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Pre-Writing Scaffold Assignment
Angela J Tippett
School of Education, Liberty University
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John C. Dewey
Annotated Journal Articles on John C. Dewey
d'Agnese, V. (2019). Dewey and possibility: Challenging neoliberalism in
education.Educational Theory,69(6), 693-
717.'https://doi.org/10.1111/edth.12400
Neoliberalism, as defined in this article, is a privatized form of educational reform,
removing much of the democratic process and local influence on education and replacing
those involved with governance from corporate arenas, aligning educational goals with
economic and commercial needs in society. This form of control by government and
commercial entities forces education to become narrow in its focus on goals and
outcomes, more interested in the student as a product of the instruction than a well-
rounded, responsible adult. Predetermined standards and outcomes can be very limiting
to students, especially those with learning or behavioral challenges. It is not possible to
meet their needs in this type of educational environment.
Dewey and the ideas of progressive education are in stark contrast to the
neoliberal ideas of one-size fits most education. While neoliberalism offers a promise of
students better prepared for financial success, progressivism offers students the
opportunity to follow their own interests and learn at their own pace, giving them time to
mature and decide what path they will follow in the future, while still ensuring they are
prepared to be a part of a democratic society. Progressivism, as presented by Dewey and
his contemporaries, offers opportunity for all to be a part of the learning process, with
teachers leading the way.
Neoliberalism, on the surface at least, has some merit. Students do need to be
prepared for the challenges of the job market and global economy. However, a closer
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look reveals an educational model that resembles more a survival of the fittest, not a one-
size fits all educational program. Those with special needs and learning challenges are
not a part of the bigger picture in neoliberal education. If these marginalized students
cannot fit into the mold, they are left out of the process, and have few alternatives for
education. Progressivism is not a perfect model either. Dewey is more interested in
producing democratic thinkers than global competitors in the job market. Training for a
career is not, in itself, a poor educational model, but the authoritarian approach presented
by neoliberalism is not a adequate model either (de Saxe et al., 2020)
Holdo, M. (2023). Critical reflection: John Dewey’s relational view of transformative
learning.Journal of Transformative Education,21(1), 9-
25.'https://doi.org/10.1177/15413446221086727
When considering any form of instructional model, reflection on goals and outcomes, as
well as contextual implications of the learned materials is important. Reflection is a
central component of transformative learning, which is learning that brings change to the
learner, but also the social environment surrounding the learner, on a small or large scale.
Reflection requires the learner to place the new information acquired into context with
the world around them, offering them an opportunity to their situation or circumstances,
but better understand ways to affect change on their social condition as well.
Transformative learning should change the learner’s perspective on accepted social ideas
as well as personal ones. Jack Mezirow, a student of Dewey, expanded on this idea of
transformative learning by introducing reflection as a habit of the mind, but did not offer
further expansion of the purpose of reflection as a means to transform the mind of the
learner. Mezirow supported educational reflection as a way to change students’
perspectives of the world, allowing them to then change the world around them. Dewey
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was more interested in changing the students’ thought process, so the world was a
constant source of inspection and reflection, allowing them to encounter the world in
multiple different ways.
Dewey was a proponent of transformative learning for the greater good of the
student as well as the society in which they lived. Allowing students to reflect on the
world around them in context of their learning allows them to make deeper connections
in their social environment and contribute to a democratic society through better
understanding of the needs of that society. This process of reflection and transformative
learning is very beneficial to students with special needs. It allows them room to explore
their world through the lens of educational experiences, learning about the social world
around them, and allowing them to engage in this social world at different levels than
they might be able to in a traditional learning environment (Weist & Kreil, 1995).
Mohamed, N. (2019). The debate between traditional and progressive education in light of
special education.Journal of Thought,54(3/4), 43-73. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED583181
For more than a century, traditional methodologies have competed for control of the
classroom in America. Rote learning and standardized assessments categorized the
traditional classroom. Students are expected to comply with adult expectations and are
disciplined if they cannot do so. Curriculum in a traditional classroom is aligned with the
traditions of the past and the needs of adult society in order to produce productive,
employable adults.
Progressive classrooms are more aligned with hands on cooperative learning.
Teachers become facilitators rather than instructors, allowing students to encounter
learning materials in their preferred learning style with less pressure to assimilate to a
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specific ideal. For special education students, inclusion in a traditional classroom can be
a difficult pairing. Following a specific format for learning, assessment, and success may
be an impossibility for a student with special needs. Dewey, a proponent of progressive
education, laid a foundation in his writings for experienced-based learning, offering
individual students an opportunity to encounter learning at their own pace and in their
preferred learning style (Smith, 2020). While preparing the student for adulthood, the
learning is not designed to limit them to specific outcomes, but to give them opportunities
to choose what suits them best.
There are components of both instructional models that hold merit in the
classroom. Some students, especially those with certain disabilities, thrive on the
structure and consistency provided by a traditional classroom format. However, other
components of a traditional classroom, such as standardized tests, are an unrealistic
measure of a student’s true capabilities, and alternative assessment measure like those in
the progressive instructional model, are much more in line with their learning styles and
capabilities. Dewey’s influence in this area is beneficial for students with special needs.
Synthesis of Articles on John C. Dewey
While many of Dewey’s ideas have been discounted due to changes in education over the
past century, his support and influence in progressive educational practices has seen a revival of
sorts in recent decades. His push for experiential learning and curriculum that was student-
centered, allowing them to pursue their interests as a catalyst of learning, have become more
accepted as a valid method of student instruction. Especially for students with learning
differences or special needs in the general education classroom, this idea of self-guided learning
and opportunities to encounter materials in a way the student prefers to learn, has led to a more
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successful model of inclusion for students with special needs in recent years. While some
students may struggle with the lack of structure that this form of learning can precipitate, with
collaboration between general education teachers and special education teachers, students with
special needs can still have the accommodations necessary for their social emotional well-being
while learning alongside their non-challenged peers.
Preliminary Thesis Statement: John C. Dewey
While working and writing at a time in American history when special education was not
a focus or even an area of great concern, John Dewey provided the groundwork for change in
mainstream instructional practices which is allowing inclusion of special education students in
the general education classroom a century later.
The Impact of Least Restrictive Environment on Inclusive Education
Annotated Journal Articles on The Impact of Least Restrictive Environment on Inclusive
Education
Francisco, M. P. B., Hartman, M., & Wang, Y. (2020). Inclusion and special
education.Education Sciences,10(9), 238.Hhttps://doi.org/10.3390/educsci10090238
Perspectives on the education of students with special needs has changed drastically over
the past two centuries. From no form of educational plan, then institutions to house and
educate people with similar disabilities, followed by separate classes within the same
school building as their peers, to now some combination of general education classroom
inclusion with pull-out or separate setting instruction, special education has changed both
in practice and in theory from the late 19th century to present day. Least restrictive
environment became part of the American educational system following the passage of
the Education for All Handicapped Children Act (EAHCA) in 1975. It was redefined in
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1990 when EAHCA became the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA) and the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed, asserting that disabilities were
created by environments that preventing them from engaging in activities similar to their
peers. Once the United Nations issued guidance on the care and education of disabled
children in the Salamanca Statement of 1994 and took up the cause of providing for the
needs of disabled individuals, inclusion became part of the discussion.
Many individuals and special interest groups have helped contribute to changing
the face of special education both in America and around the world. From the civil rights
movement in the United States during the 1960s, to the international changes in human
rights brought about by United Nations resolutions during the early 2000s, special
education has become a focus for many people, even those outside of the educational
sector. Changes in public perception of individuals with disabilities has further brought
special education into the spotlight, and inclusion into the realm of reality. The least
restrictive environment is still a bit vague and certainly left up to interpretation, it has
continued to advance the placement of students with disabilities into the general
education classroom (Bolourian et al., 2020). While much work is left to be done,
continued legislative changes and better educator training will continue to close the
learning gaps for those students with special needs in the least restrictive environment,
the general education classroom.
Kurth, J. A., Ruppar, A. L., Toews, S. G., McCabe, K. M., McQueston, J. A., & Johnston, R.
(2019). Considerations in placement decisions for students with extensive support needs:
An analysis of LRE statements.Research and Practice for Persons with Severe
Disabilities,44(1), 3-19.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1177/1540796918825479
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The idea of a least restrictive environment (LRE) has been part of the special education
decision making process since the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975.
However, there seems to be little consistency in how LRE is defined and interpreted by
special education teachers and related services professionals. Individualized Education
Plans (IEPs) are documents designed to help special services teams and the families of
students with special needs work together to create a plan for each student that best fits
their learning, emotional, behavioral, and/or physical needs and allow them to access a
free and public education (FAPE). Part of this decision-making process is determining
the least restrictive environment in which the student can successfully access the general
education curriculum.
This research study showed that often the least restrictive environment was not a
consideration when designing IEPs for students with special needs. There were
significant inconsistencies in the data regarding how the decision was made, what the
conditions of the LRE were, and how the student was impacted by these decisions. Many
students with IEPs included in the study were participating in the general education
curriculum for non-academic activities, but all academics were taking place outside of the
general education classroom, with little to no reason given for this decision.
LRE is a challenging decision when considering student IEP goals and
accommodations. There are a myriad of reasons why teachers avoid the LRE in IEP
documentation. Students with special needs require more support and attention than
those without challenges, oftentimes making it difficult for teachers to management their
lessons and their classrooms at the same time. While this is not a valid excuse for
altering the placement of a student with special needs, it may be one of the most common
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reasons why students with disabilities may be excluded from general education settings
(Warnes et al., 2022). While working with such students in an inclusive classroom
environment may be challenging, the consideration for what is best for the student should
take precedence over the opinions of the general education teacher.
Williamson, P., Hoppey, D., McLeskey, J., Bergmann, E., & Moore, H. (2020). Trends in LRE
placement rates over the past 25 years.The Journal of Special Education,53(4), 236-
244.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1177/0022466919855052
Based on data from all 50 states and the District of Columbia, placement in the least
restrictive environment for students with special needs (SSN) has increased significantly
over the past 25 years. Much of this can be attributed to legislative changes which have
drawn attention to the importance of the learning environment for SSN as well as the
increased opportunities for these students to learn life skills from their peers, not just
academic success. Data gathered during this study indicated that placement for certain
disabilities had changed drastically, but it was not clear if this was due to an increase in
children diagnosed with specific disabilities, or if the process of determining placement
had been refined to better reflect student needs. It was also noted that the initial reaction
to LRE legislation resulted in a 93% increase in inclusive placement from 1990 to 2007,
however from 2007 to 2015, the rate of place only increased 9%. A variety of factors
could have contributed to the drastic increase initially, including reassessing existing
student placements based on changing legislation. Changes in the process for diagnosing
certain conditions, such as Autism Spectrum Disorder and Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder, may have impacted the rate of placement for these disabilities
and where the LRE was for each of them.
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While the LRE is a valid consideration when discussing individualized
educational plans and learning placements for students, there is still room for
improvement regarding the definition of LRE and how that is determined based on the
needs of each student. Too often, students are placed based on the classroom dynamic
they would be placed in, or the strength of the teachers tasked with providing this
student’s education (Giangreco, 2019). LRE is not about convenience or how the student
is going to fit into the classroom social structure, but about placing the student where they
can best access the curriculum ad be the most successful.
Synthesis of Articles on The Impact of Least Restrictive Environment on Inclusive
Education
Least restrictive environment (LRE) has had a significant impact on special education in
the nearly half century since it was first introduced. The opportunity for students with special
needs to learn in the general education classroom, in an inclusive environment, has greatly
increased since 1975. However, due to lack of clarity regarding what the LRE really means and
how it affects each student, there is much room for improvement in the realm of inclusive
education. While it may never be possible for every single student to learn within the general
education classroom alongside their peers, better teacher training, more specific legislation, and a
continued effort by advocates and parents of special needs students, the trend should continue
and more and more students with special needs will be able to experience individualized
education alongside their peers. Changes to legislation in regard to the specific meaning of LRE
would make a significant difference in the opportunities afforded to students with special needs
in America’s general education classrooms.
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Preliminary Thesis Statement: The Impact of Least Restrictive Environment on Inclusive
Education
Failure to better define and clarify the specific legislation regarding Least Restricting
Environment, as it pertains to education for students with special needs, has created a barrier to
inclusive education for many students in America’s public schools.
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References
Bolourian, Y., Tipton-Fisler, L. A., & Yassine, J. (2020). Special education placement trends:
Least restrictive environment across five years in California.Contemporary School
Psychology,24(2), 164-173.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s40688-018-00214-z
de Saxe, J. G., Bucknovitz, S., & Mahoney-Mosedale, F. (2020). The deprofessionalization of
educators: An intersectional analysis of neoliberalism and education “reform”.Education
and Urban Society,52(1), 51-69.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1177/0013124518786398
Giangreco, M. F. (2020). “How can a student with severe disabilities be in a fifth-grade class
when he can’t do fifth-grade level work?” misapplying the least restrictive
environment.Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities,45(1), 23-
27.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1177/1540796919892733
Smith, S. J. (2020).HWindows into the history and philosophy of educationH(1st ed.). Kendall
Hunt Publishing Company.Hhttps://doi.org/10.5040/9781472594037
Warnes, E., Done, E. J., & Knowler, H. (2022). Mainstream teachers’ concerns about inclusive
education for children with special educational needs and disability in England under pre‐
pandemic conditions.Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs,22(1), 31-
43.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12525
Wiest, D. J., & Kreil, D. A. (1995). Transformational obstacles in special education.Journal of
Learning Disabilities,28(7), 399-407.Hhttps://doi.org/10.1177/002221949502800703
