THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 2
Abstract
Inclusive classrooms have become the standard method of education in many countries around
the world. With new government regulations regarding how students with special needs are
educated in the traditional classroom, changes have been made to include them in all learning
activities. With this inclusion come struggles to meet the needs of every student within the class,
those with average and above average learning capabilities, as well as those with learning
challenges. One such method for meeting these needs is differentiated instruction (DI). Using
this method, teachers can readily challenge every learner at their own particular level of
readiness. This method does not come without its challenges, as implementation and planning
are critical to success with DI. Because of the difficulties with implementation, oftentimes
teachers find themselves focusing on the needs of students with learning disabilities while
leaving the average and above-average students to self-regulate their learning or to peer tutor
their classmates through materials they already understand. While studies repeatedly show that
DI works to increase academic achievement in an inclusive classroom, much of the improvement
lies with the challenged learners. Average students do not typically demonstrate increased
academic achievement as they have very little room for improvement, as they have already tested
high on the pre-DI assessments. More needs to be done to train teachers to properly implement
DI into their classrooms and adequately challenge all the students to their full academic
potential.
Keywords: compacting, cubing, differentiated instruction, inclusive classroom, learning
strategies, mixed ability classroom, peer tutoring, scaffolding, universal design for
learning
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 3
The Impact of Differentiated Instruction on the Academic Achievement of
Students Without Disabilities in Inclusive Classrooms
In recent years, a greater focus has been placed on the education of students with special
needs (Lindner & Schwab, 2020). With this focus has come a greater emphasis on offering
students with learning challenges the opportunity to receive their education in a traditional
classroom with their peers, thus bringing about inclusive classrooms (Kim et al., 2019). In such
cases, teachers must adapt their teaching methods to best meet the needs of all students in the
classroom, not just those with learning challenges (Nusser & Gehrer, 2020; ). Inclusion in the
classroom involves more than adding additional learning aids or rearranging the furniture to
accommodate those students with mobility issues (Carballo et al., 2021). Inclusion in the
classroom involves creating a learning environment where every student feels valued and
engaged, without being singled out or excluded from learning activities (Magableh & Abdullah,
2020).
One such method of creating an inclusive learning environment is differentiated
instruction (DI), which takes into account multiple facets of the instructional process, as well as
the individual needs and interests of the students within the class (Evan et al., 2021). While there
is no single, concise definition of DI, Tomlinson (2004) has offered perhaps the best working
definition, “…ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she learns it, and how the student
demonstrates what he/she has learned is a match for that student's readiness level, interests, and
preferred mode of learning”(p. 188). From Tomlinson’s description of DI, it is apparent that
there cannot any single approach to differentiation in an inclusive classroom. Every student
comes to the classroom from a different background, a different readiness level, and different
needs (Lawrence-Brown, 2004; Katz et al, 2021).
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 4
Among the students within an inclusive classroom, teachers may face multiple grade
levels of readiness, each with a different learning style or challenge (Freedberg et al., 2019).
Addressing these needs and issues in a climate of ever-increasing diversity has created great
challenges, not only for educators but for students as well (Carballo et al., 2021). As teachers
work to meet the expectations of state standards and expected student outcomes, they must
ensure the students meet grade-level expectations, while still challenging those learners who are
at or above grade level already (Karst et al., 2021). While DI can offer solutions to many of
these situations and circumstances, planning and implementing such instructional options can be
time-consuming and require teachers to learn new techniques and restructure the curriculum to
suit learner needs (Ziernwald et al., 2022). In such cases, average to advanced learners can
become sidelined as teachers try to help those with greater needs (Qizi, 2021; Katz et al.,2021).
Definitions of Key Terms
1. Compacting: the teacher assesses what the student knows about an upcoming
subject, designs learning content for materials they need to know, then excuses
them from work pertaining to what they have already mastered and provides
additional work on the new material (Tomlinson, 2017)
2. Cubing: various topics or numbers are written on a cube. These are then tossed
about the classroom. When a student catches the cube, they are given an activity
involving the topic or number on the cube (Tomlinson, 2017).
3. Differentiated instruction: “…ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she
learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he/she has learned is a match for
that student's readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning”
(Tomlinson, 2004).
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 5
4. Inclusive Classroom: a classroom that includes students from multiple levels of
readiness, including those with special needs and unique learning challenges,
learning alongside students with average to above-average academic abilities
(Freedberg et al., 2019)
5. Learning Strategies: methods used by teachers to engage students in learning at a
level that works for the student and communicates the material in ways that allow
students to understand (Orlich et al., 2012).
6. Mixed Ability Classroom: classes where learners have a broad range of levels in
their achievement and learning; students differ in strengths and weaknesses and
have different approaches to learning (Ziernwald et al., 2022).
7. Peer Tutoring: academically successful students take on the role as teaching
assistant and tutor less successful students (Pozas et al., 2019)
8. Scaffolding: method of instruction which involves demonstrating a technique or
learning objective for the students by the teacher and then allowing the students to
follow the example to complete the task themselves (Alsalhi et al., 2021).
9. Universal Design for Learning: a method of planning instruction that works from
a backward design perspective, beginning with the concepts to be mastered, and
then planned so that each student has an opportunity to understand the material
from their preferred learning method ( Orlich et al., 2012).
Related Literature
Inclusive Classrooms and Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated instruction in an inclusive classroom can take on many different forms
involving a combination of different methods to facilitate learning for all students (Kotob &
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 6
Abadi, 2019). Mixed ability grouping, scaffolding, peer tutoring, and one-on-one instruction are
methods used by teachers to differentiate for student learning (Alsalhi et al., 2021). Other
methods include flexible grouping, cubing, compacting, and tiered activities (Tomlinson, 2017).
Each of these forms of instruction allows students in inclusive classrooms to encounter learning
in multiple ways, offering them the opportunity to learn by their preferred method more often
(Orlich et al, 2012). According to Tomlinson (2017), there are dozens of methods, each
requiring a different level of commitment from staff and teachers to implement.
While scaffolding and cubing are more feasible for average to above-average students,
peer tutoring, compacting, and mixed-ability grouping are designed to be more flexible and offer
students with learning challenges a greater level of support, both socially and academically
(Alsalhi et al., 2021). According to Alsalhi et al. (2021), the DI method used depends primarily
on the needs of the students within the class. To be most effective, teachers must learn to use
formative assessment as a tool for learning, allowing them to make adjustments to the lessons
and curriculum in ways that best suit the learner on a case-by-case basis (Hove, 2022).
Benefits of Implementation for Average Students
Just as there are multiple benefits for lower-achieving students, there are effective
education practices in DI for average and above-average students as well (Evans et al., 2021).
Evans et al. (2021) pointed out that in most parts of the world, DI has come to the forefront of
education as teachers recognize that effective education is not a one-size-fits-all model any
longer. Evans et al. went on to point out that DI will become even more critical in classrooms as
diversity in the United States continues to increase. Utomo and Thaibah (2021) found an
additional benefit from inclusive learning, although not directly related directly to DI, students
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 7
were noted to have improved character qualities and were more caring and patient with their
challenged classmates.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) allows teachers to plan from the final product back
to the initial review of lessons, using a reverse thought process, so teachers can consider each
student’s strengths and weaknesses before the lesson begins (Orlich et al., 2012). This offers
great benefits for the average or above-average learner, as they can be challenged by the same
materials as their classmates, and all students achieve a different level of success (Craig et al.,
2022). According to Smets et al. (2022), extended instruction time and formative assessments
are used to allow students with learning challenges additional instruction while not holding
average learners behind. Magableh and Abdullah (2020) found that students in mixed-ability
classes showed marked improvement with the implementation of DI, with lower achievers seeing
greater increases in achievement than higher achievers. In one study, researchers noted that
measuring improvement in higher-achieving students was hindered because of limitations in the
scoring system (Kotob & Abadi, 2019). This could be a plausible explanation for the lack of
data supporting increased learning with DI in students already tested as high achieving.
Research does indicate that students surveyed from experimental groups using DI
reported being more engaged and enjoying the learning process more than in the traditional
classroom (Kotob & Abadi, 2019). Other studies indicated that both teachers and students alike
were more interested in learning using the DI methods in the classroom (Magableh, 2020).
Another benefit of DI is the narrowing of the grade-level gap between struggling learners and
those who were testing at or above grade level (Alsalhi et al., 2021). While DI has grown in
popularity, there are still many barriers to successful implementation in today’s classrooms
(Gaitas et al., 2022).
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 8
Barriers to Success for Average Students and Possible Solutions
According to Gaitas et al. (2022), effective DI practices are still not commonplace in
classrooms. There is an extensive list of barriers to successful implementation, which translates
to barriers for learners in the classroom. Teachers cite a lack of planning time, inadequate
teaching periods, lack of resources and funding, lack of training and professional development,
and the list seems endless (Hove, 2022; Gaitas et al., 2022; Freedberg et al., 2019). Some
teachers self-report using DI in inclusive classrooms, but after observation, very little actual
differentiation is done; it is more of an accommodation for challenged students in the class
(Ismajli & Imami-Morina, 2018). Ismajli and Imami-Morina (2018) went on to explain that
many teachers have an inadequate understanding of DI and how to implement its methods.
Freedberg et al. (2019) confirmed that teachers often focus on lower-achieving students and
expect those with average to above-average achievement to self-regulate their own learning.
Several studies indicated that teachers feel unprepared to handle DI in the classroom,
citing a lack of training and professional development (Hove, 2022; Gaitas et al., 2022). While
government policy mandates that students with special needs be educated in the least restrictive
environment (LRE) possible, there are no mandated standards as to how that is to be
accomplished in the classroom (Kim et al., 2019). Without proper training, Tomlinson (2017)
stated that teachers will often find DI difficult to understand, plan and implement. Tomlinson
further explained that there are many facets to DI that will benefit all students, but without time
and attention to the planning process, few of these methods will be effective in the inclusive
classroom (p. 34). Teachers, according to Tomlinson, must change the way they view
themselves in the classroom, becoming learning coaches instead of “…keepers and dispensers of
knowledge(p. 34).
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 9
Resources and materials are additional barriers to effective DI in the classroom (Gaitas et
al, 2022). Assistive technology and additional classroom materials to allow for differentiated
lesson contents and products interfere with the teacher’s ability to provide DI opportunities for
every student, especially those who might wish to be more creative with the products of their
learning (Orlich et al., 2012). Additional funding and professional development would alleviate
many of these concerns for teachers (Hove, 2022; Kotob & Abadi, 2019). However, much of the
responsibility falls on the teachers who, perhaps already feeling overwhelmed with large classes
of mixed-ability students, cannot see how to manage more planning and organizing into their
already busy schedules (Tomlinson, 2004).
Learning Theory Association
The principles and constructs of DI most readily align with constructivism, specifically
Bruner’s theory of cognitive growth and the Zone of Proximal Development as set forth by
Vygotsky (Schunk, 2020). Constructivist learning environments tend to structure learning
around primary concepts, use formative assessments and assessments for learning to further
student understanding, adapt curriculum to suit the needs of the student, and work from a
position of posing problems that are relevant to the students (Pozas et al., 2019). All of these
measures are highlighted within the methods of DI in the classroom (Alsalhi et al., 2021).
Bruner’s theory of cognitive growth is highlighted in DI as materials are represented in
multiple forms, in order to offer more students an opportunity to engage at their preferred level
of learning (Schunk, 2020). Cognitive growth also supports reviewing the foundational concepts
of learning in order to facilitate increased complexity in newer material, which aligns closely
with scaffolding and tiered activities (Ismajli & Imami-Morina, 2018). The theory of cognitive
growth relies heavily on different ways for learners of all ages to encounter and understand
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 10
lesson content (Schunk, 2020). This is also true of DI, using mixed ability grouping, peer
tutoring, and one-on-one instruction to allow students at multiple levels to learn similar material,
just in different formats or by different means of instruction (Smets et al., 2022).
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory included the zone of proximal development, which
alludes to the difference between what students can achieve on their own and how much more
they can achieve with assistance from teachers or peers (Schunk, 2020, p.332). Social dynamics
in classrooms must be structured so that the learning community can engage all the learners in
the class (Giatas et al., 2022). Teachers must constantly evaluate what the students can learn on
their own and what they need peer and teacher support to successfully master, which can best be
accomplished by modifying curriculum content for the entire class, which correlates closely to
Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development (Giatas et al., 2022).
Gaps in Research
One of the gaps in research on the effects of DI on academic achievement for students in
inclusive classrooms is the lack of focused data on students who fall within the average to above-
average range (Pozas et al., 2019). More research needs to be conducted to determine which
methods of DI teachers most often use to benefit average to above-average learners, and what
leads them to these choices (Freedberg et al., 2019). Some studies only offer a brief look into the
use of DI in inclusive classrooms and longer, more in-depth studies would greatly benefit the
knowledge base on how these methods are or are not effective for average students (Nusser &
Gehrer, 2020). Additional research would be beneficial regarding the concept of inclusion,
perhaps offering a better definition of what an inclusive classroom consists of and how it is
effectively structured to facilitate learning for all students (Lindner & Schwab, 2020).
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 11
Biblical Worldview
For many educators, teaching is not just a job; it is a calling. Just as it is written in
scripture, from Ephesians 4:11 (ESV Bible, 2001), “And he gave some, apostles; and some,
prophets; and some, evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers.” While not all teachers look at
teaching careers from this perspective, it should be the case for those in Christian education.
Teachers must not take the charge of caring for students lightly. As James writes in James 3:1
(ESV Bible, 2001), all will be held accountable for how they care for those placed in their charge.
This includes those with learning challenges and those without them. God created all mankind,
each with their own challenges and abilities. In order to honor Him, each student must receive
an equal opportunity to reach their full potential. Every child deserves a chance at an excellent
education, just like they deserve to be loved and cared for by those who have charge over them.
Proverbs 22:6 (ESV Bible, 2001) was not written just for parents, but for teachers and anyone
who has an opportunity to pour Christ into the life of a child: “TrainLupLaLchildLin the way he
should go; even when he is old he will not depart from it.”
Christ modeled differentiated instruction by the way in which He taught his disciples, as
well as the masses following Him throughout the countryside. He used whatever method of
instruction was most appropriate for His audience when He was teaching. He spoke in parables
to the common people from the cities and towns of Israel, such as the parable of the Sower from
Matthew 13 (ESV Bible, 2001). He quoted scripture to the Pharisees and scribes that He
encountered in the temple, as He did in Luke 2 (ESV Bible, 2001). He used a completely
different method of instruction with His disciples, using analogies and examples that they would
understand, as He did on the Mount of Olives in Matthew 24 (ESV Bible, 2001). He varied
content, process, and product depending on what those surrounding Him needed to be able to
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 12
understand. All of these are examples of differentiated instruction, tailoring the lesson to the
listener, much as teachers must do in an inclusive classroom. Each student needs to receive the
material in a way that they can understand.
Conclusion
Inclusive classrooms have become commonplace in today's educational landscape.
Classrooms are designed to create welcoming, safe, and engaging environments for all students
to feel at peace and connect to the space and to each other. Much of the careful thought put into
this process hinges on the teacher’s knowledge of the students in the class, particularly those who
struggle with learning or have other disabilities. Instruction in these classrooms follows much the
same thought process. Differentiated instruction (DI) and other inclusive learning methods are
structured to reach those students with learning challenges (Katz et al., 2021). Much research has
been conducted to study the effects of DI on the academic achievement of those students with
learning challenges. However, much less has been done to measure the effectiveness of DI for
students without learning disabilities or those who are academically gifted.
While teachers often struggle to balance the planning and instruction of lessons in an
inclusive classroom, one group may often be left to self-regulated learning, those who are
academically gifted (Freedberg et al., 2019). With the increasing pressure to see all students
performing at a satisfactory level, oftentimes, those without challenges are left to learn on their
own or even to help those who are struggling rather than receiving direct instruction from their
teachers. Teachers often struggle to adapt the curriculum to the multiple levels of readiness often
seen in inclusive classrooms, meaning those who understand the material are left bored and
unengaged. At the same time, students with difficulties are given additional time and instruction
to complete the same task (Nusser & Gehrer, 2020). More research needs to be done to
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 13
determine how students without learning challenges are affected by the design and differentiated
learning of the inclusive classroom.
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION 14
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