societies, cultures, and their surrounding landscapes.
One of the central themes explored in area or regional studies is the interaction
between human populations and their environments. This encompasses a diverse array of
topics, ranging from the utilization of natural resources to the shaping of landscapes
through agricultural practices, urban development, and infrastructure projects.
Researchers within this field seek to understand not only how humans have adapted to
their environments but also how they have influenced and transformed them over time.
A key focus of study within area or regional studies is the examination of human-
landscape interaction. This entails a detailed investigation into the ways in which
different cultures have interacted with, utilized, and modified their natural surroundings.
By examining historical records, archaeological evidence, and ethnographic accounts,
researchers aim to uncover the complex processes through which societies have shaped
their landscapes and vice versa.
Moreover, researchers studying human-landscape interaction seek to elucidate the
impacts of human activities on the environment and ecosystems. This includes assessing
the ecological consequences of practices such as deforestation, agriculture,
industrialization, and urbanization, as well as examining the resilience of ecosystems to
human-induced changes. By understanding the intricate feedback loops between human
societies and their environments, researchers can develop more sustainable approaches to
resource management and land use planning.
Cultural geography also plays a significant role in area or regional studies,
providing insights into the ways in which cultural beliefs, practices, and values shape
human perceptions of the environment. By examining cultural landscapes, sacred sites,
and traditional land use practices, researchers gain a deeper understanding of the cultural
significance of different landscapes and the ways in which they are imbued with meaning
and symbolism.
In addition to exploring past interactions between humans and their environments,
area or regional studies also examine contemporary challenges and issues facing specific
regions. This may include issues such as climate change, natural hazards, biodiversity
loss, and socio-economic inequalities, all of which have profound implications for the
sustainability and resilience of human societies and ecosystems.
Overall, area or regional studies provide a holistic and multidisciplinary approach
to understanding the complex dynamics of human-environment interaction. By
examining the historical, cultural, ecological, and socio-economic dimensions of specific
regions, researchers gain valuable insights into the diverse ways in which humans have
shaped and been shaped by their environments throughout history. Through this lens,
they can contribute to the development of more informed and sustainable strategies for
managing and conserving our planet's natural resources and landscapes.
Geography, often referred to as the "spatial science," serves as a vital bridge
between various disciplines, integrating knowledge from diverse fields into a coherent
and actionable framework. At its core, geography offers more than just a mere study of
physical landscapes or human settlements; it provides a profound sense of place, enabling
us to contextualize and understand the intricate interplay between natural and human
events.
One of the defining strengths of geography lies in its ability to elucidate the
"why" and "how" behind phenomena occurring in specific locations. Whether it's the
eruption of a volcano, the migration patterns of wildlife, or the distribution of economic
activities, geography provides the analytical tools to uncover the underlying spatial
patterns and processes driving these events. By examining factors such as topography,
climate, demographics, and cultural practices, geographers can unravel the complex
tapestry of interactions shaping our world.
Moreover, world geography adopts a spatial approach, which forms the
cornerstone of its analytical framework. This spatial perspective enables us to visualize,
map, and analyze the spatial distribution of phenomena across the globe. By delineating
spatial relationships and patterns, world geography allows us to discern the
interconnectedness between different regions and understand how they collectively
constitute our global community.
Through the lens of geography, seemingly disparate events and phenomena are
woven into a cohesive narrative, revealing the underlying spatial dynamics at play. For
instance, the spread of infectious diseases can be understood not only in terms of
biological vectors but also in relation to factors such as transportation networks,
urbanization patterns, and environmental conditions. Similarly, economic disparities
between regions can be examined through the lens of spatial inequality, shedding light on
the spatial distribution of resources, infrastructure, and access to markets.
Furthermore, geography serves as a powerful tool for decision-making and
problem-solving in a variety of contexts. Whether it's urban planning, environmental
management, or disaster mitigation, spatial analysis provides invaluable insights into the
potential impacts and implications of different courses of action. By employing
geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing technologies, and spatial
modeling techniques, policymakers, planners, and researchers can develop informed
strategies to address pressing challenges facing our global community.
In essence, geography acts as a unifying framework that transcends disciplinary
boundaries, bringing together insights from the natural sciences, social sciences, and
humanities into a cohesive whole. By providing a sense of place and employing a spatial
approach, world geography enables us to navigate the complexities of our interconnected
world, fostering a deeper understanding of the components that constitute our global
community. In doing so, it empowers us to address the multifaceted challenges and
opportunities shaping our collective future.
b. Geography Basics
Geography is the spatial study of the earth’s surface (from the Greek geo, which
means “Earth,” and graphein, which means “to write”). Geographers study the earth’s
physical characteristics, its inhabitants and cultures, phenomena such as climate, and the
earth’s place within the universe. Geography examines the spatial relationships between
all physical and cultural phenomena in the world. Geographers also look at how the earth,
its climate, and its landscapes are changing due to cultural intervention.
The first known use of the word geography was by Eratosthenes of Cyrene
(modern-day Libya in North Africa), an early Greek scholar who lived between 276 and
194 BC. He devised one of the first systems of longitude and latitude and calculated the
earth’s circumference. Additionally, he created one of the first maps of the world based
on the available knowledge of the time. Around the same time, many ancient cultures in
China, southern Asia, Polynesia, and the Arabian Peninsula also developed maps and
navigation systems used in geography and cartography.
The discipline of geography can be broken down into two main areas of focus:
physical geography and human geography. These two main areas are similar in that they
both use a spatial perspective, and they both include the study of place and the
comparison of one place with another. Physical geography is the spatial study of natural
phenomena that make up the environment, such as rivers, mountains, landforms, weather,
climate, soils, plants, and any other physical aspects of the earth’s surface. Physical
geography focuses on geography as a form of Earth science. It tends to emphasize the
main physical parts of the earth—the lithosphere (surface layer), the atmosphere (air), the
hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living organisms)—and the relationships
between these parts.
Some physical geographers study the earth’s place in the solar system. Others are
environmental geographers, part of an emerging field that studies the spatial aspects and
cultural perceptions of the natural environment. Environmental geography requires an
understanding of both physical and human geography, as well as an understanding of
how humans conceptualize their environment and the physical landscape. Physical
landscape is the term used to describe the natural terrain at any one place on the planet.
The natural forces of erosion, weather, tectonic plate action, and water have formed the
earth’s physical features. Many U.S. state and national parks attempt to preserve unique
physical landscapes for the public to enjoy, such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the
Grand Canyon.
Human geography is the study of human activity and its relationship to the earth’s
surface. Human geographers examine the spatial distribution of human populations,
religions, languages, ethnicities, political systems, economics, urban dynamics, and other
components of human activity. They study patterns of interaction between human
cultures and various environments and focus on the causes and consequences of human
settlement and distribution over the landscape. While the economic and cultural aspects
of humanity are primary focuses of human geography, these aspects cannot be
understood without describing the landscape on which economic and cultural activities
take place.
The cultural landscape is the term used to describe those parts of the earth’s
surface that have been altered or created by humans. For example, the urban cultural
landscape of a city may include buildings, streets, signs, parking lots, or vehicles, while
the rural cultural landscape may include fields, orchards, fences, barns, or farmsteads.
Cultural forces unique to a given place—such as religion, language, ethnicity, customs, or
heritage—influence the cultural landscape of that place at a given time. The colors, sizes,
and shapes of the cultural landscape usually symbolize some level of significance
regarding societal norms. Spatial dynamics assist in identifying and evaluating cultural
differences between places.
Traditionally, the field of cartography, or map making, has been a vital discipline
for geographers. While cartography continues to be an extremely important part of
geography, geographers also look at spatial (space) and temporal (time) relationships
between many types of data, including physical landscape types, economies, and human
activity. Geography also examines the relationships between and the processes of humans
and their physical and cultural environments. Because maps are powerful graphic tools
that allow us to illustrate relationships and processes at work in the world, cartography
and geographic information systems have become important in modern sciences. Maps
are the most common method of illustrating different spatial qualities, and geographers
create and use maps to communicate spatial data about the earth’s surface.
Geospatial techniques are tools used by geographers to illustrate, manage, and
manipulate spatial data. Cartography is the art and science of making maps, which
illustrate data in a spatial form and are invaluable in understanding what is going on at a
given place at a given time. Making maps and verifying a location have become more
exact with the development of the global positioning system (GPS). A GPS unit can
receive signals from orbiting satellites and calculate an exact location in latitude and
longitude, which is helpful for determining where one is located on the earth or for
verifying a point on a map. GPS units are standard equipment for many transportation
systems and have found their way into products such as cell phones, handheld computers,
fish finders, and other mobile equipment. GPS technology is widely implemented in the
transport of people, goods, and services around the world.
Remote sensing technology acquires data about the earth’s surface through aerial
photographs taken from airplanes or images created from satellites orbiting the earth.
Remotely sensed images allow geographers to identify, understand, or explain a
particular landscape or determine the land use of a place. These images can serve as
important components in the cartographic (map-making) process. These technologies
provide the means to examine and analyze changes on the earth’s surface caused by
natural or human forces. Google Earth is an excellent example of a computer tool that
illustrates remotely sensed images of locations on the earth. The recent development of
drone technology has emerged to become an important method of acquiring aerial
photographs and landscape images. Drone technology ranges from industrial and military
aircrafts that take images at higher elevations to small commercial and consumer drones
for low elevation and community purposes.
Geographic information science (GIS), often referred to as geographic
information systems, uses a computer program to assimilate and manage many layers of
map data, which then provide specific information about a given place. GIS data are
usually in digital form and arranged in layers. The GIS computer program can sort or
analyze layers of data to illustrate a specific feature or activity. GIS programs are used in
a wide range of applications, from determining the habitat range of a particular species of
bird to mapping the hometowns of university students.
GIS specialists often create and analyze geographical information for government
agencies or private businesses. They use computer programs to take raw data to develop
the information these organizations need for making vital decisions. For example, in
business applications, GIS can be used to determine a favorable location for a retail store
based on the analysis of spatial data layers such as population distribution, highway or
street arrangements, and the locations of similar stores or competitive establishments.
GIS can integrate a number of maps into one to help analysts understand a place in
relation to their own specific needs.
GIS also focuses on storing information about the earth (both cultural and natural)
in computer databases that can be retrieved and displayed in the form of specialized maps
for specific purposes or analyses. GIS specialists require knowledge about computer and
database systems. Over the last two decades, GIS has revolutionized the field of
cartography: nearly all cartography is now done with the assistance of GIS software.
Additionally, analysis of various cultural and natural phenomena through the use of GIS
software and specialized maps is an important part of urban planning and other social and
physical sciences. GIS can also refer to techniques used to represent, analyze, and predict
spatial relationships between different phenomena.
Geography is a much broader field than many people realize. Most people think
of area studies as the whole of geography. In reality, geography is the study of the earth,
including how human activity has changed it. Geography involves studies that are much
broader than simply understanding the shape of the earth’s landforms. Physical
geography involves all the planet’s physical systems. Human geography incorporates
studies of human culture, spatial relationships, interactions between humans and the
environment, and many other areas of research that involve the different subspecialties of
geography. Students interested in a career in geography would be well served to learn
geospatial techniques and gain skills and experience in GIS and remote sensing, as they
are the areas within geography where employment opportunities have grown the most
over the past few decades.
When identifying a region or location on the earth, the first step is to understand
its relative and absolute locations. Relative location is the location on the earth’s surface
with reference to other places, taking into consideration features such as transportation
access or terrain. Relative location helps one compare the advantages of one location with
those of another. Absolute location, on the other hand, refers to an exact point on the
earth’s surface without regard to how that point is related to any other place. Absolute
location is vital to the cartographic process and to human activities that require an agreed-
upon method of identifying a place or point.
Just as you were taught in geometry that there are 360 degrees in a circle or a
sphere, the earth also has 360 degrees, and they are measured using a grid pattern called
the graticule. Lines of latitude and longitude allow any absolute location on the earth to
have an identifiable address of degrees north or south and east or west, which allows
geographers to accurately locate, measure, and study spatial activity.
Geographers and cartographers organize locations on the earth using a series of
imaginary lines that encircle the globe. The two primary lines are the equator and the
prime meridian. From these lines, the systems of longitude and latitude are formed,
allowing you to locate yourself anywhere on the planet. The line is the longest when you
travel along in an east-west direction. At the equator, the sun is directly overhead at noon
on the two equinoxes, which occur in March and September.
The equator is the largest circle of latitude on Earth. The equator divides the earth
into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres and is called 0 degrees latitude. The other
lines of latitude are numbered from 0 to 90 degrees going toward each of the poles. The
lines north of the equator toward the North Pole are north latitude, and each of the
numbers is followed by the letter “N.” The lines south of the equator toward the South
Pole are south latitude, and each of the numbers is followed by the letter “S.” The equator
(0 latitude) is the only line of latitude without any letter following the number. Notice
that all lines of latitude are parallel to the equator (they are often called parallels) and that
the North Pole equals 90 degrees N and the South Pole equals 90 degrees S. Noted
parallels include both the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, which are 23.5
degrees from the equator. At 66.5 degrees from the equator are the Arctic Circle and the
Antarctic Circle near the North and South Pole, respectively.
The prime meridian sits at 0 degrees longitude and divides the earth into the
Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The prime meridian is defined as an imaginary line
that runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England, a suburb of London.
The Eastern Hemisphere includes the continents of Europe, Asia, and Australia, while the
Western Hemisphere includes North and South America. All meridians (lines of
longitude) east of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180 degrees
east (E); the lines west of the prime meridian (0 and 180) are numbered from 1 to 180
degrees west (W). The 0 and 180 lines do not have a letter attached to them. The
meridian at 180 degrees is called the International Date Line. The International Date Line
(180 degrees longitude) is opposite the prime meridian and indicates the start of each day
(Monday, Tuesday, etc.). Each day officially starts at 12:01 a.m., at the International Date
Line. Do not confuse the International Date Line with the prime meridian (0 longitude).
The actual International Date Line does not follow the 180-degree meridian exactly. A
number of alterations have been made to the International Date Line to accommodate
political agreements to include an island or country on one side of the line or another.
The earth is tilted on its axis 23.5 degrees. As it rotates around the sun, the tilt of
the earth’s axis provides different climatic seasons because of the variations in the angle
of direct sunlight on the planet. Places receiving more direct sunlight experience a
warmer climate. Elsewhere, the increased angle of incoming solar radiation near the
earth’s poles results in more reflected sunlight and thus a cooler climate. The Northern
Hemisphere experiences winter when sunlight is reflected off the earth’s surface and less
of the sun’s energy is absorbed because of a sharper angle from the sun.
The tropics (Cancer and Capricorn) are the two imaginary lines directly above
which the sun shines on the two solstices, which occur on or near June 20 or 21 (summer
solstice in the Northern Hemisphere) and December 21 or 22 (winter solstice in the
Northern Hemisphere). The sun is directly above the Tropic of Cancer at noon on June 20
or 21, marking the beginning of summer in the Northern Hemisphere and the beginning
of winter in the Southern Hemisphere. The sun is directly above the Tropic of Capricorn
at noon on December 21 or 22, marking the beginning of winter in the Northern
Hemisphere and the beginning of summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Solstices are the
extreme ends of the seasons, when the line of direct sunlight is either the farthest north or
the farthest south that it ever goes. The region between the Tropics of Cancer and
Capricorn is known as the tropics. This area does not experience dramatic seasonal
changes because the amount of direct sunlight received does not vary widely. The higher
latitudes (north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn) experience
significant seasonal variation in climate.
The Arctic Circle is a line of latitude at 66.5 degrees north. It is the farthest point
north that receives sunlight during its winter season (90 N − 23.5 = 66.5 N). During
winter, the North Pole is away from the sun and does not receive much sunlight. At
times, it is dark for most of the twenty-four-hour day. During the Northern Hemisphere’s
summer, the North Pole faces more toward the sun and may receive sunlight for longer
portions of the twenty-four-hour day. The Antarctic Circle is the corresponding line of
latitude at 66.5 degrees south. It is the farthest location south that receives sunlight during
the winter season in the Southern Hemisphere (90 S − 23.5 = 66.5 S). When it is winter in
the north, it is summer in the south.
The Arctic and Antarctic Circles mark the extremities (southern and northern,
respectively) of the polar day (twenty-four-hour sunlit day) and the polar night (twenty-
four-hour sunless night). North of the Arctic Circle, the sun is above the horizon for
twenty-four continuous hours at least once per year and below the horizon for twenty-
four continuous hours at least once per year. This is true also near the Antarctic Circle,
but it occurs south of the Antarctic Circle, toward the South Pole. Equinoxes, when the
line of direct sunlight hits the equator and days and nights are of equal length, occur in
the spring and fall on or around March 20 or 21 and September 22 or 23.
Universal Time (UT), Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), Greenwich Mean
Time (GMT), or Zulu Time (Z): all four terms can be defined as local time at 0 degrees
longitude, which is the prime meridian (location of Greenwich, England). This is the
same time under which many military operations, international radio broadcasts, and air
traffic control systems operate worldwide. UTC is set in zeroto twenty-four-hour time
periods, as opposed to two twelve-hour time periods (a.m. and p.m.). The designations of
a.m. and p.m. are relative to the central meridian: a.m. refers to ante meridiem, or “before
noon,” and p.m. refers to post meridiem, or “after noon.” UT, UTC, GMT, and Z all refer
to the same twenty-four-hour time system that assists in unifying a common time in
regard to global operations. For example, all air flights use the twenty-four-hour time
system so the pilots can coordinate flights across time zones and around the world.
The eastern standard time zone is five hours earlier than the time at the prime
meridian (UTC) because it is about 75 degrees west of 0 degrees (5 × 15 = 75). For
example, ifit is noon in London, then it is 7 a.m. in New York. If it is 1 p.m. in New
York, it is 10 a.m. in San Francisco, which is three times zones to the west. Since there
are twenty-four hours in a day, there are twenty-four time zones on Earth. Each time zone
is 15 degrees wide.
A problem with the 15-degree time zones is that the zones do not necessarily
follow state, regional, or local boundaries. The result is that time zones are seldom
exactly 15 degrees wide and usually have varied boundary lines. In the United States, the
boundaries between the different time zones are inconsistent with the lines of longitude;
in some cases, time zones zigzag to follow state lines or to keep cities within a single
time zone. Other countries address the problem differently. China, for example, is as
large in land area as the United States yet operates on only one time zone for the entire
country.
A region is a basic unit of study in geography—a unit of space characterized by a
feature such as a common government, language, political situation, or landform. A
region can be a formal country governed by political boundaries, such as France or
Canada; a region can be defined by a landform, such as the drainage basin of all the water
that flows into the Mississippi River; and a region can even be defined by the area served
by a shopping mall. Cultural regions can be defined by similarities in human activities,
traditions, or cultural attributes. Geographers use the regional unit to map features of
particular interest, and data can be compared between regions to help understand trends,
identify patterns, or assist in explaining a particular phenomenon.
Regions are traditionally defined by internal characteristics that provide a sense of
place. Their boundaries vary with the type of region, whether it is formal, functional, or
vernacular; each type has its own meaning and defined purpose. A formal region has a
governmental, administrative, or political boundary and can have political as well as
geographic boundaries that are not open to dispute or debate. Formal boundaries can
separate states, provinces, or countries from one another. Physical regions can be
included within formal boundaries, such as the Rocky Mountains or New England. An
official boundary, such as the boundary of a national park, can be considered a formal
boundary. School districts, cities, and county governments have formal boundaries.
Natural physical geographic features have a huge influence on where political
boundaries of formal regions are set. If you look at a world map, you will recognize that
many political boundaries are natural features, such as rivers, mountain ranges, and large
lakes. For example, between the United States and Mexico, the Rio Grande makes up a
portion of the border. Likewise, between Canada and the United States, a major part of
the eastern border is along the Saint Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes. Alpine
mountain ranges in Europe create borders, such as the boundary between Switzerland and
Italy.
While geographic features can serve as convenient formal borders, political
disputes will often flare up in adjacent areas, particularly if valuable natural or cultural
resources are found within the geographic features. Oil drilling near the coast of a
sovereign country, for example, can cause a dispute between countries about which one
has dominion over the oil resources. The exploitation of offshore fisheries can also be
disputed. A Neolithic mummy of a man who died in 3300 BC caused tension between
Italy and Switzerland: the body was originally taken to Innsbruck, Switzerland, but when
it was determined that the body was found about 90 meters (180 feet) inside the border of
Italy, Italian officials laid claim to the body.
Vernacular regions have loosely defined boundaries based on people’s
perceptions or thoughts. Vernacular regions can be fluid—that is, different people may
have different opinions about the limits of the regions. Vernacular regions include
concepts such as the region called the “Middle East.” Many people have a rough idea of
the Middle East’s location but do not know precisely which countries make up the
Middle East. Also, in the United States, the terms Midwest or South have many
variations. Each individual might have a different idea about the location of the
boundaries of the South or the Midwest. Whether the state of Kentucky belongs in the
Midwest or in the South might be a matter of individual perception. Similarly, various
regions of the United States have been referred to as the Rust Belt, Sun Belt, or Bible
Belt without a clear definition of their boundaries. The limit of a vernacular area is more
a matter of perception than of any formally agreed-upon criteria. Nevertheless, most
people would recognize the general area being discussed when using one of the
vernacular terms in a conversation.
World regional geography studies various world regions as they compare with the
rest of the world. Factors for comparison include both the physical and the cultural
landscape. The main questions are: Who lives there? What are their lives like? What do
they do for a living? Physical factors of significance can include location, climate type,
and terrain. Human factors include cultural traditions, ethnicity, language, religion,
economics, and politics.
Again, this textbook takes a regional approach with a focus on themes that
illustrate the globalization process, which in turn helps us better understand our global
community. The regions studied in world regional geography can be combined into larger
portions called realms. Realms are large areas of the planet, usually with multiple
regions, that share the same general geographic location. Regions are cohesive areas
within each realm. The regions within a realm are often examined and studied together to
help understand common trends, landscapes, cultural characteristics, or development
patterns. Modern transportation, communication, and trade are breaking down the
barriers of time and distance between the realms allowing more interaction and common
activities to occur. The sharing of culture around the world is eliminating some of the
past stereotypes of world regions and allowing people from all realms to participate in a
human global experience. Eleven realms are examined within the various designations.
c. The Environment and Human Activity
The earth’s ability to receive and absorb sunlight is a primary factor in the earth’s
environment, and it also has a big impact on human populations. There are no large cities
or human communities in Antarctica because it is so cold; most of the sunlight filtering
down to Antarctica is reflected off the earth at that latitude because of the tilt of the
earth’s axis and the resulting angle of incoming solar radiation. Answering the basic
questions of where most humans live on Earth and why they live there depends on
understanding climate. Moderate type C climates usually provide the greatest
opportunities for human habitation.
Since the region between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn
receives the most direct sunlight throughout the year, it is favorable to plant and animal
life, provided there is adequate moisture or precipitation. Humans have been living in the
tropics for a long time, even when the ice sheets were covering parts of the midlatitudes.
The problem with the tropics is that the soils are usually of poor quality and the nutrients
have been leached out. Today, when we look at the earth and the distribution of human
population, two main factors attract human habitation: moderate climates and access to
water.
More than 70 percent of the earth’s surface is covered with water. The only
problem is that less than 3 percent of the water is fresh, and most of that fresh water is
stored in ice caps at the North or South Pole. This leaves less than 1 percent of the
world’s fresh water for human use, usually in lakes, rivers, streams, or groundwater and
underground aquifers. Climate plays an important role in where humans live because
precipitation is necessary for growing crops, raising livestock, and supplying fresh water
to urban communities.
Several geographers have developed categories to identify climate types. Climate
can be defined as a long-term average weather pattern evident in a particular region of the
world. Weather is a term usually used to define conditions on a short-term or even daily
basis. The two main elements in climate conditions are temperature and precipitation. For
the purposes of this overview of world geography, the various climate types have been
broken down into six basic types—A, B, C, D, E, and H—after the Köppen-Geiger
classification system. Type H climates are actually a subset of the type E climate
category.
The humid tropical type A climate, usually found in the tropics, has warm
temperatures year-round with a high level of precipitation, typically in the form of rain.
Type A climates have various subgroups that indicate how variably the rainfall is
distributed throughout the year. Some type A climates produce a dry season and a wet
season (monsoon), while others receive consistent rainfall throughout the year.
The dry type B climate is exemplified by the earth’s desert regions. Temperatures
can be extreme, with little precipitation. Type B climate regions experience low rainfall
and high temperatures during the day and cooler temperatures at night or during the
winter season. Terrain in type B climates can range from sand deserts to prairie
grasslands or steppes. Type B climates have fewer trees than most other climate areas.
There is a direct relationship between highlands and type B climates in various
places in the world. This climate condition, known as the rain shadow effect, or more
accurately, the precipitation shadow effect, occurs when one side of a mountain range
receives abundant rainfall while the region on the other side of the mountain range is a
desert or has more arid climate conditions. This phenomenon is evident wherever there is
terrain with enough elevation to restrict the movement of precipitation-bearing clouds.
Rain shadows are created when prevailing winds carrying moisture rise quickly in
elevation up a mountainside, where the air cools and condenses to precipitate out its
moisture in the form of rain or snow. By the time the air mass hits the top of the
mountain, its moisture is much reduced. The dried air rushes down the other side of the
mountain range, where it increases in temperature. The warm, dry air coming off the
mountains continues to pull moisture out of the land, resulting in desert or arid climate
conditions.
Death Valley in California is also a result of the rain shadow effect. Little rain
falls on Death Valley because any moisture in the prevailing winds falls on the western
side of the bordering mountain ranges. The whole state of Nevada is dry because of the
rain shadow effect. All the rain coming off the Pacific Ocean falls on the coastal
mountains and the Sierra Nevada in California. The mountains are high enough to
shadow that region of Nevada, and the basin and ranges further the rain shadow effect on
a local basis.
On the other side of the earth, the Himalayas are an excellent example of
mountains that create the rain shadow effect. Most of Western China has type B climates
because of the rain shadow effect caused by high mountains that stop rain clouds from
ever reaching the region. The southern side of the Himalayas receives extensive rainfall
because of monsoon rains arriving from the Indian Ocean, but Western China is
essentially a desert. It is sparsely inhabited compared with the high-density regions in
China Proper to the east, where rainfall is plentiful.
Often described as moderate in temperature and precipitation, type C climates are
the most favorable to human habitation in that they host the largest human population
densities on the planet. Type C climates are found mostly in the midlatitudes bordering
the tropics. Seasonal changes are pronounced, with distinct winters and summers.
Winters are cool to cold and summers are usually warm. Precipitation varies from low to
high, depending on location. In the United States, C climates dominate the southeast and
the West Coast.
Type D climate regions are often found in the interiors of continents away from
the moderating influence of large bodies of water. They are often farther north than type
C regions, resulting in colder winters. Seasonal variations exist, with cool to hot summers
and cold winters. Precipitation is usually in the form of rain in summer and snow in
winter. Regions with type D climates can be found in the Great Lakes region of the
United States, much of Canada, and a large portion of Russia.
The planet’s growing population has increased demands on natural resources,
including forest products. Humans have been using trees for firewood, building homes,
and making tools for millennia. Trees are a renewable resource, but deforestation occurs
when they are removed faster than they can be replenished. Many people in rural areas in
developing countries rely on firewood to cook their food. Many of these areas are
experiencing a fast decline in the number of trees available. People living in mainly type
B climates may not have access to a lot of trees to start with; therefore, when trees are cut
down for firewood or for building materials, deforestation occurs. In the tropical areas, it
is common for hardwood trees to be cut down for lumber to gain income or to clear the
land for other agricultural purposes, such as cattle ranching. Countries that lack
opportunities and advantages look to exploit their natural resources—in this case, trees—
for either subsistence agriculture or economic gain. Deforestation has increased across
the globe with the rapid rise in worldwide population.
During the Industrial Revolution, European countries chopped down their forests
at a rapid rate. Much of the British Isles was forested at one point, but today few forests
remain on the British Isles, and they are typically protected. Colonialism brought the
Europeans to the Americas. The United States, in its early development, pushed west
from the original thirteen colonies, and many old-growth forests were cut down in the
process. As railroad tracks were laid down and pioneer development pushed west into the
Great Plains, where there were few trees, the great cutover occurred in the eastern and
central forests—cutover is a term indicating the systematic deforestation of the eastern
and central forests. Michigan and Wisconsin saw their trees removed in a systematic
deforestation.
Deforestation causes more than the loss of trees for fuel, building materials, paper
products, or manufacturing. Another related issue in the deforestation equation is soil
erosion. Without the trees to hold the soil during heavy rains, soils are eroded away,
leaving the ground in an unproductive state. In tropical areas, soils are often degraded and
lack nutrients. Most of the nutrients in the tropical areas rest in decaying material at the
base of the trees that supplies energy back into the ecosystem. Once the trees are
removed, there is little replenishing of this energy supply. Soil erosion in tropical areas
makes it hard for forests to grow back once they have been removed. Landslides can be a
more severe component of the soil erosion problem. After heavy rainfall, entire hillsides
saturated with water can slide downward, causing serious structural damage to buildings,
homes, and agricultural plots in addition to loss of life. Tree roots help hold hillsides
together and therefore help prevent landslides.
Climate change has been a constant activity in the planet’s evolution. The
increase in temperature in our environment is the activity that has gained the most
attention in recent years. Questions have been raised about the rate and extent of climate
change around the world. Understanding the dynamics of the temperature increase can
assist in understanding how it is related to human activity. The atmosphere is the gaseous
layer that surrounds the earth and marks the transition between its surface and space. The
atmosphere consists of a mixture of gases, composed of nitrogen (77 percent), oxygen
(21 percent), and minor elements (1 percent) including argon, helium, carbon dioxide,
and water vapor. The small amount of carbon dioxide is a critical component in the
control of the earth’s temperature. The atmosphere extends over 300 miles above the
earth’s surface, and the lower level makes up the earth’s climatic system. This lowest
level is called the troposphere and is responsible for the conditions that allow life to exist
on the planet’s surface.
The movement of tectonic plates is another aspect of the earth’s dynamics that
affects human activity. The earth’s crust, which is between 10 and 125 miles thick, is not
one big solid chunk but rather a series of plates that cover a molten iron core at the center
of the planet. The plates that cover the earth’s surface slowly shift and move. Plates can
slide away from each other or they can collide, and they can slide parallel to each other in
opposite directions. When two plates collide and one plate slides under an adjacent plate,
the process is called subduction. Movement or shifts where two plates meet can cause
earthquakes and is usually associated with volcanic activity.
d. Population and Culture
Demography is the study of how human populations change over time and space.
It is a branch of human geography related to population geography, which is the
examination of the spatial distribution of human populations. Geographers study how
populations grow and migrate, how people are distributed around the world, and how
these distributions change over time. For most of human history, relatively few people
lived on Earth, and world population grew slowly. Only about 500 million people lived
on the entire planet in 1650. Things changed dramatically during Europe’s Industrial
Revolution in the late 1700s and into the 1800s, when declining death rates due to
improved nutrition and sanitation allowed more people to survive to adulthood and
reproduce. The population of Europe grew rapidly. However, by the middle of the
twentieth century, birth rates in developed countries declined, as children had become an
economic liability rather than an economic asset to families. Fewer families worked in
agriculture, more families lived in urban areas, and women delayed the age of marriage to
pursue education, resulting in a decline in family size and a slowing of population
growth. In some countries (e.g., Russia and Japan), population is actually in decline, and
the average age in developed countries has been rising for decades. The process just
described is called the demographic transition.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the world’s population was about 1.6
billion. One hundred years later, there were roughly six billion people in the world, and
as of 2011, the number reached seven billion. This rapid growth occurred as the
demographic transition spread from developed countries to the rest of the world. During
the twentieth century, death rates due to disease and malnutrition decreased in nearly
every corner of the globe. In developing countries with agricultural societies, however,
birth rates remained high. Low death rates and high birth rates resulted in rapid
population growth. Meanwhile, birth rates—and family size—have also been declining in
most developing countries as people leave agricultural professions and move to urban
areas. This means that population growth rates—while still higher in the developing
world than in the developed world—are declining. Although the exact figures are
unknown, demographers expect the world’s population to stabilize by 2100 and then
decline somewhat.
In 2021, the world’s population of 7.8 billion was growing by about 80 million
per year, a growth rate found almost exclusively in developing countries, as populations
are stable or in decline in places such as Europe and North America. World population
increase is pronounced on the continent of Asia: China and India are the most populous
countries in the world, each with more than a billion people, and Pakistan is an emerging
population giant with a high rate of population growth. The continent of Africa has the
highest fertility rates in the world, with countries such as Nigeria—Africa's most
populous and growing population—leading the way. The most striking paradox within
population studies is that while there has been marked decline in fertility (a declining
family size) in developing countries, the world’s population will grow substantially by
2030 because of the compounding effect of the large number of people already in the
world—that is, even though population growth rates are in decline in many countries, the
population is still growing. A small growth rate on a large base population still results in
the birth of many millions of people.
As countries move from an agricultural to an industrial economy, there is a major
shift in population from rural to urban settings. The Industrial Revolution of the
nineteenth century ushered in major technological developments and changes in labor
practices, which encouraged migration from the farm to the city. Because of increased
mechanization, fewer farm workers are needed to produce larger agricultural yields. At
the same time, factories in urban areas have a great need for industrial workers. This shift
continued into the Information Age of the late twentieth century and continues in many
parts of the developing world in the current century.
A basic principle of population growth that addresses this rural-to-urban shift
states that as countries industrialize and urbanize, family size typically decreases and
incomes traditionally increase. Though this may not be true in all cases, it is a general
principle that is consistent across cultural lines. Agricultural regions generally have a
larger average family size than that of their city counterparts. Fertility rate is the average
number of children a woman in a particular country has in her lifetime, whether or not
they all live to adulthood. If a fertility rate for a given country is less than 2.1—the
replacement level—the population of that country is in decline, unless there is significant
immigration. A fertility rate greater than 2.1 indicates that the country’s population is
increasing. Some children will never reach reproductive age nor have children of their
own, so the replacement rate has to be slightly greater than 2. The concept of fertility rate
is slightly different from the term family size, which indicates the number of living
children raised by a parent or parents in the same household. In this textbook, family size
is used to illustrate the concept of population growth and decline.
A country’s demographic statistics can be illustrated graphically by a population
pyramid. A population pyramid is essentially two bar graphs that depict male and female
age cohorts either in absolute size or as a percentage of the total population. Male cohorts
are typically shown on the left side of the pyramid, and females are on the right side. The
shape of a country’s population pyramid tells a story about the history of its population
growth. For example, a high-growth-rate country has a pyramid that is narrow at the top
and wide at the bottom, showing that every year more children have been born than the
year before. As family size decreases and women in a society have fewer children, the
shape of the pyramid changes. A population pyramid for a postindustrialized country that
has negative growth would be narrower at the bottom than in the middle, indicating that
there are fewer children than middle-aged people.
The term culture is often difficult to differentiate from the term ethnicity. In this
textbook, ethnicity indicates traits people are born with, including genetic backgrounds,
physical features, or birthplaces. People have little choice in matters of ethnicity. The
term culture indicates what people learn after they are born, including language, religion,
and customs or traditions. Individuals can change matters of culture by individual choice
after they are born. These two terms help us identify human patterns and understand a
country’s driving forces. The term nationality is usually used to refer to the country of
one’s citizenship.
Language is the communication mode of human culture, and it represents the
complete diversity of thought, literature, and the arts. All the billions of people on the
planet speak at least one language. Estimates vary by source, but most indicate that there
are over 6,000-7,000 living languages in the world. Dialects and variations of the same
language may vary from one location to another. Of the more than 6,000 languages,
about thirteen are spoken by more than 100 million people each. These are the world’s
main languages used in the most populous countries. However, the vast majority of the
world’s languages are spoken by a relatively small number of people. In fact, many
languages have no written form and are spoken by declining numbers of people. There
are even communities in various parts of the world where people can communicate by
whistling messages to each other or by using clicking sounds. Language experts estimate
that up to half the world’s living languages could be lost by the end of the twenty-first
century as a result of globalization. New languages form when populations live in
isolation, and in the current era, as the world’s populations are increasingly interacting
with each other, languages are being abandoned and their speakers are switching to other
tongues.
Religious geography is the study of the distribution of religions and their
relationship to their place of origin. Religious geographers recognize three main types of
religions: universal (or universalizing), ethnic (or cultural), and traditional (or tribal)
religions. Universal religions include Christianity, Islam, and various forms of Buddhism.
These religions attempt to gain worldwide acceptance and appeal to all types of people,
and they actively look for new members, or converts. Ethnic religions appeal to a single
ethnic group or culture. These religions do not actively seek out converts. Broader ethnic
religions include Judaism, Shintoism, Hinduism, and Chinese religions that embrace
Confucianism and Taoism. Finally, traditional religions involve the belief in some form
of supernatural power that people can appeal to for help, including ancestor worship and
the belief in spirits that live in various aspects of nature, such as trees, mountaintops, and
streams (this is often called animism). Traditional religions can be found in every region
of the world and often have no written text or record. Religions based upon traditional
beliefs or animism that also include the mix of African belief systems have as many
followers as any single organized religion on Earth except the top four of Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The number of different religious beliefs that people
hold illustrates the diversity of the human community. Estimates indicate that there are
over 4,000 religions in the world.
e. Globalization and Development
U.S. President George H. W. Bush gave a speech during his presidency (1988–92)
indicating the real possibility of a New World Order. The speech, given during the
Persian Gulf War when Iraq occupied Kuwait, was quite surprising to many, and it
created questions about what he meant. Geographers and professionals in other
disciplines understand that the world is not static. Cultural forces continue to act on
human activities as globalization creates new alliances and global networks. The goal is
to understand globalization and to make sense of what is happening. The better we
understand the world and human dynamics, the better we will be prepared to address the
changes that are occurring. Geography provides a means to spatially examine these
changes.
Globalization is a process with a long history. People have been exploring,
migrating, and trading with each other throughout human history, and these activities
have created interactive networks connecting the different parts of the planet and
producing dependent economic relationships. In modern times, globalization can be
recognized by noting iconic global corporations, such as Walmart, McDonald’s,
Samsung, or Toyota, that trade across international borders and integrate labor and
resources from different countries to sell a product or service in the global marketplace.
In a number of countries, people have protested against the building of new Walmarts or
McDonald’s, and such protests exemplify concerns about globalization and the growing
expansion of dominant global economic units into local communities. These ubiquitous
corporations represent corporate interests that are primarily concerned with company
profits. Global corporations tend to view countries or communities as either markets for
their products or sources of labor or raw materials. Globalization can seriously impact
local communities for better or for worse, depending on local circumstances. The main
force that encourages globalization is economic activity based on technological
advancements. Cultural and societal changes often occur as a consequence and are no less
significant.
Considering the drive of individuals to increase their opportunities or advantages
is one way to understand our world. People who have access to opportunities and
advantages can generally achieve a higher standard of living than people without. This
can be true for individuals, global corporations, or whole countries. Countries that have
an opportunity or an advantage over others can achieve a higher standard of living for
their people, and countries without such opportunities or advantages will struggle in a
global economy. A country’s opportunities and advantages can be determined by various
factors, such as the amounts of available natural or human resources, arable land for
farming, forests for timber, and freshwater for fishing or a specific location that provides
a greater access to the world markets. Examples of human resources are a large labor
pool or a high percentage of educated professionals. Individuals seek to gain
opportunities or advantages by increasing their education, learning new skills that can
translate into higher earning power, or migrating to a place with improved employment
prospects.
Economic conditions vary across the globe. There are wealthy countries and there
are poor countries, and the determination of which countries are wealthy and which
countries are poor has generally been determined by the availability of economic
opportunities and advantages. There are three core areas of wealthy industrialized
countries, all of which are found in the Northern Hemisphere: North America, Western
Europe, and Eastern Asia. The main market centers of these regions are large cities like
New York City, London, Tokyo, Shanghai, or Hong Kong. These three core areas and
their prosperous neighbors make up the centers of economic activity that drive the global
economy. Other wealthy countries can be found dispersed in regions with large amounts
of natural resources, such as the Middle East, or places of strategic location, such as
Singapore. The world’s developing countries make up the periphery. A few countries
share qualities of both and may be called semiperipheries.
It is easier to understand why people move from rural to urban, from periphery to
core, from Mexico to the United States when one begins to understand the global
economy. Economic conditions are connected to how countries gain national income,
opportunities, and advantages. One way of gaining wealth is simply by taking someone
else’s wealth. This method has been common practice throughout human history: a group
of armed individuals attacks another group and takes their possessions or resources. This
is regularly practiced through warfare. Unfortunately, this pillageand-plunder type of
activity has been a standard way of gaining wealth throughout human history. The taking
of resources by force or by war is frowned upon today by the global economic
community, though it still occurs. The art of piracy, for example, is still found on the high
seas in various places around the globe.
The main methods countries use to gain national income are based on sustainable
national income models and value-added principles. The traditional three areas of
agriculture, extraction/ mining, and manufacturing are a result of primary and secondary
economic activities. Natural resources, agriculture, and manufacturing have been
traditionally targeted as the means to gain national income. Postindustrial activities in the
service sector would include tertiary and quaternary economic activities, which make up
a large part of a nation’s economy but might not hold the same value-added quotient for
national income as the traditional three areas.
Agriculture is the method of growing crops or trees or raising livestock that
provides food and some raw materials. The excess is usually sold for profits. This is a
renewable method of gaining wealth, as long as conditions are favorable. Profits for
agricultural products might be low because of global competition. Countries with
minerals, oil, or other natural resources can earn income from the extraction and sale of
those items. Saudi Arabia and other countries with abundant petroleum reserves can gain
wealth by selling that resource to other countries. Since these resources are not
renewable, once the minerals or oil run out, the country must turn to other activities to
gain national income.
Places around the world have sometimes been named after the methods used to
gain wealth. For example, the Gold Coast of West Africa received its label because of the
abundance of gold in the region. The term breadbasket often refers to a region with
abundant agricultural surpluses. Another example is the Champagne region of France,
which has become synonymous with the beverage made from the grapes grown there.
The outdated colonial term of banana republics earned their name because their large
fruit plantations were the main income source for the large corporations that operated
them and dominated the country. Places such as Copper Canyon and Silver City are
examples of towns, cities, or regions named after the natural resources found there. The
United States had its Manufacturing Belt, referring to the region from Boston to St.
Louis, which was the core industrial region that generated wealth through heavy
manufacturing for the greater part of nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Manufacturing has offered the industrialized world the opportunity for the
greatest valueadded profits. From the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, solid profits
have been made by turning raw materials into consumer products that can be mass-
produced and sold in high quantities. The core areas of the world have all made enormous
wealth from manufacturing profits. Today, information technology and high-tech
manufactured products generate substantial wealth. The Microsoft Corporation
manufactures information by placing data in the form of computer programs in digital
form that are then sold at a profit to a world computer market. The geographic region of
California south of San Francisco was labeled Silicon Valley after this type of
information-generating activity. Many countries have their own Silicon Valley where
digital information technologies are being developed.
For a country to gain national wealth, income must be brought in from outside the
country or be generated from within. Other than the big-three methods of agriculture,
extraction/mining, and manufacturing, there are additional ways a country can gain
wealth, such as through tourism and services. Postindustrial economic activities (the
service sector) contribute to a large percentage of employment opportunities in
industrialized countries and generate a large percentage of their national economies.
However, the service sector does not have the high value-added profits traditionally
provided by the manufacturing sector. In the gaming industry, for example, casinos do
not have a large wealth-generating potential for the country unless they can either attract
gamblers from other countries or provide for other wealth-generating services. Gambling
shifts wealth from one person to another and provides little national income. The activity
of gambling does, however, generate service jobs for the gaming industry.
Countries with few opportunities to gain wealth to support their governments
often borrow money to provide services for their people. National debt is a major
problem for national governments. National income can be consolidated into the hands of
a minority of the population at the top of the socioeconomic strata. These social elites
have the ability to dominate the politics of their countries or regions. The elites may hold
most of a country’s wealth, while at the same time their government might not always
have enough revenues to pay for public services. To pay for public services, the
government might need to borrow money, which then increases that country’s national
debt. The government could have a high national debt even when the country is home to
a large number of wealthy citizens or a growing economy. Taxes are a standard method
for governments to collect revenue. If economic conditions decline, the amount of taxes
collected can also decline, which could leave the government in a shortfall. Again, the
government might borrow money to continue operating and to provide the same level of
services. Political corruption and the mismanagement of funds can also cause a country’s
government to lack revenues to pay for the services it needs to provide its citizens.
National debt, defined as the total amount of money a government owes, is a
growing concern across the globe. Many governments have problems paying their
national debt or even the interest on their national debt. Governments whose debt has
surpassed their ability to pay have often inflated their currency to increase the amount of
money in circulation, a practice that can lead to hyperinflation and eventually the collapse
of the government’s currency, which could have serious negative effects on the country’s
economy. In contrast to the national debt, the term budget deficit refers to the annual
cycle of accounting of a government’s excess spending over the amount of revenues it
takes in during a given fiscal year.
