EDUC676 Liberty University Chapter 8 Traditional and Authentic Assessment Paper-assign.pdf

Please be sure to use APA formatting for this assignment as well as include a Biblical integration.

Make sure to provide at least 200-words for traditional assessment and 200-words for authentic

assessment.

Based on your readings and additional research as necessary, create a chart comparing traditional

and authentic assessments. Give 5 types of each and include a paragraph of at least 200 words,

describing the advantages and disadvantages of each type of assessment. Be sure to support

your assertions with at least 3 sources in current APA format.

EDUC 676

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING GRADING RUBRIC

Criteria

Levels of Achievement

Content 70%

Advanced

Proficient

Developing

Not present

Development of

a Chart or

Graphic

Organizer

17 to 18 points

A comparison of traditional and

authentic assessments is

demonstrated in a chart created by

the student by including the

following:

 The chart or organizer is easy to

follow by the reader

 A lucid and informative

comparison can be made by

viewing the chart or graphic

organizer

16 points

A comparison of traditional an

authentic assessments is

demonstrated in a chart or graphic

organizer created by the student

by including the following:

 The chart or organizer is

somewhat easy to follow by

the reader

 A translucent but informative

comparison can be made by

viewing the chart or graphic

organizer

1 to 15 points

A comparison of traditional

an authentic assessments is

demonstrated in a chart or

graphic organizer created by

the student by including the

following:

 The chart or organizer is

convoluted and not easy

to follow by the reader

 A clumsy comparison can

be made by viewing the

chart or graphic organizer

0 points

Does not meet

minimal

expectations

Traditional

Assessments

20 to 21 points

Five examples of Traditional

Assessments are present in the

chart and include all of the

following:

 Title of Assessment

 A paragraph of at least 200

words

 Paragraph includes the

advantages and disadvantages

of the assessment

18 to 19 points

Five examples of Traditional

Assessments are present in the

chart and include all of the

following:

 Title of Assessment

 A paragraph of at least 150

words

 Paragraph includes the

advantages and disadvantages

of the assessment

1 to 17 points

Five examples of

Traditional Assessments are

present in the chart and

include all of the following:

 Title of Assessment

 A paragraph of at least

100 words

0 points

Does not meet

minimal

expectations

Authentic

Assessments

20 to 21 points

Five examples of Authentic

Assessments are present in the

chart and include all of the

following:

 Title of Assessment

 A paragraph of at least 200

words

 Paragraph includes the

18 to 19 points

Five examples of Authentic

Assessments are present in the

chart or graphic organizer and

include all of the following:

 Title of Assessment

 A paragraph of at least 150

words

 Paragraph includes the

1 to 17 points

Five examples of Authentic

Assessments are present in

the chart or graphic

organizer and include all of

the following:

 Title of Assessment

 A paragraph of at least

100 words

0 points

Does not meet

minimal

expectations

EDUC 676

advantages and disadvantages

of the assessment

advantages and disadvantages

of the assessment

References

9 to 10 points

Student clearly identifies and

includes a total of 3 research-based

references. The same 3 references

can be used throughout the

assignment.

6 to 8 points

Student clearly identifies and

includes a total of 2 research-

based references.

1 to 5 points

Student clearly identifies

and includes only 1

research-based reference.

0 points

Does not meet

minimal

expectations

Structure 30%

Advanced

Proficient

Developing

Not present

Professional

Writing Skills

28 to 30 points

Student uses correct grammar,

punctuation, spelling, and sentence

structure throughout the

assignment.

26 to 27 points

The document contains no more

than 3 errors in grammar,

punctuation, spelling, and

sentence structure throughout.

1 to 25 points

The document contains

more than 3 but fewer than

5 errors in grammar,

punctuation, spelling, and

sentence structure

throughout the project.

0 points

The document

contains more

than 5 errors in

grammar,

punctuation,

spelling, and

sentence

structure

throughout.

EDUC 676

ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING INSTRUCTIONS

Based on your readings and additional research as necessary, create a chart comparing traditional

and authentic assessments. Give 5 types of each and include a paragraph of at least 200 words,

describing the advantages and disadvantages of each type of assessment. Be sure to support your

assertions with at least 3 sources in current APA format.

Submit this assignment by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Sunday of Module/Week 5.

Running Head: TYPES OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT 1

Types of Learning Assessment

Institution Affiliation

Date:

TYPES OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT 2

Types of assessment

Examples of assessment

Advantages and

disadvantages of assessment

Traditional Assessment

 Choice test

 True or false test

 Matching type test

 Fill in the blank test

 Essay tests

In definition, the traditional

assessment is a form of test

used by the teachers to

evaluate the student have

learned so us to determine

their success in knowledge

acquisition. They do so in a

way that they can set specific

grades as per the score and

help them in making the

necessary ranking

(Misseyanni et al., 2018).

Advantages- it is essential in

gauging the progress of the

student and, more so allow

the assessors to understand

the student's ability to recall

as well as organize and

communicate. It is efficient

and depends on the rater.

Disadvantages- they lack the

context of a real-world

situation, and students do not

have to offer critical thinking

while answering the

questions. More so, they

cannot demonstrate their

understanding and application

of knowledge using this

method.

The use of this assessment is

mainly for rating the students

according to the level of

understanding and answering

the questions. In most cases,

it is not a must to apply so

much knowledge and

understanding of the

situation, but a simple

selection and filling of the

question can earn some marks

to the student. The teacher

cannot ultimately understand

TYPES OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT 3

the level of understanding of

the context just because of

answering the questions

correctly.

Authentic Assessment

 Interviews

 Discussions

 Peer rating

 Portfolios

 Concept maps

In definition, the authentic

assessment looks at

proficiency in the application

of knowledge in real-life

situations. This includes

demonstrates how to follow

specific instructions as well

as giving out the necessary

competency in terms of

learning.

Advantages include that the

assessment is not a simple

and mare multiple choice but

the evaluation of complex

outcomes in learning. It is not

about marking answers but

must look at the process as

well as the result of such a

process. The appraisal must

meet the instructional goals

and relates directly to the

real-world situation (Brown,

and Abeywickrama, 2019).

This kind of assessment looks

at both the progress of

learning and the performance

at every level, thus helping

evaluate wholesomely.

Students can understand their

growth using this assessment

tool.

On the disadvantages,

however, it may take time to

develop a competency

assessment for the students

(Frankland, 2007). If it is not

proper guidance, the student

might go beyond the

guidelines and put whatever

is not needed for the

evaluation. Such an

assessment is so engaging

TYPES OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT 4

and might require input from

every department, including

financing. Overall, it can be

one of the most productive

types of evaluations that are

applied in the right way and if

the instructions are done

correctly and in order. Such

type of assessment is more

critical used in higher levels

of learning,

TYPES OF LEARNING ASSESSMENT 5

References

Brown, H. D., & Abeywickrama, P. (2019). Language assessment: Principles and classroom

practices.

Frankland, S. (2007). Enhancing teaching and learning through assessment: deriving an

appropriate model(9781402062254). Springer.

Misseyanni, A., Papadopoulou, P., Marouli, C., & Lytras, M. D. (2018). Active Learning

Strategies in Higher Education: Teaching for Leadership, Innovation, and Creativity.

Chapter 8 Assessment of Learning—Methods and Issues

Objectives

After reading and thinking about this chapter on assessment and evaluation, you should be able to

define assessment, evaluation, and measurement;

define diagnostic, formative, and summative evaluations and explain the roles of each;

state various perceptions about testing and explain how these perceptions affect middle school

education;

discuss the role of assessment in contemporary middle schools;

define and explain the purposes and process of assessment, especially as they relate to middle school

education;

list assessment instruments such as tests produced by teachers, state departments of education, and

textbook publishers, as well as standardized tests;

discuss authentic assessments, including the key issues, characteristics, and various assessment

formats;

discuss issues in assessment in the middle school, such as criticisms and negative effects on young

adolescent learning; the effects of culture, gender, and other forms of diversity; and learners’ stress; and

list several guidelines for effective assessment that can be followed whether teachers employ

traditional or alternative assessments.

Scenario Changes at Longview Middle School

Standing by the frozen foods case in the Buy-Low grocery store, Shirella Reed was checking her shopping

list when she heard someone calling her name. Turning around, she saw Debra Costino pushing her cart

down the aisle and heading directly for Shirella with a very determined look on her face. As a seventh-

grade teacher at Longview Middle School, Shirella knew Ms. Costino. In the past, two of the Costino

children had been in Shirella’s homeroom, and it had not taken long to learn that Debra Costino liked to

be involved in her children’s education. In addition to being an active member of the local parents’

organization, Ms. Costino had volunteered in the classroom and in the school library. But this year had

been different. Although Matt, the youngest of the Costino children, was now a student on her team,

Shirella had not seen Debra Costino at the school. Overhearing some of Matt’s conversations, she

gathered that his mother now had a full-time job.

“I’m so glad I saw you,” Ms. Costino began when she reached Shirella. “Matt has been telling me about

some things that are happening in the seventh grade. I’ve been meaning to talk to someone about it,

but with my new job and everything I just haven’t had time.”

“Well, we’re doing some really interesting projects this fall,” Shirella began.

“No, it’s not the projects,” Ms. Costino interjected, “it’s the way you’re going to be grading the students.

I believe Matt mentioned something about a portfolio and a rubric.”

“Oh yes, we’re . . .”

Before Shirella could say any more, Ms. Costino interrupted. “But don’t we need more rigorous

standards for students? And what about Matt’s mastery of academics? What’s wrong with multiple-

choice and true-false tests? That’s what they used when I was in school, and they worked. I’d think you

teachers would like them, too. It seems to me they would be fairly easy to make up and easy to grade.

And will all these portfolios help raise our standardized test scores?”

Shirella Reed tried to explain that the problem was that those types of tests do not measure what was

taught. She also tried to point out that some students do not do well on objective tests because their

stress levels go up and all the answers look right.

Ms. Costino waited until Shirella took a breath. “Are you sure this isn’t just some fad you educators

came up with? Don’t traditional tests have a place in school anymore? Do you have to throw away

everything just because some new idea has come along? How are we parents supposed to know what

this authentic assessment is? I remember that when I volunteered at the school, you teachers always

complained about the superintendent coming up with new ideas and letting the teachers figure out how

to do it. Are they teaching you how to design these authentic assessments for your students? How can

you be sure that they are fair?”

As she looked at Ms. Costino, Shirella realized that it would take more than a conversation in the grocery

store to explain authentic assessment. Glancing in her shopping cart, Shirella exclaimed, “Oh, the ice

cream is melting. I’ve got to go, but I’ll call you to schedule a time when you can drop by the school to

see what we’re doing. We have some evening parent–teacher conference times in 2 weeks. Let’s plan

on meeting then.”

Overview

Like Shirella Reed, many middle school educators who are trying new methods for developmentally

responsive student assessment find that they need to explain these measures and their rationale for

using them. This is occurring at the same time that the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of

2002, commonly known as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB, 2002), is forcing educators to identify

standards of learning for all students, mandating high-stakes standardized assessments to measure

student learning, and imposing consequences on schools that do not meet adequate yearly progress

(AYP; Davies, 2008; Duffy, Giordano, Farrell, Paneque, & Crump, 2008). However, some educators

believe that NCLB is not consistent with educational assessment theory and places too much emphasis

on “the unattainable expectation that all students perform at grade level on standardized tests” (Davies,

2008, p. 2). Thus, while meeting the requirements of NCLB, educators will be challenged to identify and

use testing instruments that reflect best educational practices and that measure what students were

supposed to learn.

In light of the testing mandates, can assessment in the middle school be developmentally responsive

and promote rather than hinder young adolescents’ educational progress? In this chapter, we explore

the perceptions surrounding assessment, look at traditional and authentic assessment devices, discover

ways of reporting results to parents and administrators, and examine the issues affecting the

assessment process. Our goal is to provide an overview of assessment. For more in-depth information,

we hope you will consult the references included in this chapter.

One of our practicum students aptly summarized the assessment situation when she said, “Sometimes

we place too little emphasis on real assessment; we want to know what students have learned, but we

just grade a worksheet or quickly make out a test. Then, what they get is a letter grade or maybe just a

percentage written on the paper. Very little thought goes into providing assessments that really let

students, administrators, and parents see what the students know.” We agree with this student.

Furthermore, we agree that assessment in the middle school should reflect the position stated in This

We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (NMSA, 2010): Assessment should be continuous,

authentic, and developmentally appropriate, and should include both formative and summative

assessments.

Assessment Terminology—Definitions

What exactly is assessment? James McMillan (2004) maintains that considerable confusion exists over

the meaning and usage of the terms assessment, evaluation, and measurement. Although some

educators define these terms broadly, others give more narrow definitions. To further complicate the

situation, some educators view the terms as being synonymous. We believe, however, that, if you look

closely, you will find differences that are very important to teachers who are faced with determining and

reporting student progress.

Classroom assessment can be regarded as both a process and a product. As a process, assessment is the

collection, interpretation, and use of qualitative and quantitative information to assist educators in their

decision-making processes (McMillan, 2004). But assessment is also a product. By this we mean that the

term assessment is also used to refer to the instrument (set of questions or tasks) that is designed to

determine a student’s progress toward stated goals and objectives. To keep these definitions separate,

we will use the term assessment to refer to the entire process and the term assessment instrument for

the specific product.

Measurement has traditionally been used to determine how much of a trait, attribute, or characteristic

an individual possesses (McMillan, 2004). It can also be defined as the process of quantifying the degree

to which someone possesses that trait, attribute, or characteristic. In other words, to create a ranking,

educators use a systematic measurement process or set of rules to assign numbers (or letters) to the

behavior, performance, or product of a student.

Evaluation is the process of “using data and standards to judge the quality of progress or level of

achievement” (Thompson & French, 2005, p. 127) or making judgments about how good a behavior or

performance is (McMillan, 2004). It includes using some basis to judge worth or value. For example,

educators evaluate whether students have achieved specific instructional outcomes. Educators also use

the evaluation process to determine whether students can be expected to do the next year’s work.

We hope these distinctions are clear to you. To review, let us use an example with which we are all

familiar: a multiple-choice test. We like to think that, in the assessment process, educators design a test

(the assessment instrument), administer it, grade it (measurement), and then determine how well

students learned the objectives that were being tested (evaluation). Figure 8–1 shows this process.

Unfortunately, not all educators agree on the definitions of assessment (Frey & Schmitt, 2007). Richard

Kellough and Noreen Kellough (2008) define both assessment and evaluation as the relatively neutral

process of determining what students are learning or

have learned as a result of instruction. Other educators distinguish between assessment as learning,

assessment for learning, and assessment of learning (Tomlinson, 2010).

The assessment process is often defined by when it is conducted. Most educators refer to three types of

assessment: diagnostic, formative, and summative. Sometimes called a preassessment, a diagnostic

assessment is used to help identify specific areas of deficiency or learning difficulty. With a diagnostic

assessment, educators can identify specific causes of problems and plan appropriate instruction.

Educators can also determine cultural and environmental variables and preferences of students.

Formative assessment happens during a lesson or unit to provide ongoing feedback both to the teacher

to modify instruction and to the student to adjust learning behaviors (Frey & Schmitt, 2007). Tomlinson

(2010) refers to diagnostic and formative assessments as a “daily GPS to know how to steer instruction”

(p. 256). Occurring at the end of a unit of study, summative assessment, sometimes called formal

assessment, documents student performance, measures overall achievement, and provides the basis for

assigning grades. Table 8–1 shows the characteristics of diagnostic, formative, and summative

assessments.

Assessment of Learning—Perceptions

In teaching, we often use this common statement: Perception is reality. By this we mean that people

accept what they perceive as the truth, whether or not it actually is. Educators as well as members of

society in general have several perceptions that affect how they react to the assessment process,

especially to the use of standardized tests to measure achievement and excellence in middle schools.

Ultimately, these perceptions, both individually and as a whole, influence the way that educators plan

and implement essential middle school practices, such as the integrated curriculum and

developmentally responsive instruction.

Although most middle school educators know the value of effectively designed teacher-made tests and

authentic assessments (such as portfolios), many community members, like Ms. Costino in our opening

scenario, continue to believe that standardized tests are the most valid and reliable predictors of

student learning. When newspapers give “objective” numbers that show “precisely” how students have

scored, people pay attention. Looking to see how schools compare to each other, everyone wants to

identify which school scores the highest, which scores the lowest, and which, therefore, is “the best.”

Unfortunately, people like to make comparisons and draw conclusions that realistically cannot and

should not be reached on the basis of such limited data. It is difficult, if not impossible, to judge the

effectiveness of one middle school compared to another middle school solely by examining standardized

test scores. Too many factors, such as socioeconomic conditions, cultural backgrounds, and cognitive

development of the students, are not factored into the interpretation of many standardized tests.

One interesting observation to us, as university educators, is that often, when these same citizens

decide to enter graduate school, many of them become concerned about the standardized tests they

have to take. Now, however, instead of wanting to rely on these tests as objective measures of

excellence, many people make the comment: “These test grades don’t show what I really can do; I just

don’t do well on standardized tests.” We believe that many middle school students would express the

same concerns.

In response to some of the problems surrounding standardized tests, many middle school educators

have begun to adopt authentic assessment procedures such as portfolios, exhibitions, demonstrations,

rubrics, and observational checklists (all discussed later in this chapter). They believe that these

nontraditional assessment procedures provide a clearer picture of what young adolescents can do. As

McTighe (2010) states, “when we call for authentic application, we signal to students that we want them

to understand the content and be able to transfer their learning thoughtfully and flexibly in realistic

situations” (p. 280).

Unfortunately, critics often express concern and even outrage over such types of assessment or, in fact,

any nontraditional assessment devices. These critics believe that authentic assessments, unlike

standardized tests, lack objectivity, fail to offer sufficient comparisons, and fail to assess instructional

objectives and procedures. This may happen because these individuals do not understand authentic

assessments or because they are unwilling to accept newer assessment devices that measure a

student’s achievement gains in comparison to her or his potential. To them, any assessment that fails to

compare a person with others in the class, school, state, or nation is not a valid assessment.

Some people also believe that middle school students are not successful on standardized tests because

of flaws in the middle school education concept, not because of flaws in the testing system. People

blame essential middle school practices such as advisor–advisee programs, exploratory programs, and

the emphasis on a positive school climate because they believe that these things do not directly affect

academic achievement. However, these middle school efforts actually do influence both positive

behavior and academic achievement.

There is also a perception that young adolescents do not do well on standardized tests because the

middle school curriculum does not place sufficient emphasis on academics. In addition to belittling

exploratories and advisor–advisee programs, some individuals think the middle school curriculum

provides too much review work and not enough new information. Others feel the curriculum lacks

academic rigor and fails to build a scholarly foundation for high school. In other words, these people

believe that the middle school curriculum places too much emphasis on aspects other than scores and

academic achievement.

Another curriculum-related assessment perception is that the integrated curriculum diminishes

performance in academic subject areas. This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (NMSA,

2010) points clearly to the advantages of an integrated curriculum at the middle school. Still, many

people believe that young adolescents learn too many relationships and cross-curricular perspectives at

the expense of learning specific curricular areas. They think that only rigorous and intellectually

demanding educational experiences in individual curricular areas lead to higher academic achievement.

Finally, This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents (NMSA, 2010) calls for developmentally

responsive or appropriate educational experiences. As you read in Chapter 2, young adolescents differ

greatly in their physical, psychosocial, and cognitive development. However, some people believe that

assessment cannot reflect individual developmental characteristics and meet national standards. In

other words, providing young adolescents with educational experiences (and the corresponding

assessment) designed for individual students will not allow learners to be compared nationally. Similarly,

they believe that standards cannot be maintained if a student’s achievement is compared only to what

he or she is developmentally capable of doing.

However, even with all of the misperceptions and problems surrounding assessment, the process is very

important. Not only does it provide useful information to educators, parents, and students, but it is also

a critical part of instruction. Our goal, as educators, must be to ensure that the assessment process is

carried out fairly and that the purposes of the process, the results of the process, and the

interpretations of those results are communicated clearly to all members of the communities served by

the school.

Assessment—Rationale and Purposes

“The hardest part of teaching is testing and grading students. Some students try so hard, but they just

don’t do as well as others who seem to breeze through every assignment. And it really hurts me to

assign letter grades when I know they only measure a part of what I see in a classroom.”

A seventh-grade teacher

Assessment, a “central element of the teaching process” (Stronge, 2007, p. 91) is a difficult, yet

important, professional responsibility that needs to be taken seriously. When designed to reflect

instructional goals and to modify and adjust instruction, assessments are an enormously potent tool in

the hands of teachers. In the individual classroom and throughout the school, the assessment process

serves several important purposes.

First, its basic function is to help educators determine the strengths, weaknesses, and overall academic

progress of students. Educators can use assessment results to determine what students already know

and what they need to learn. With appropriate assessments, educators can also diagnose learning

problems and determine student progress, remediation, promotion, and retention. But assessment is

only a first step. It is important that educators use the assessment process to provide responsive

educational experiences. As you have seen, young adolescents differ greatly in their development. By

evaluating the results of an assessment instrument, educators can use instructional methods and

materials that meet the individual needs of young adolescents.

We frequently hear middle level teachers tell students that they need to be responsible or accountable

for their actions. Similarly, educators face accountability demands on the national, state, and local levels

as well as from individual parents. They are often asked to explain the effectiveness of their efforts, why

programs did or did not work, and why students did not meet expectations. Thus, a second purpose of

the assessment process is to provide the documented results that teachers need to explain their actions.

A third purpose of assessment is to improve instruction. Test performance and overall assessment can

serve to improve instruction and overall educational experiences. Assessment can promote instruction

as students are increasingly motivated to learn and achieve and teachers are motivated to provide more

effective instruction.

Finally, a major reason for assessing young adolescents is to provide accurate information about

learning to students, parents, and school officials. Students need to use assessment data to improve

their own learning (Stiggins, 2006). Administrators and parents can also use assessment information to

make educational decisions. For example, reaching the conclusion that a student needs remediation or

retention is a serious decision and deserves a methodical process—one in which both the decision and

the process can be explained to students, parents, and administrators.

In spite of the benefits of assessment, both educators and students often are apprehensive, especially in

light of the emphasis currently placed on high-stakes standardized tests. Theory into Practice 8–1

identifies five high-stakes test preparations practices that can help both students and teachers.

Theory into Practice 8–1 Preparing for High-Stakes Testing

Turner (2009) identified the following five high-stakes tests preparation methods, which, when followed

ethically and appropriately, can help both students and teachers:

Integrate the test content into a rigorous and relevant curriculum.

Familiarize students with a “variety of assessment approaches” (p. 39) by making them part of regular

classroom instruction and assessments.

Review test-taking strategies.

Integrate test preparation throughout the year, not just before the actual test.

Increase student motivation to do well on the test.

In the article, Turner offers additional suggestions and specific actions for each of these methods.

Source: Turner, S. L. (2009). Ethical and appropriate high-stakes test preparation in middle school: Five

methods that matter. Middle School Journal, 41(1), 36–45.

Assessment—Traditional Methods

Assessment Measurement Techniques

“I only got an 85% on the state test that we took last month, but Mrs. Reed says I scored at the 92nd

percentile. Does that mean I made an A or a B on the test?”

Leah, a sixth-grade student

Assessment measurements can have various formats, each designed to achieve a specific purpose.

When an assessment is measured on a norm-referenced basis, it judges an individual’s performance,

achievement, or ability relative to the overall performance, achievement, or ability of a group. Based on

the bell-shaped curve, norm-referenced scores are statistical estimates that provide information on how

well a student performs in comparison to other students in the norm group. This group can be on the

local, state, regional, or national level. Because norm-referenced assessments often do not address a

large portion of the content taught in the average middle school, they generally cannot be used to

gauge the overall effectiveness of a local curriculum. Furthermore, because they usually involve paper-

and-pencil tests, they are limited in their ability to assess process skills and higher order thinking.

Criterion-referenced assessment measurements judge behaviors, performance, or abilities against

preestablished standards rather than against the behavior of others. They describe a student’s

attainment or mastery of specific skills or learning outcomes in relation to a predetermined criterion.

Many teacher-made assessments (using instruments such as multiple-choice, true-false, or matching

tests), as well as some state-level exams and testing instruments constructed by textbook publishers, fall

into this category. The accountability movement is prompting many school districts to utilize more

criterion-referenced measures to determine whether they have met local and state objectives.

Leah knew 85% of the material on a criterion-referenced basis. However, when measured against her

peers throughout the state on a norm-referenced basis, she scored better than 91% of them.

Assessment Instruments

Middle school educators have many types of assessment instruments from which to choose, including

traditional tests and nontraditional assessments. We look first at some traditional assessment

instruments before turning our attention to some alternative ones.

In this chapter’s opening scenario, Ms. Costino stressed traditional tests. These can be teacher-made,

standardized, state-produced, or textbook-specific (from the textbook publisher). Each has a unique

function and purpose. However, you need to remember that the assessment instrument itself is just one

part of the assessment process. Equally important are the measurement and evaluation of the data that

the instrument produces.

As the name implies, a teacher-made instrument is designed, administered, and evaluated by an

individual teacher to judge student behaviors, performance, or abilities. It is criterion referenced rather

than norm referenced, meaning that it measures specific teacher objectives rather than comparing

students to other test takers across the nation or state.

Standardized assessment instruments are norm referenced and have precise directions for

administration as well as for uniform scoring procedures. Developed by subject-matter and assessment

specialists, these instruments are field tested using uniform administration procedures, revised to meet

certain acceptability criteria, and scored and interpreted using uniform procedures and standards.

Examples include the standardized tests that students take in the spring of selected school years that

compare them with students across the state or nation. Because standardized tests are often produced

by companies in the business of publishing and selling educational assessment instruments, these tests

are closely field tested for validity and reliability. As you have seen, there is widespread public and

professional support for standardized assessment instruments. Their relative cost efficiency in

administration and reporting, usefulness in accountability, usefulness in placing students in special

programs and ability groupings, and role in making curricular decisions add to their acceptance.

However, not everyone supports the unquestioned use of standardized assessment instruments. Some

individuals are concerned that the knowledge domain may not be understood well enough to be

adequately represented in a sample of items. They also fear that the test items may be biased toward

particular cultural or gender perspectives and may inhibit the ability of educators “to respond to student

diversity in ways that address depth of learning rather than easily tested basic achievement” (Skerrett &

Hargreaves, 2008, p. 937). Finally, they question whether the test items reflect the kind of subject

matter likely to be encountered by most students.

In Diversity Perspectives 8–1, Fairbairn and Fox (2009) offer some suggestions for test construction to

assist diverse students.

Diversity Perspectives 8–1 Tests and Diverse Test Takers

Although writing primarily for test developers, the authors provide a number of suggestions that all

educators can keep in mind when constructing tests for diverse students:

Use short, simple, clear sentences.

Use active voice and present tense.

Use pronouns carefully.

Use frequently used, familiar words.

Avoid colloquialisms or words with several meanings.

Use words at or below grade level.

Include visual or graphic supports on the test.

Keep the visuals free from nonessential information.

Be consistent in paragraph and sentence structure.

Source: Fairbairn, S. B., & Fox, J. (2009). Inclusive achievement testing for linguistically and culturally

diverse test takers: Essential considerations for test developers and decision makers. Educational

Measurement: Issues and Practice, 28(1), 10–24.

State departments of education also produce various assessment instruments. Although some are

created by in-state experts under the auspices of a state department of education, others may be put

out for bid. In some instances, the recent educational reform movement has even resulted in a few

states shifting from a heavy reliance on multiple-choice paper-and-pencil tests to more performance-

and product-based assessments.

Many textbook publishers provide reproducible masters for assessment or databases of test items on

computer disks. If a teacher uses a single textbook, teaches only to the instructional outcomes included

in the text, and does not supplement the textbook with objectives and materials from other sources, the

tests that accompany the textbook series may be adequate for assessment.

Types of Traditional Assessment

When we asked a few students what type of test they liked best, we received the following comments:

“Multiple choice is best because the right answer is there—you don’t need to remember it.”

“I like true-false tests because they’re fast to take.”

“True-false can be tricky when the teacher throws in words like never and always.”

“Short essays are my favorite. They’re easy to bluff. If you write enough, most teachers think you

know the answer and give you credit.”

Traditional assessment instruments usually include multiple-choice, true-false, matching, and short-

answer/essay tests. Although each has distinct advantages and disadvantages, you can improve their

design when you keep several suggestions in mind.

Multiple-Choice

Multiple-choice tests are widely used as assessment instruments in schools even though they may not

provide the best method for assessing recall knowledge. They sample a broad array of knowledge, score

easily and objectively, and provide students with an example of what they will see on standardized tests.

Unfortunately, they take longer to answer than other types of objective items. Therefore, you often

have to use a limited number of questions to test students’ knowledge of a broad or complex topic. In

addition, it is relatively difficult to design well-written multiple-choice questions (McMillan, 2004).

When you design multiple-choice test items, follow these guidelines: (a) keep the stem of the multiple-

choice test item brief, concise, stated positively, and phrased as either a direct question or an

incomplete sentence; (b) put as much information as possible in a multiple-choice test stem so that

students do not have to reread the same information over and over again when determining

alternatives; (c) include the best or most correct alternative as well as those that could be feasible

responses to a student who is not prepared for the test; (d) use the correct grammar and punctuation

between each stem and the corresponding alternatives; and (e) keep the alternatives of a multiple-

choice test item of equal length, sequenced in random order, and free from statements such as “none of

the above” or “all of the above.”

True-False

Educators often ask students to select the correct answer from a choice of two answers. Such questions

are termed binary-choice items and may include a number of forms such as true-false, right-wrong,

correct-incorrect, yes-no, fact-opinion, and agree-disagree. Students can answer a large number of

these test items in a short time, and most students are familiar with the format. Educators like binary

items because they are relatively quick to write and to grade. On the negative side, students often guess

the answers, particularly if test items are poorly constructed (McMillan, 2004).

In constructing true-false test items, be sure that the test items (a) reflect only one major concept or

idea; (b) are written with a positive rather than a negative focus; (c) avoid trick or trivial statements,

double negatives, and determiners such as all, never, entirely, absolutely, and only; (d) contain

approximately the same number of words in each item; (e) are totally true or false without qualification;

and (f) are limited to 10 test items.

Although standardized test makers often use multiple-choice and true-false formats, there are several

problems with these formats. First, professional test makers generally eliminate test items that a large

proportion of the pilot population answered correctly. The overall goal of their tests is to discriminate

among the students. Thus, those test items that fail to discriminate are deemed inappropriate and are

deleted even though the information may contribute to a broader understanding of student learning.

Second, true-false test items may lack meaningfulness and fail to reflect the complex environments in

which learning occurs.

Matching

Matching test items measure effectively and efficiently the extent to which students know related facts,

associations, and relationships. Some examples of these facts, associations, and relationships include

terms with definitions, persons with descriptions, dates with events, and symbols with names

(McMillan, 2004). Matching questions should provide more choices than questions, use homogeneous

test items (not mixing definitions and dates), and be limited to 5 to 15 items.

Short-Answer and Essay

In short-answer items on tests, students supply an answer consisting of one word, a few words, or a

sentence or two. In addition to being relatively easy to write, the short-answer format is similar to the

way many teachers phrase their questions during classroom instruction.

When writing short-answer test items, keep the following questions in mind (McMillan, 2004): Is there

only one correct answer? Is it clear to students that the required answer is brief? Are questions based

directly on sentences from the textbook avoided? Is the precision of a numerical answer specified? Is

the item written as succinctly as possible? Is the space designated for answers consistent with the space

required? Are the words used in the item too difficult for any students?

An extension of the short-answer item, essays serve as an excellent way to measure understanding and

mastery of complex information. Most teachers think essays can tap complex thinking by requiring

students to organize and integrate information, give arguments, provide explanations, evaluate the

merit of ideas, and use other types of reasoning. When studying for essay tests, students usually look for

themes, patterns, relationships, and the sequence and organization of information. Although essay tests

take less time to construct than multiple-choice, true-false, and matching tests, can motivate the

development of better study habits, and ensure the use of reasoning skills, they also take more time to

grade, can produce different results for different graders, and can fail to provide a good sampling of

content knowledge (McMillan, 2004).

Follow these suggestions to create essay tests: Use test questions that (a) require higher level thinking

skills rather than simple recall of factual information and highlight creative thought and problem-solving

skills, (b) cover the key concepts of the course content, and (c) require information from the student

that is sufficiently specific for common agreement by teachers on what constitutes an acceptable

answer. In addition, when constructing essay tests, you should (a) suggest the amount of time to be

spent on each question, (b) provide a checklist of informational points and ideas that are important to

include in a satisfactory response, (c) inform students of the criteria for evaluation, and (d) avoid

optional questions or opinion questions that can detract from the overall mission of the test and can

reduce your ability to evaluate students in the same content areas.

One teacher we know devises a list of points that students should include in their essay. Then, as she

grades each essay, her list is at her fingertips. Such a practice undoubtedly contributes to consistency

and fairness: Either the students mentioned the information or they did not. In addition, during

conferences with the students, the teacher can pinpoint specific points they included or failed to

include.

Points to Remember When Using Tests

Tests can be an excellent way to monitor student learning. Unfortunately, educators sometimes

unknowingly teach one thing and then test another. Remember to match the assessment to the

objectives being taught. Also, be sure to tell students the format and criteria of the test because

students are likely to study and prepare differently for differing types of tests.

Authentic/Alternative Assessments

The Need for Authentic Assessments

How often have you memorized lists, filled in blanks, computed mathematical problems with

predetermined formulas, and answered questions by rote? Did you ever question these assessment

processes and wonder about their relationship to real learning? In recent years, middle school educators

have also recognized several potential problems associated with traditional assessments and have called

for more authentic assessments of students’ strengths, abilities, and progress (NMSA, 2010). The goal is

to provide realistic and relevant assessments that correspond to the way in which people use the

information and skills outside the classroom (McTighe, 2010).

In using authentic assessment, however, educators have had to deal with several issues. Although

performance standards have been around for several decades, the problem has been to develop

appropriate and valid ways to assess the attainment of those standards. Many times, teachers are

reluctant to use authentic assessments because they view the evaluation process as labor and time

intensive. As a result, teachers often rely on observational checklists that focus on what students

demonstrate. They use these checklists to adjust instruction and give students information about their

performance (Rowlands, 2006). As well as relating to the specific instructional goals of the teacher,

these checklists need to be related to any district or state learning standards. Finally, teachers must deal

with parents and politicians who are unsure of the validity of authentic assessments and prefer

standardized test scores to measure learning.

Characteristics of Effective Alternative Assessment

What is authentic or alternative assessment? The idea behind authentic assessment is to allow students

to demonstrate knowledge and skills, often from several topics, school subjects, or disciplines, by

focusing on the students’ ability to produce a quality product or performance rather than a single right

answer. In this way, they are able to “demonstrate true understanding” (McTighe, 2010, p. 280). As part

of the assessment, teachers often provide the students with a set of evaluation criteria that are known,

understood, and negotiated between the students and the teacher before the assessment begins.

However, like traditional assessments, authentic assessments are also designed to produce results that

can be reported and understood by students, parents, and educators. Figure 8–2 shows some other

important characteristics of authentic assessments.

Alternative Assessment Formats

What does an authentic or alternative assessment look like? When middle school educators develop an

assessment instrument instead of relying on traditional tests, they often use one of the following

formats: performance-based assessments, simulations and role-playing, portfolios, exhibitions, and

demonstrations. Let us look briefly at each one of these.

Effective authentic assessment tasks:

Are essential, “big ideas” rather than trivial microfacts or specialized skills

Are in-depth in that they lead to other problems and questions

Are feasible and can be done easily and safely within a school and classroom

Typically include interactions between the teacher and the student and among students

Provide multiple ways in which students can demonstrate they have met the criteria, allowing

multiple points of view and multiple interpretations

Allow for individual learning styles, aptitudes, and interests

Involve cooperation, self-evaluation, and peer evaluation

Require scoring that focuses on the essence of the task and not what is easiest to score

Call on the professional judgment of the assessor, who is usually the teacher

May involve an audience of some kind in addition to the teacher

Call for different measurement techniques

Identify strengths as well as weaknesses

Minimize needless and unfair comparisons

Figure 8–2 Effective Authentic Assessment

Performance Assessment

Sometimes, in authentic assessment, the processes that the student uses are more important than the

final product or outcome. Performance assessment relies on the professional judgment of assessors

who observe the student performing a predetermined task such as researching a problem, giving an oral

report, delivering a speech, or demonstrating a task. The idea is to develop situations that closely

resemble real-world tasks and that require complex and challenging mental processes.

To use performance assessments, teachers usually give young adolescents a specified task. The teacher

then uses the students’ solutions and the processes they used to reach those solutions in order to assess

students’ performance. In middle schools, performance assessments can reveal a student’s

understanding of processes associated with a curricular area, show special accomplishments and

understandings not readily shown on other assessments, and be used in conjunction with other

assessment strategies.

Simulations and Role-Playing

In simulation assessments, students try to replicate real events, whereas in role-playing, they assume

the position of another person and, using their own knowledge and skill, act as that person might act.

There can be many simulation and role-playing opportunities; for example, middle school students can

play the role of a character from a favorite book, a person in a historical event, or even a moral

dilemma. The teacher can assess the students’ ability and skills as they demonstrate their knowledge of

the particular situation. Such a method might be particularly appropriate for young adolescents because

they are developing cognitively and expanding their worlds.

Portfolios

A popular approach to evaluation, student portfolios allow teachers to evaluate the work that students

have completed and collected over a period of time rather than just on a few selected days. They also

allow students, teachers, and parents to communicate about the learning process (Thompson & French,

2005). The idea is that the portfolio contains a systematic, purposeful, and meaningful collection of

student work that demonstrates the student’s overall effort, progress, and achievements in one or more

subject areas. It also contains the reflections of the student about this work and the comments,

encouragements, questions, and reactions of teachers and parents.

Portfolios can include a wide variety of work samples selected by the student, parent, peer, and/or

teacher. These can include essays, reports, letters, creative writing, problem statements and solutions,

journal entries, interviews, artistic works, collaborative works, workbook pages and tests, surveys and

questionnaires, reading lists and reviews, self-assessment checklists and statements, teacher checklists

and comments, peer reviews, or parent observations and comments. One school division required cross-

curricular portfolios with samples to demonstrate competence in four areas: communication, critical

thinking, academic development, and personal and social awareness (Thompson & French, 2005). An

important element of all portfolios is the self-reflection piece, which requires the student to analyze his

or her own work samples included in the portfolio.

Why has the use of portfolios as a popular assessment process grown so dramatically? In addition to

providing opportunities for students to demonstrate what they know and what they do, portfolios are

tools for discussion and student self-evaluation. They document student growth over a period of time

and provide a vehicle for students to reflect on

Theory into Practice 8–2 Assessing Problem-Based Learning

In problem-based learning where there are different solutions and different paths to those solutions,

teachers often have difficulty assigning grades. However, as students move from stating isolated facts to

applying knowledge to authentic problems, teachers still need to determine content mastery and report

it to students and others. This can be a very time-consuming process compared to grading multiple-

choice tests. Successful middle school teachers reported using both formative and summative

assessments. They read and commented on students’ journals; developed checklists and rubrics for

students; and provided opportunities for peer review, peer mentoring, and self-evaluation. In addition

to giving a formal assessment of the project, they provided feedback on early drafts and helped students

revise their work.

Source: Ertmer, P. A., Glazewski, K. D., Jones, D., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A., Goktas, Y., Collins, K., &

Kocaman, A. (2009). Facilitating technology-enhanced problem-based learning (PBL) in the middle school

classroom: An examination of how and why teachers adapt. Journal of Interactive Learning Research,

20(1), 35–54.

their work and to make decisions about what to include or exclude. Portfolios are ideal for assessing

learning styles and multiple intelligences. Finally, they can support the integrated curriculum by

documenting a student’s use of knowledge and skills in a variety of disciplines (Thompson & French,

2005).

Exhibitions and Demonstrations

Most middle school students love to make or do something. Thus, having students design and construct

exhibitions, produce a video, write a manual, develop a hypermedia presentation, and demonstrate a

process are ideal ways for young adolescents to prove their knowledge, skills, or competence.

Exhibitions and demonstrations provide concrete evidence that some skill has been applied or some

concept has been learned.

Sometimes, authentic assessments are part of problem-based learning in which an instructional problem

has many solutions and a variety of ways to obtain a solution. Theory into Practice 8–1 looks at the

strategies sucessful teachers use for assessment.

Assessment—Evaluation of Traditional and Authentic Assessments

Effective Assessment Methods

Effective assessment involves students (Stiggins & Chappuis, 2005); provides students and parents with

sufficient information about students’ needs, interests, and achievement levels; connects directly to

what teachers teach and what students learn (McTigue, 2010); integrates well with classroom

assignments, activities, and instructional methods; and provides evidence of students’ development of

desired skills and behaviors (Stronge, 2007).

Evaluation of the assessments should be fair and objective. The methods should also be quantifiable,

explicit, and precise. That means that everyone (students, teachers, parents, and administrators) knows

exactly what the numbers, letters, or comments mean. This should help minimize conflict over what

grade a student should receive.

The point system is most frequently used for evaluating classroom assessments (Marzano, 2006). It

began as a quick and efficient way to evaluate any assessment, such as true-false or multiple-choice

items that can be scored as correct or incorrect. Later, its use spread to other assessments, such as short

essays and presentations.

However, some educators believe that a point system does not provide enough information for

formative assessments. Currently they advocate the use of Item Response Theory (IRT), which looks at a

pattern of student responses to determine a student’s position on a knowledge continuum (Marzano,

2006). On one continuum, the National Assessment of Educational Progress has identified four levels of

student performance: advanced, proficient, basic, and below basic. In comparison, the No Child Left

Behind Act established three levels: advanced, proficient, and basic (Popham, 2003).

Rubrics

How many times have you said, “If I knew that was what the teacher wanted, I would have included it in

my project?” Many teachers are now using rubrics to assist in determining how a product, performance,

or portfolio is going to be judged or graded. Specifically, a rubric is a scoring tool (usually a matrix or list

of narrative statements) that lists the criteria for a piece of work and the gradations of quality for each

criterion. Although teachers can create rubrics themselves, the most effective rubrics can be those

created collaboratively by teachers and students. Analytic rubrics can be developed to analyze a list of

specific criteria for a small piece or part of a project, whereas holistic rubrics can be used to evaluate a

complete and final project.

Rubrics appeal to many teachers and students. By making teachers’ expectations clear, rubrics often

result in marked improvement in students’ achievement and in the overall quality of student work and

learning. Rubrics also help students learn how to evaluate their own work and to detect and solve

problems on their own. Finally, because they are easy to use and easy to explain, rubrics reduce the

time teachers spend on evaluating student work. To be effective, a rubric should be organized around a

skill, focus on a small number of evaluative criteria, and be sufficiently brief that teachers and students

will want to use it. Keeping Current with Technology 8–1 has more information about rubrics and other

assessment instruments.

Observational Checklists

Similar to rubrics, observational checklists also provide a basis for evaluating performance and

communicating with students and parents. Teachers constantly observe students to

Keeping Current with Technology 8–1

Use the following Web sites to find examples of rubrics. Select at least two rubrics in your discipline to

evaluate. How well do they meet the criteria for an effective evaluation method? How well do they

meet the criteria for an effective rubric? What changes would you make to improve them?

Art rubrics

http://www.princetonol.com/groups/iad/Files/Rubric.htm

Discovery School—Kathy Schrock—assessment and rubric information

http://school.discoveryeducation.com/schrockguide/assess.html

Lesson Plan Central—rubrics

http://lessonplancentral.com/lessons/Education/Rubrics/Writing_Rubrics/

Middle school rubrics

http://www.rubrics4teachers.com/middleschool.php

MiddleWeb—rubrics

http://www.middleweb.com/rubricsHG.html

MidLink Magazine teacher tools—rubrics

http://www.ncsu.edu/midlink/ho.html

RubiStar

http://rubistar.4teachers.org/

Rubrics for assessment—University of Wisconsin

http://www.uwstout.edu/soe/profdev/rubrics.shtml

Visit some of the Web sites listed below to find assessment data on school divisions or states. What

do the data tell you about the schools, school curriculum, or students? What instruments were used to

collect the data?

Aurora, Colorado, Public Schools— Division of Accountability and Research

http://assessment.aurorak12.org/

Baltimore (Maryland) City Pubic Schools—Office of Achievement and Accountability

http://www.baltimorecityschools.org/Student_Performance/ index.asp

Colorado Department of Education— Standards and assessment

http://www.cde.state.co.us/index_stnd-access.htm

Illinois State Board of Education—Student assessment

http://www.isbe.net/assessment/

Kentucky Department of Education. Select: Testing and reporting

http://www.education.ky.gov/KDE/Administrative+Resources/Testing+and+Reporting+/default.htm

New Jersey Department of Education—assessment

http://www.state.nj.us/education/assessment/

Prairie Valley School Division—Regina, Saskatchewan,, Canada

http://www.pvsd.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1188&Itemid=1188

determine what is happening in the class (i.e., student participation in class discussions, types of

questions asked and responses given, interpersonal skills used in cooperative groups, students’

reactions to assignments and to grades on tests, verbal skills demonstrated when expressing thoughts,

need for additional examples, and interest levels) (McMillan, 2004). A checklist provides a framework or

structure for the observation, an indication of the items that should be present in the performance, and

a report on whether those items were present.

Assessment—Reporting

The assessment process does not exist for its own sake. Stiggins (2006) believes that educators must use

assessment information for “balanced purposes” (p. 5). Not only should teachers use the data to shape

their instruction, they should also use it to “encourage students to try to learn” (p. 5). In addition,

teachers must communicate the assessment information on a variety of levels. First, on the classroom

level, teachers communicate with students and parents to determine what an individual student has

learned and what comes next in instruction. Next, on a program level, teachers send the data to their

teams, principals, and curriculum personnel to determine which students are meeting curriculum goals.

Finally, at the institutional and policy levels, school division and community leaders use the data to

determine if enough students are meeting the required standards (Stiggins, 2006).

Thus, at least at the end of an evaluation cycle, it is necessary to communicate the results to others,

including those outside the classroom. Most often this communication occurs through parent

conferences; narrative systems, such as letters to parents; checklists; and letter or numerical grades.

Although most teachers are required to use either letter or numerical grades, many teachers use their

own reporting systems to supplement the required grades. At a minimum, they keep well-organized and

comprehensive files on each student. As one seventh-grade teacher explained, “A few years ago, I had

to meet with a disgruntled parent who continued to question her son’s language arts grade. She

emphatically asked for proof—to see her son’s tests and homework with the assigned grades. And she

wanted an explanation of the D on his oral report. I had a folder that included all the student’s work

(chronologically organized), a copy of my rubric on the report, and my computation of the grade. It was

a rough conference, but with my records, I was able to report on this student’s progress and defend my

actions.”

Grade and Progress Reports

In addition to providing the required assessment information to school officials and to parents on a

report card, many teachers use other methods to communicate with parents about assessment. For

example, in one school, a parent of a relatively unmotivated student asked the teacher for a progress e-

mail each Friday. Some parents want monthly reports, whereas others are satisfied to wait for the 6- or

9-week grading report. Regardless of the schedule, you need to be prepared to provide parents with

detailed reports of students’ progress and behavior. These reports should give parents clear and

meaningful information that they can understand, written comments that explain letter or number

grades, a designated method for parents to offer comments, and a way for parents to request a

conference.

Conferences with Parents

Some schools supplement grade reports with conferences between teachers and parents. In the

conferences, teachers can show parents the student’s work or ask the student to attend the conference

to demonstrate what he or she has learned. In fact, the student can lead the conference. “Student-led

conferences are one of the ways to keep parents actively involved as students share important

information about their learning” (Thompson & French, 2005, p. 134). As they select the material to

share with their parents, students accept more personal responsibility for learning, engage in self-

evaluation, and develop their communication skills and self-confidence (Dyck, 2002).

In contrast to written communication, a conference allows the teacher to use feedback from the parent

to ensure that ideas are being communicated accurately and with appropriate emphasis. A conference

can also increase parents’ involvement in the child’s schooling, both directly and psychologically. In

addition to discussing individual assignments and assessments, you must be sure to provide an overall

description of the student’s progress.

Unfortunately, whether student or teacher led, conferences take a great deal of time. In addition to the

time needed for the conference itself, each conference must be planned. Because it is often difficult for

parents to come to regular conferences at times convenient for teachers, evening or weekend

conferences are often necessary. Ideally, you should follow each parent conference with written

documentation of what was discussed, and this, too, takes time.

Assessment—Developmentally Responsive in Middle Schools

Although effective assessment is a complex activity for all teachers, middle school educators need to

keep a few special considerations in mind. This We Believe: Keys to Educating Young Adolescents

(NMSA, 2010) maintained that the learning process should include continuous, authentic, and

developmentally responsive evaluation. This means that assessment should deal with both the

processes and the products of learning and should consider student differences.

In addition to academic content and skills, the middle school assessment process should address other

aspects of a student’s growth, such as critical thinking, curiosity, and other desired personal attributes.

This requires a variety of alternative assessment devices and procedures, such as checklists and

observation scales. Young adolescents can assemble portfolios and conduct demonstrations that reveal

growth in many dimensions and categories (NMSA, 2010). In middle schools, students need to

participate in all phases of assessment by helping to set individual and group goals and by evaluating

their own accomplishments.

In developmentally responsive middle schools, assessment and evaluation procedures must reflect the

characteristics and uniqueness of young adolescents. Because early adolescence is a crucial period in

establishing a clear self-concept and self-esteem, assessment and evaluation should emphasize

individual progress rather than comparison with other students and should help young adolescents

discover and understand their strengths, weaknesses, interests, values, and personalities (NMSA, 2010).

Assessment—Issues

Criticisms and Negative Effects on Student Learning

The assessment process often receives harsh criticism, especially from those who believe that grading is

inaccurate and unfair and from those who feel that students and learning achievement are negatively

affected by too much emphasis on assessment. These individuals contend that young adolescents

experience too much pressure and stress; assessment takes a toll on their self-esteem; and assessment

fails to take into account cultural, racial, gender, social class, and ethnic differences. Although all these

criticisms may indeed be true to some extent, middle school educators will continue to assess students

in order to make instructional decisions as well to report student progress. The key, then, is to

understand the criticisms and to try to minimize the negative effects.

Culture, Gender, and Other Forms of Diversity

As a middle school educator, you need to recognize the wide range of diversity (i.e., young adolescents’

developmental, cultural, racial, language, and gender differences) in your classroom and to design

instruction and assessments to meet the needs of this diverse student population (Manning & Baruth,

2009). Klotz and Canter (2006) found that teachers must have culturally sensitive attitudes, knowledge,

and skills, and must integrate these attitudes, knowledge and skills into the problem-solving framework

of assessment to meet the educational needs of individual students. This means that, in constructing

any assessment instrument, you must be aware of cultural differences. Unfortunately, the assessment

process, which is often based on standardized tests, can have negative effects on all learners, especially

in multicultural settings.

Middle school educators, like educators at other levels, are increasingly being held accountable on

standardized tests for the academic progress of all of the young adolescents in their classrooms.

However, these assessments are usually “developed for a student population of White, middle-and

upper-class, and native speakers of English” (Penfield & Lee, 2010, p. 6) and are penalizing “students

from low socioeconomic backgrounds, minorities, students with special needs, and second-language

learners” (Smyth, 2008, p. 133). According to Hargreaves and Fink (2006), the emphasis on standardized

assessments has created problems for educators who try to provide for diverse students in the

classroom. Research shows that “contemporary standardized curriculum and assessment practices have

inhibited . . . [the ability of schools to] respond to student diversity in ways that address depth of

learning rather than easily tested basic achievement” (Skerrett & Hargreaves, 2008, p. 937).

Traditional teacher-made and commercial tests do not always provide objective information about

atypical students. Follow these guidelines to help minimize problems:

Closely monitor the effects of testing to determine whether learners from differing cultural and

gender backgrounds experience undue stress or confusion with directions, perhaps resulting from

second-language problems.

Explain testing purposes and procedures to both young adolescents and their parents and families,

and help them understand how test results will be used.

Be sure that assessment constructs or concepts are universally valid.

Be sure that assessment instruments are culturally appropriate and reflect learners’ cultural and

gender values and perspectives.

Case Study 8–1 tells of a middle school teacher’s dilemma and challenge as she tried to provide

assessment devices for young adolescents from differing cultural, gender, and socioeconomic

backgrounds.

Multiple Grading Systems

Faced with a diverse and inclusive student population, some schools have used multiple grading

systems, in which separate scales or special notations are used for students with diverse needs.

However, it seems that this only contributes to confusion for teachers, parents, and students. There is a

growing awareness that alternative grading practices are appropriate for students with special learning

needs only to the extent that they are nondiscriminatory. That is, grading systems for students with

special learning needs should be available to other students as well. In this way, a special symbol

recorded on a report card does not single out a student as receiving special education.

Closing Remarks

Recent developments in assessment have given middle school educators exciting new ways to

determine young adolescents’ achievement as well as their own teaching effectiveness. Although some

traditional assessment devices still can be used effectively (especially when properly constructed), the

newer authentic assessments hold considerable promise. Your challenge is to develop an assessment

process that allows students to demonstrate what they know and that provides you with a more reliable

basis for making diagnostic decisions, assigning grades, and improving instruction.

Case Study 8–1 Young Adolescent Differences and Assessment

Shirella Reed wanted to provide an assessment process that the diverse group of young adolescents on

her team could understand. This year’s Hawk Team, comprised of about half boys and half girls, came

from all socioeconomic groups and was a cultural mix of European, African, Asian, and Hispanic

Americans. Like most young adolescents, some liked to compete; others did not. Some demonstrated

high levels of motivation; others appeared unmotivated. Although a few seemed to take Shirella’s

assessment efforts seriously, others appeared to view assessment as an unimportant aspect of school.

Teaching such a mixed group of students was a challenge. At team meetings, some of the teachers

expressed a longing for the old days when all students supposedly had the same perspectives on tests

and testing: All students conscientiously took tests, wanted to score high, and perceived the importance

of tests. But, Shirella wondered if classrooms were really like that. Maybe, she thought, culture, gender,

and social class have always affected test takers. We just haven’t been aware of it.

It was while she was attending a district workshop that she began to see a way to use authentic

assessments in her classroom. Presenting the workshop were a school librarian and two classroom

teachers who were using a model called The Big6™ to teach information literacy and organizational skills

to students (Murray, 2003). Shirella saw that the six steps in the model could help all of her students by

providing a basic structure that they could use and modify to fit their individual needs. The presenters

made the assessment process seem easy when they talked about their use of rubrics and observational

checklists. In fact, they stressed that their students had even learned how to evaluate their own work

before they turned it in for a grade. Shirella also noted that the presenters discussed how they involved

parents by providing a column on the rubric for parents to check off, indicating that they had seen the

completed work.

Shirella left the meeting with handouts and the determination to try to implement The Big6™ and

authentic assessment. Maybe, if she could demonstrate their use with the Hawk Team students in her

classes, some of the other teachers would try it too. She also planned to talk to her school’s library

media specialists to see if they could team up like the presenters in the workshop. Using a variety of

resources to locate information instead of just relying on printed encyclopedias would promote the

diverse learning styles of her students. And letting the students decide how to present information,

even using multimedia presentations, would help, too. Shirella could already imagine the excitement on

her students’ faces when she explained her new approach to assessment.

Question 1: Help Shirella plan for her presentation to her team. How should she prepare? What should

she stress in her presentation?

Question 2: Visit http://www.big6.com/kids/ and http://nb.wsd.wednet.edu/big6/big6_resources.htm

to learn more about Big6™. How appropriate do you think this system would be for both formative and

summative assessment of young adolescents’ research projects? Does the system have a cultural, social

class, or gender bias?

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