Module 7
Presentation 7
a. Children’s Language Development
Because children seem to learn language naturally, adults often assume that it
is simply the product of maturation, like learning to walk. But it is not. Biology
primes humans for language, but the language children speak is learned over many
years through verbal interaction with adults and other children (Neuman & Wright,
2013). By the time they reach preschool, children are experienced users of language.
However, the amount and type of language they use may differ from the language
used in the school because children’s speech is acquired in the context of their home
and cultural and linguistic community. Language learning is far from complete when
children enter kindergarten or even finish elementary school. Human beings learn
language throughout school and life. Undoubtedly, as a college student, you
continually add new words to your vocabulary. As a teacher working with a diverse
population of children and their families, you will find that your vocabulary will
continue to expand.
There are basically two types of language: receptive and expressive. Receptive
language is the ability to understand what is being said. Expressive language is the
ability to communicate through use and knowledge of spoken language. Receptive
language skills— listening and understanding—develop earlier than the expressive
abilities of speaking and communicating. At any point in time, children understand
more words and more advanced sentence structures than they use.
Vocabulary is a combination of receptive and expressive language—that is, the
number of words a person knows and uses when listening or speaking (Snow, Burns,
& Griffin, 1998). An important goal of all teaching is to increase both the quantity and
quality of children’s receptive and expressive vocabulary. It is not enough that
children speak a lot. We must pay attention to the range of words they understand and
use—the use of pronouns, prepositions, adverbs and adjectives, and other parts of
speech (Snow et al., 1998). Vocabulary words are the labels children use for concepts
they are learning, as well as for those they already know and understand.
Consequently, the more limited the vocabulary, the more limited the child’s
understanding of the world is (Neuman & Wright, 2013). A child who knows the
words mail, stamp, envelope, address, package, and delivery has a more refined
concept of the postal system than a child who refers to all of those concepts as mail.
Another important element of language development is the complexity of
sentence structure children use, referred to as syntax or grammar. As children become
more skilled users of language, their syntax becomes more complex. For example, a
toddler may say, “Me go” to indicate he wants to play outside. But a preschooler will
use a more conventional sentence structure such as “I wanna go to the playground and
climb the ladder swing.” A related goal is for children to begin to acquire script
language—the typical ways that people communicate in different settings. For
example, what the doctor says is different from what the grocery clerk says. Similarly,
the way one talks at school is different from the way one talks at home or on the
playground. Learning the language of school, what is called academic discourse, is
important for school success, and it is not an automatic process. For example, if you
have ever seen children “play school,” you have seen how they rehearse the script that
teachers use (and it is not always comfortable for adults to watch their behavior
played back for them).
During the preschool years, language develops far more rapidly than at any
other time, but there are enormous individual differences (Hart & Risley, 1999). Of
particular concern is that differences in children’s language abilities exist between
socioeconomic groups as early as 18 months of age (Hart & Risley, 2003). Recent
research finds that not only does the size of very young children’s vocabularies differ,
but also how quickly they process and respond to language (Fernald, Marchman, &
Weisleder, 2013). These differences become greater over time and contribute to the
persistent achievement gap in our country (Neuman & Wright, 2013). Therefore,
programs serving children from low-income families and children from diverse
linguistic and cultural backgrounds must take on the challenge of accelerating
children’s language progress.
The large vocabulary difference between income groups has come to be called
“The 30 million word gap” (Hart & Risley, 2003). Public recognition of this disparity
helped propel the White House to convene a summit called “Bridging the Word Gap”
in 2014 and to propose increased investments in early education. Recently, concerns
have been raised about the interpretation of these findings. Researchers at the White
House summit emphasized that just increasing the number of words children hear is
not enough; more important is the complexity and variety of words that children learn
(Quenqua, 2014). Additionally, the Hart and Risley study involved a small number of
families. SES may no longer be as influential a factor because many of today’s
economically advantaged parents spend more time on handheld devices than in
conversation with their children. Nevertheless, an achievement gap persists, and
children’s language capacity is a contributing factor. To address this gap in children’s
language development, teachers must first understand how language typically
develops. Teachers must also be aware that many types of disability affect
communication; some individual children will need access to assistive technology—
called augmented communication devices and/or sign language.
The Developmental Continuum provided here describes widely held
expectations for typical language development. However, the K–3 Common Core
Speaking and Listening standards (2011a) establish specific expectations by grade
level. For example, kindergartners need to participate in collaborative conversations
in small and large groups and confirm their understanding of a read-aloud book by
asking and answering questions. Standards at each grade level build on earlier
abilities and become progressively more challenging. For example, kindergartners
need to have back-and-forth conversations; first graders’ conversations need to build
on what the other person says through questions and comments; and second graders
need to have multiple exchanges that link what they say to the other person’s
comments. Obviously, these standards directly affect how teachers teach. Teachers
have to move beyond “yes or no” questions to provoking more intellectually
engaging, stimulating conversations among children.
b. Scaffolding Children’s Language Development
The role of conversational partner is especially important for teachers working
with babies and toddlers because the first 3 years of life are prime time for developing
language. Nevertheless, some teachers and parents of very young children persist in
the view that there is no reason to talk to children who can’t talk back. The opposite is
true. From the earliest moments of life, babies are trying to communicate. Teachers
need to talk as if the child can talk back and respond to almost any attempt to
communicate. If you are like most adults, your interaction with a baby may sound like
a highpitched voice saying this: “Hi, baby. How are you this morning, baby, baby?”
You pause. The infant moves his mouth, waves his arms, or just looks at you intently.
And now you say, “Oh, you had a good sleep, did you? Are you ready to have some
fun today?” When the baby gurgles, you say, “You are ready, aren’t you? Jesse’s
ready, ready to play!” Adults (and even older children) talk to babies differently than
they do to each other. The high-pitched tone of voice that adults tend to use naturally
with babies is called parentese or motherese, and researchers have observed its use
around the world. What’s more, they know that babies like it. Infants consistently
prefer hearing parentese to adult conversation. In laboratory studies, they show this
preference by turning their heads one way to trigger a tape of parentese more often
than they turn it the other way to hear a tape of adult-to-adult conversation. Effective
communication begins as babies pay attention and respond. When the child initiates,
teachers need to respond enthusiastically and then wait for a response. They interpret
what babies are trying to communicate and expand on the message with words.
One of the most effective ways of building language in babies and toddlers is
to use play-by-play language or running commentary during routines and social
interactions with babies and toddlers. Think of watching a sporting event on TV. A
playby-play announcer describes the action even though you’re seeing it before you.
This sort of commentary connects actions and objects with words and familiarizes
babies with the cadences of speech. Here’s an example of play-by-play during a
typical routine, with the words tied to each action: “Let’s change your diaper now. I
need to pick you up. You’re such a big boy. Let’s lie down on the changing table. You
can hold your horsie. We need to take off these wet pants” and on and on. Finally, to
promote language in babies and toddlers, two very important points must be kept in
mind. First, children need a lot of opportunities to play with different kinds of toys, to
touch real objects, and to move around. Think of the many different words a child
could learn from playing in water, eating applesauce, climbing on a low ramp, rolling
a ball, or looking at a cardboard book. Secondly, in each of these situations, teachers
need to supply the words. While children play on a ramp, the teacher can introduce
the words slide, roll, climb, fast, shiny, push, and many more.
Teachers do a lot of talking and are important role models for children.
Therefore, they need to use standard grammatical speech. They also need to recognize
that many of the grammatical errors children make, such as I goed to the store or three
sheeps, show their efforts to learn a language rule. As they learn the rule, like using s
to indicate plural, they overgeneralize it. Instead of pointing out the mistake, a more
effective approach is to pick up on what the child says and say it correctly. A child
might say, “I gots two foots,” to which the teacher replies, “Yes, you have two feet so
you need two socks.” Similarly, if children speak a dialect or vernacular version of
English, teachers should not correct or prohibit their speech. Doing so tells children
that the speech of their family and their cultural group is inferior. This negative
message may inhibit children’s attempts to communicate. A more effective alternative
is to help children see that there are different ways to say the same thing. For
example, a child might say, “He ain’t got no shoes.” Rather than correcting the double
negative, the teacher could say, “Yes. He doesn’t have any shoes. He’s barefoot.”
Especially as children get older, the teacher should intentionally draw their attention
to the fact that there are different ways to say the same thing.
Conversation involves turn-taking. One person speaks and the other person
listens. Listening is critical to understanding what is said. In addition, listening
comprehension prepares young children for later reading comprehension (Jalongo,
2008). As important as listening is, most teachers do not treat it as a skill to be taught.
When adults tell children to “Listen,” they often mean “Behave” or “Do as I say.” No
wonder children often tune out the word. Young children need to listen in order to
learn; therefore, they need to learn to listen (Jalongo, 2008). Because teachers or
parents tell children, “Be quiet, sit still, and listen,” listening may seem to be a passive
activity. However, effective listening is an active process. Listening is “the process of
taking in information through the sense of hearing and making meaning from what
was heard”
One of the most effective ways to expand children’s language is to use
decontextualized speech. This is talk about events, experiences, or people that are
beyond the here and now or that inhabit children’s imaginations. Such interaction
requires children and adults to use more complex and varied vocabulary in
explanations, descriptions, dialogue, and pretend talk. Decontextualized speech can be
complicated because the speaker and the listener can’t rely on cues from the context
to understand the communication. When children talk about the here and now, the
context permits using words like this, that, there, here, and it. These are words that
children already know. Such conversation doesn’t require or challenge them to use
more descriptive language to be understood. Furthermore, decontextualized speech is
valuable preparation for reading (Snow et al., 1998). In spoken communication, lots
of cues such as gestures, facial expressions, physical space, and objects are available.
If someone says, “Take your seat,” the listener quickly understands that he is being
told to sit down. But if the same sentence appears in writing, the reader would have to
figure out whether it means sit in a chair or pick up a cushion. This is just one
example of the important connection between speaking and reading.
Four-year-old Liam has a new baby brother named Ryan. Liam decides that
the baby should be named Nathan, after his best friend at preschool. The first few
days after Ryan comes home from the hospital, Liam persists in calling him Nathan.
His parents don’t correct him, but they keep calling the baby Ryan. Sitting next to his
mom and Ryan on the couch one day, Liam thoughtfully says, “We can call him
Rynathan. That will be a compromise.” Liam’s advanced vocabulary, which also
includes words such as actually, amazing, entertaining, and nocturnal, did not develop
by chance. His parents and teachers talk with him, use these words regularly, and
explain and show what they mean. Learning new words occurs through repeated
exposure to the words in a context where the meaning becomes clear. Liam’s parents
undoubtedly negotiate with him rather than get into power struggles.
For example, if Liam expresses a desire to watch TV while his mother insists
that he should spend some time outside, she might approach the situation by
proposing a compromise. She could say, "Let’s find a middle ground. You can play
outside while it's still light out, and we’ll record your favorite TV program so you can
watch it later." This approach not only addresses both their wishes but also introduces
Liam to the concept and practice of compromising. By framing it as a balanced
solution, she demonstrates how to negotiate and consider both parties' preferences.
As this scenario unfolds, Liam repeatedly hears the word "compromise" being
used in a practical context. Over time, this consistent exposure helps him understand
the meaning and value of the term. He sees firsthand how compromising allows both
him and his mother to achieve part of what they want. His mother might use similar
language in other situations, reinforcing the concept further. For instance, if he wants
to stay up late but she wants him to go to bed early, she might suggest, "Let’s
compromise and read a book together for a little while before you go to bed."
Hearing the word in different contexts, Liam begins to grasp its broader
applications. He learns that compromising is a useful strategy not just for resolving
conflicts but also for finding solutions that are acceptable to everyone involved. This
repeated practice encourages him to start using the word himself. He might say to a
friend, "Let's compromise—you can choose the game today, and I'll choose
tomorrow," demonstrating his growing understanding of negotiation and fair play.
The concept of compromise is further reinforced through role modeling by his
parents and other adults. When Liam observes his parents compromising with each
other—such as deciding on shared chores, weekend activities, or even meal choices—
he sees the practical application of the word in adult interactions. His parents might
explicitly verbalize their thought process, saying things like, "I prefer Italian food, but
since you want Chinese, let’s compromise and order from a restaurant that serves
both."
As Liam continues to encounter the concept of compromise in various aspects
of his life, his ability to use the word and apply the concept independently grows
stronger. He might use it in school when working on group projects, suggesting ways
to divide tasks or merge different ideas. For example, if he and a classmate have
different ideas for a science project, he might say, "Let’s compromise by combining
our ideas into one project."
Through consistent reinforcement and practical application, the word
"compromise" becomes a part of Liam's vocabulary and problem-solving toolkit. He
learns that compromise is a key component of effective communication and
cooperation, helping him navigate social interactions more smoothly. This skill will
benefit him not only in childhood but also as he grows into adulthood, where
negotiation and finding middle ground are essential in personal and professional
relationships.
Moreover, by learning to compromise, Liam also develops empathy and the
ability to see situations from multiple perspectives. He understands that others have
needs and desires that are just as valid as his own, and he learns to respect and
consider those when seeking solutions. This not only helps him build stronger
relationships but also fosters a sense of fairness and justice.
In conclusion, Liam's mother’s approach to resolving the TV-watching conflict
by suggesting a compromise serves as an educational moment. It introduces Liam to
the concept in a clear and practical way, reinforcing it through repetition and varied
applications. Over time, Liam adopts this concept into his own behavior, learning to
use compromise as a valuable tool for managing conflicts and building cooperative
relationships. Through these experiences, Liam gains important social skills that will
serve him well throughout his life.
Teachers need to use explicit instruction to expand children’s vocabulary, and
should intentionally introduce new and rare words—multisyllable, sophisticated
words that are not typically part of a child’s vocabulary. For example, in The Tale of
Peter Rabbit, Peter’s coat gets caught in the fence and the birds implore him to exert
himself. Before reading the book, the teacher introduces these words with simple
definitions, “Implore means to ask someone to do something you really want them to
do” and “Exert means to try really hard.” During the reading, she pauses at the
sentence to ask the children what it means. Then later she reinforces the learning by
using the new words repeatedly, sometimes jokingly, “I implore you to get your coats
on,” and encouraging children to use them.
The effectiveness of small-group reading does not mean that teachers should
never read to the whole group. If the book is relatively short and involves children’s
active participation and predictable text, whole-group reading may be the best choice.
Predictable books use parallel text structures that become familiar to children, such as
those in Bill Martin’s Brown Bear, Brown Bear or Dr. Seuss’s Hop on Pop. The whole
group can chime in during Eric Carle’s The Very Hungry Caterpillar with predictable
text such as “But he was still hungry.” Throughout the first five years of life, children
develop language and early literacy skills simultaneously, and the two are interrelated.
Reading to children enhances their language because the structures and words used in
books are more complex than those used in everyday speech. Knowing more words,
in turn, helps children make sense of print and find what they read more meaningful
and interesting. Talking with children about what is read further boosts vocabulary
and comprehension. But what about children who don’t speak the language of the
classroom?
c. Dual Language Learning
Acquiring two or more languages is a complex process that doesn’t happen as
easily for young children as some people think. Generally, children take one of two
paths to becoming bilingual—either simultaneous or sequential. When children learn
two languages at the same time during the earliest years of life—simultaneous
acquisition—their dual language development is similar to that of monolingual
children, those who are learning only one language. All over the world, children grow
up in homes learning multiple languages from birth. Sometimes one language will
become more dominant depending on the context.
The sequence of second language acquisition is described in the feature
Developmental Continuum: Second Language Learning. The length of time individual
children spend at each level varies, and unlike learning their home language, learning
a second language is a conscious process that requires effort. Young children who are
learning a new language will often alternate between the two languages even within
the same sentence. When children understand and use elements of both their home
language or dialect and English, they code switch, also called language mixing.
Teachers aren’t always sure what to do about it. Code switching is a well-developed
skill in most bilingual, bicultural individuals, and it contributes to their ability to think
and analyze complex problems and express emotions (Garcia, 2005). To learn more
about this skill and how teachers should respond to it, read the Culture Lens:
Understanding and Responding to Code Switching feature.
Several myths about teaching dual language learners continue to persist
despite research to the contrary. Some of the most common myths are that children
must learn one language before they can learn another, that learning a second
language delays or interferes with learning the first, or that learning more than one
language harms brain functioning (Espinosa, 2013). In fact, learning two languages
does not confuse or overwhelm children, nor does it delay their English acquisition.
Research demonstrates that beginning at birth, all children have the capacity to learn
any of the world’s languages and the younger the child’s brain, the greater its capacity
to learn more than one language (Rivera-Gaxiola, Silva-Pereyra, & Kuhl, 2008).
Moreover, bilingualism in children from ages 4 to 8 has long-term positive effects on
cognitive development and executive function, including the ability to think flexibly
and solve problems that require taking different perspectives (Rodriguez,
Carrasquillo, & Lee, 2014). This may be because bilingualism regularly requires
children to mentally shift between two language systems. Some non-English-speaking
parents are so concerned that their children learn English that they avoid speaking
their native language and want early childhood programs to do the same.
In these cases, teachers play a crucial role in advocating for the importance of
maintaining and developing children's home language. They need to support parents
in understanding that a strong foundation in their home language is not only beneficial
but essential for children's overall development and well-being. By nurturing and
preserving their home language, children not only maintain a connection to their
cultural heritage but also acquire valuable linguistic and cognitive skills that can
positively impact their academic success and social-emotional growth.
Teachers can help parents recognize that language is deeply intertwined with
identity and cultural identity. For many families, the home language is a central aspect
of their cultural heritage and serves as a means of transmitting cultural traditions,
values, and beliefs from one generation to the next. By encouraging the use of the
home language in the home environment, teachers support children in maintaining a
strong sense of cultural identity and belonging. This, in turn, fosters positive family
relationships and strengthens bonds within the family unit.
Moreover, research has consistently shown that bilingualism or
multilingualism offers numerous cognitive benefits. Children who are proficient in
more than one language often demonstrate enhanced problem-solving abilities, greater
flexibility in thinking, and improved metalinguistic awareness. By maintaining and
developing their home language, children not only expand their linguistic repertoires
but also gain valuable cognitive skills that can transfer to other areas of learning.
Teachers can share this research with parents to emphasize the cognitive advantages
of bilingualism and motivate them to continue supporting their children's home
language development.
Additionally, maintaining proficiency in the home language can facilitate
academic success and language learning in school. A strong foundation in the home
language provides children with a solid linguistic base upon which they can build
proficiency in additional languages, including the language of instruction at school.
Research has shown that children who are proficient in their home language are better
equipped to learn a second language and achieve academic success in school. By
nurturing children's home language skills, teachers help set them up for success in
their academic endeavors and promote positive attitudes towards language learning.
Furthermore, the home language serves as a valuable resource for learning and
communication within the family. It provides a means for parents and children to
express themselves authentically, share stories and experiences, and engage in
meaningful conversations. By encouraging the use of the home language at home,
teachers empower parents to actively participate in their children's education and
support their language development. This collaborative approach strengthens the
partnership between home and school and creates a supportive learning environment
for children.
Teachers can also provide practical strategies and resources to support parents
in maintaining and developing their children's home language skills. This may include
recommending books, games, and activities in the home language, encouraging
regular conversations in the home language, and providing opportunities for children
to practice their home language skills both at home and in the classroom. By
equipping parents with the tools and knowledge they need to support their children's
language development, teachers empower families to play an active role in their
children's education and linguistic success.
In conclusion, teachers play a critical role in advocating for the importance of
maintaining and developing children's home language. By helping parents understand
the benefits of preserving the home language, supporting cultural identity, and
fostering cognitive and academic development, teachers empower families to create a
nurturing language-rich environment that supports children's overall growth and well-
being. Through collaborative efforts between home and school, children can thrive
academically, linguistically, and culturally, setting the stage for lifelong success.
d. Early Literacy: Birth through Age 5
Some of the widely held expectations for children’s literacy development from
birth through age 5 are presented in the Developmental Continuum: Early Literacy
feature. Accomplishing these goals assumes that children have had good learning
opportunities. Individual children’s progress will vary, depending on their prior
experiences with written language and other factors. Teachers need to be intentional in
promoting children’s language and literacy learning. This means that they
thoughtfully plan and prepare in advance but are also playful (Roskos, Tabors, &
Lenhart, 2009). Children need to playfully explore and engage in activities involving
reading, writing, and learning letters and sounds. These opportunities are more likely
to occur in a literacy-rich environment.
Early literacy is the knowledge and skills that are the forerunners of
conventional reading and writing. Research demonstrates that specific early literacy
skills predict later success in learning to read and write (Shanahan & Lonigan, 2013).
These predictors do not guarantee success, but they do increase the likelihood of
success. More important, without these abilities upon entrance to kindergarten,
children are more likely to encounter difficulties in learning to read (Snow et al.,
1998). Research-based early literacy skills include phonological awareness, alphabet
knowledge, print awareness, and oral language (NELP, 2008). Other important skills
that contribute to later reading include writing (specifically, name writing), listening
comprehension, and motivation to read. In the following sections, we define and
describe each of these skills and effective ways teachers promote children’s literacy
learning. (In the previous sections, we described numerous strategies for building
vocabulary.)
Phonological awareness is the consciousness that the stream of spoken
language is made up of smaller units or chunks of sound (Schickedanz & Collins,
2013). Phonological awareness develops along a continuum, from recognizing the
larger units of sound, such as rhymes (two words ending with the same sound) and
alliteration (two words beginning with the same sound), to the smaller units such as
syllables. A more complex level of phonological awareness involves awareness of
parts of syllables. The most difficult level is phonemic awareness, or recognizing that
spoken words are made up of individual sounds called phonemes. English has
approximately 44 phonemes that are represented by the 26 letters of the alphabet
either alone or in combination. The letter m stands for a sound, while the letters th
stand for another sound. The word bat is made up of three phonemes: /b/, /a/, and /t/.
If one phoneme is changed—using /m/ instead of /b/—the meaning of the word is
changed. Phonemes are important to later reading because written language represents
these sounds.
The ability to read and write depends on mastering the alphabetic principle,
the understanding that there is a systematic relationship between letters and sounds,
and that all spoken language can be represented by a set of agreedon symbols called
letters (Adams, 1990). Children will not master the alphabetic principle in preschool,
but knowing the alphabet at kindergarten entry is the strongest predictor of success in
reading during first grade. Knowing letters means remembering their shapes, names,
and sounds (Stahl, 2014). Because the names of many letters mirror the sounds they
represent, learning letter names is an important skill.
Katya, age 2½, and her dad drive to Kmart to buy some clothes. Her dad
points to the large sign and says, “Look, Katya, there’s your K.” Katya wonders,
“This is my store. Why are these people here?” Like many children her age, Katya has
discovered her letter and she feels personal ownership. But how did this important
discovery occur? As her father demonstrated, Katya’s parents helped her learn the first
letter in her name. As with phonological awareness, children need adult support to
learn the alphabet. The alphabet is a set of arbitrary symbols with preset names that
require instruction. Teaching the alphabet is necessary, but how it is taught is also
important. Because adults clearly value this skill, most children are motivated to learn
the letters. However, teachers need to make learning the alphabet meaningful.
Teaching one letter a week or teaching letters without any connection to sounds and
words is not effective. Letters are not “equal.” Some letters, such as M and S, are
easily mastered because the letter name and sound are very similar; while others such
as Y and C are much more difficult. Focusing on a letter a week gives too much time
to some and not enough to others; it also doesn’t help children compare and see
relationships among letters.
As Katya did, children first focus on the letters in their own names. If they
frequently see their name in writing, at some point between about 18 months and age
3, they will identify the first letter as their own. A child may be affronted if someone
else claims the letter, too. Toddlers love to sing the alphabet song, play with alphabet
blocks, and look at alphabet books. In the classroom, letters should be where children
can see, touch, and manipulate them, such as magnetic or sandpaper letters (Neuman,
Copple, & Bredekamp, 2000). Name writing is an important ability that helps build all
other early literacy skills (Puranik & Lonigan, 2012). Children need to see uppercase
as well as lowercase letters and different fonts of the same letter. This way, children
learn the “essence” of the letter symbol rather than only one representation of it. For a
description of how to effectively teach the letters and sounds, read the Becoming an
Intentional Teacher feature.
When children see adults writing, they want to write, too. To encourage and
scaffold writing, teachers need to reinforce children’s sense of competence (Graham
& Harris, 2013). Curriculum should expose children to various types of writing. A
cooking project requires them to attend to a recipe. Science experiments require data
collection. Children’s desire to protect a block structure motivates them to write a
sign. It is important that teachers not focus too much attention on children’s
handwriting because that approach is likely to be less meaningful and potentially
frustrating for children. Teachers and parents should not be alarmed when children
reverse letters or even write words as if in mirror-image. These “errors” are normal at
this age (Schickedanz & Collins, 2013). If children persist in writing letters
backwards, however, teachers scaffold correct production. For example, 4½-year-old
Franklin tends to write his name backwards. Mr. Gandini notices that he starts writing
on the right-hand side of the page and usually runs out of room, so he continues
toward the left.
In this scenario, the teacher's simple yet effective guidance to Franklin
demonstrates a thoughtful approach to fostering independence and organization skills
in young learners. By offering specific instructions and modeling a structured
approach to beginning a task, the teacher not only supports Franklin in initiating his
work but also sets a positive example for the entire class.
The teacher's suggestion to Franklin, inviting him to start his name in the left-
hand corner of the paper, reflects a deliberate effort to provide clear and actionable
guidance. This approach helps Franklin understand where to begin and establishes a
consistent starting point for future assignments, promoting a sense of routine and
predictability in his academic work. By offering such targeted instructions, the teacher
empowers Franklin to take ownership of his learning and develop effective strategies
for approaching tasks independently.
Furthermore, the teacher's reference to their practice of writing people's names
on their paintings illustrates the use of familiar experiences to scaffold new skills. By
connecting the task of writing one's name on a paper to a previously learned concept
—writing names on paintings—the teacher leverages Franklin's existing knowledge
and experiences to facilitate understanding and retention. This strategy not only
enhances Franklin's comprehension of the task but also reinforces the relevance of
classroom activities to real-life situations, fostering deeper engagement and learning.
Moreover, the teacher's emphasis on providing Franklin with "plenty of space"
to write his name acknowledges the importance of creating a supportive and
accommodating learning environment. By ensuring that Franklin has ample room to
complete his task comfortably, the teacher promotes a sense of agency and autonomy
in his academic endeavors. This consideration for Franklin's needs and preferences
demonstrates the teacher's commitment to individualized instruction and fosters a
sense of trust and rapport between teacher and student.
Expanding on this interaction, the teacher could further encourage Franklin's
independence by inviting him to reflect on his preferred writing style or offering
additional suggestions for organizing his work. For example, the teacher might ask
Franklin if he prefers to write his name in print or cursive, allowing him to make
choices that align with his personal preferences and learning style. Alternatively, the
teacher could introduce alternative strategies for organizing paper, such as drawing a
border or leaving space for illustrations, to further enhance Franklin's organizational
skills and creative expression.
Additionally, the teacher could take this opportunity to reinforce the
importance of planning and preparation in academic work. By highlighting the
significance of starting tasks thoughtfully and allocating space effectively, the teacher
instills valuable habits of mind that contribute to academic success and productivity.
This focus on metacognitive skills—such as organization, time management, and task
initiation—equips Franklin with essential tools for navigating academic challenges
and achieving his learning goals independently.
In conclusion, the teacher's guidance to Franklin exemplifies a proactive
approach to supporting student learning and fostering independence in the classroom.
By offering specific instructions, connecting new tasks to familiar experiences, and
prioritizing student comfort and agency, the teacher empowers Franklin to take
ownership of his academic work and develop essential skills for success. Through
thoughtful interactions like these, teachers play a pivotal role in cultivating a positive
and enriching learning environment where all students can thrive.
Early literacy experiences are now a key part of every good early childhood
program but they should not become the whole curriculum. Because the curriculum
lends itself to integration, many teaching strategies are effective for multiple goals.
For example, book reading promotes listening and understanding, vocabulary
development, phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, print awareness,
knowledge in a subject area such as science, and even social problem-solving skills.
Learning curriculum content builds all-important background knowledge, concepts,
and basic information about how the world works. Background knowledge is essential
for reading comprehension. Information books are especially valuable sources of such
knowledge. As a result, the Common Core standards call for a 50-50 balance between
fiction and nonfiction reading in kindergarten. Information books are more
cognitively challenging than stories. However, teachers tend to talk less when reading
them, which is a missed opportunity to enhance their value. Exposure to information
books and academic vocabulary in the early years helps prepares children for the texts
they will later encounter in elementary school.
e. Literacy in the Primary Grades
Conventional reading is reading in which the reader gains meaning from
unfamiliar text. This is what we think of when we talk about being literate—the
ability to read without conscious effort, the way adults and older children read.
English is an alphabetic language, as are Spanish and many other languages. In these
languages, we translate or encode speech sounds into symbols—the letters of the
alphabet—to create writing. Reading requires the ability to decode—that is, to figure
out what those symbols represent.
For many decades, there have been heated debates about which of these
processes is more important and needs more attention when teaching beginning
reading. Today, researchers agree that effective reading instruction helps children
master the alphabetic principle and acquire meaning from text—what is called a
balanced approach (International Reading Association [IRA] & National Association
for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 1998; Kim, 2008; Snow et al., 1998).
Such an approach is more likely to be meaningful and motivating for children and,
therefore, more likely to help them become successful readers. Learning to read is an
example of a both/and, not an either/or choice—both decoding and comprehension are
required. Teachers need to realize that it is impossible to understand what you cannot
decode, but it is possible to decode what you cannot understand. Those of us who
have never studied physics, for example, would probably be able to “read” (that is,
decode) the words in a physics textbook, but would have no idea what we’ve read.
Phonics is a system of teaching the correspondences between letters or groups
of letters and the sounds they represent. Although the use of phonics to teach reading
has been hotly debated, the value of phonics has long been established as a necessary
component in an effective, research-based program (Chall, 1967; Strickland, 2011).
The major issue concerning phonics instruction is not whether to teach phonics and
other skills such as spelling, but how to teach them in engaging ways that support
children’s continued reading development as well as their motivation to read. Whereas
some children need extensive help with phonics, other children do not (Strickland,
2011).
Fluency refers to rapid, efficient, and accurate word recognition skills that
permit the reader to comprehend the meaning of text (Rasinski, 2009). Fluency is first
apparent when children are able to read out loud quickly, accurately, and with
appropriate expression. This ability then leads to their ability to comprehend what
they read silently. Fluency is like the bridge between phonics and comprehension
(Rasinski, 2009). If children’s decoding skills are inadequate, they must slowly sound
out and stumble over each word. By the time they’ve reached the end of the sentence,
they’ve forgotten the words they’ve read and, as a result, the sentence doesn’t make
sense. Fluency requires practice and careful matching of texts to children’s
approximate reading ability. How do children become fluent readers? One way is for
teachers to read aloud to children, modeling the elements of fluent reading (Pikulski
& Chard, 2005). Fluency requires practice. Another way is for children to read short
passages to each other in pairs. Even after children in the primary grades become
fairly competent readers, teachers should continue to read to them, using more
sophisticated books than students can read independently.
Reading comprehension is the construction of meaning from unfamiliar text—
the ability to make sense of what is read. A prerequisite for high levels of reading
achievement is a rich amount of background and content knowledge. The content
thatSchildren learn in social studies, science, and other areas provides essential
background knowledge to comprehend what they read. For thisSreason, children need
a great deal of experience with information (nonfiction) texts in the primary grades
(Duke, 2014). A solid base of knowledge is essential for becoming a skilled reader
and succeeding in school (NICHD, 2000). By third grade, the curriculum shifts from a
focus on learning to read to an expectation that children read to learn, as they
encounter increasingly more complex textbooks. In fact, the fourth-grade reading
slump that typically occurs in American schools may be caused in part by children’s
lack of content knowledge from which to make sense of more challenging texts.
In 2015, the International Reading Association officially changed its name to
the International Literacy Association (ILA) to reflect the fact that reading is only part
of literacy today. Children of every age must learn to use technology and digital
media to enhance all their communication skills—reading, writing, speaking, and
listening. Across the curriculum, they need to seek information online and connect
that knowledge with what they learn offline. Children also need to learn the strengths
and limitations of various technological tools and media, and choose those that are
suited to their communication goals. Life in our technological society, requires more
than reading; it requires digital literacy, the ability to locate, understand, interpret, and
evaluate information from multimedia, digital sources. One of the biggest challenges
teachers face, however, is deciding among the vast number of educational apps and
games that purport to teach children to read. A survey of the most popular ones found
that despite lofty claims, more than half focused on very basic skills—letters, sounds,
phonics, and word identification. Only about 10% addressed higher-level abilities
such as vocabulary, comprehension, and storytelling.
In the past, reading instruction in kindergarten and the primary grades focused
on such basic skills as phonics and word identification. Concerns about uneven, low
educational standards and poor academic achievement in many states led to the
Common Core State Standards initiative (2011a). Common Core standards are
designed to ensure that all children are prepared for college and careers in reading,
writing, speaking, listening, and language, and they significantly raise the bar across
all grades. The Common Core English Language Arts (ELA) standards begin at
kindergarten, but because they are so rigorous, they have had a significant impact on
prekindergarten as well. Many early childhood educators are seriously concerned that
the standards are developmentally inappropriate and that implementing them is
harming children.
The expectation that kindergartners should be able to "Read emergent-reader
texts with purpose and understanding" raises concerns for educators and parents alike,
as it reflects a significant shift in academic expectations for young learners. While the
intention behind this expectation may be to promote early literacy skills and prepare
children for future academic success, it also poses challenges related to developmental
readiness and the appropriateness of the materials selected for instruction.
Firstly, it's essential to acknowledge that kindergarten is a critical stage in
children's development, where they undergo significant cognitive, social, and
emotional growth. At this age, children vary widely in their readiness to acquire
reading skills, with some demonstrating an early interest and aptitude for literacy
activities, while others may still be in the early stages of language acquisition and
literacy development. Therefore, expecting all kindergartners to read emergent-reader
texts with purpose and understanding may place undue pressure on children who are
not developmentally ready for this level of literacy instruction.
Furthermore, the choice of emergent-reader texts used to exemplify this
expectation, such as "Are You My Mother?" by P.D. Eastman and "Green Eggs and
Ham" by Dr. Seuss, may not necessarily align with the diverse interests, backgrounds,
and experiences of all kindergarten students. While these classic children's books have
enduring appeal and offer valuable opportunities for language development and
comprehension skills, they may not resonate with every child or reflect the cultural
diversity present in today's classrooms.
Moreover, the inclusion of information books like "My Five Senses" by Aliki
as examples of emergent-reader texts introduces additional considerations regarding
the complexity and accessibility of the content. While informational texts play a
crucial role in expanding children's knowledge and vocabulary, they may present
challenges for emergent readers due to unfamiliar vocabulary, abstract concepts, and
dense informational content. Therefore, expecting kindergartners to engage with such
texts with purpose and understanding may require additional scaffolding and support
from educators to ensure comprehension and meaningful engagement.
Expanding on this expectation, educators and curriculum developers could
explore a broader range of emergent-reader texts that reflect the diversity of children's
experiences, interests, and cultural backgrounds. By incorporating culturally relevant
literature and informational texts into literacy instruction, educators can create more
inclusive learning environments that honor and celebrate the identities and
perspectives of all students. Additionally, providing opportunities for student choice
and self-selection of reading materials can foster a sense of autonomy and ownership
in literacy learning, motivating children to engage more deeply with texts and develop
a lifelong love of reading.
Furthermore, educators can implement differentiated instruction strategies to
meet the diverse needs of kindergartners and provide targeted support for emergent
readers. This may involve small-group instruction, one-on-one interventions, or the
use of adaptive technologies to personalize learning experiences and address
individual learning goals. By tailoring instruction to meet students where they are in
their literacy development, educators can create equitable opportunities for all
kindergartners to succeed and thrive as readers.
In conclusion, while the expectation that kindergartners should read emergent-
reader texts with purpose and understanding reflects a commitment to early literacy
instruction, it also raises important considerations regarding developmental readiness,
cultural relevance, and instructional support. By critically examining the selection of
texts, providing differentiated instruction, and fostering a culture of inclusivity and
student agency, educators can ensure that all kindergartners have the opportunity to
develop essential literacy skills in a supportive and enriching learning environment.
f. Communicating Through the Arts
We began this with a visit to a primary school where teachers used children’s
art production and appreciation to teach language, reading, and writing. In previous
sections, we focused on two dimensions of communication: language and literacy.
Although it is true that speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills are essential for
school success, they are not the only ways of communicating and learning, as is clear
from Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. Young children, who tend to be less
inhibited than older children and adults, use their entire bodies to express their ideas
and emotions. If encouraged and provided a range of interesting materials, they can be
incredibly creative in representing their world through traditional and digital media.
Children’s enjoyment and accomplishment in the creative arts depend, in part, on
teachers providing adequate materials, time, and instruction in specific art techniques.
The creative arts include visual arts, music, movement, dance, and drama.
National Core Arts Standards for pre-K through grade 12 now exist that address all
these areas plus media arts (National Coalition for Core Arts Standards, 2014). The
overarching goals of the standards are that children create art; perform, present, and
produce art; respond to art (interpret, evaluate, and find meaning in it); and connect
art to their lives and the larger culture. The media arts standards address how all forms
of art are created and presented using technology and digital media. The Core Arts
standards are designed to align with the Common Core and also elevate the value and
importance of the arts in education. Each type of creative art supports children’s
imaginative thinking and expression of their ideas and emotions (Isenberg & Jalongo,
2013). Participation in the arts achieves several goals for children: enhanced cognitive
development, promotion of symbolic representation, support for creativity, and
engagement of children from all cultural and linguistic backgrounds.
Symbolic representation is the process of mentally using one thing to stand for
something else. When children engage in the visual arts, they are using various media
to represent their concepts of the real world (Thompson, 2013). Language is a
representation of objects, experiences, feelings, and concepts. For example, in English
we use the word chair to represent an object with four legs that we sit on. Other
languages use a different word to stand for the same object. Written language is also
an example of symbolic representation. The letters of the alphabet are symbols to
represent the sounds of the spoken language. Developing symbolic representation is
essential to speaking and reading. Consider how Karen Spitzer, in the previous
example, uses the arts to build symbolic representation in her kindergartners. The
children represented the flowers in their initial drawings, in verbal descriptions, and in
writing, and they read about them in books. Using different media, such as paint and
sculpture tools, they again represented the roses. Then they observed real roses
closely and discussed their pictures, reflecting on each other’s representations. Finally,
they were able to add more realistic detail, representing their more accurate concepts
of a rose. The processes that Karen used with her class promoted their creativity,
artistic ability, and symbolic representation skills. The activities were part of a science
unit that also integrated language and literacy skills.
Individuals are creative when they take existing objects or ideas and combine
them in different ways for new purposes. Creative individuals use their ever-growing
body of knowledge to generate new and useful solutions to everyday challenges
(Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013). Therefore, creativity applies not only to the arts but to all
aspects of children’s experience. To support children’s involvement in the creative
arts, effective teachers need to understand their role. Teachers can err in doing either
too little or too much (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013). Some teachers are too passive,
providing no help with art techniques. They merely provide materials and stand back.
The commonly heard phrase “It’s not the product, it’s the process” relates to this view
of creativity. The assumption is that whatever children produce is unimportant
compared to their creative use of materials.
By contrast, some teachers are too controlling, overemphasizing the finished
product. These teachers may assume that parents want children to color within
predrawn lines or produce art that conforms to adult-made models. Envision a
classroom wall decorated with a series of rabbits that look like they came off an
assembly line. The rabbit ears and other parts were obviously cut out by the teacher.
Cultural differences also exist in how adults view and support children’s creativity.
For example, one study found that Chinese American parents and teachers believe that
children need formal art instruction first and then creativity will follow, while
European Americans tend to assume that children’s creativity will emerge naturally. In
this study, Chinese American children’s drawing skills from age 5 to 9 were more
mature and creative than those of the European American children who had received
less instruction. The best approach is for teachers and children to value both the
process and the product. Teachers need to understand that the process of producing art
is more satisfying and educationally valuable if children have been taught some
techniques (Thompson, 2013). Children will enjoy the art more and become less
frustrated. At the same time, they will feel prouder about the products they themselves
produce.
All areas of the arts can involve and engage diverse groups of children. It is
always important to adapt materials and experiences to ensure that children with
disabilities can fully engage in the creative arts. Art, music, and movement are areas
where dual language learners can be included without needing to rely on their English
language skills. All children can enjoy learning a song in either English or another
language. In addition, when singing, there is a clearer distinction between each word
than in speaking. With her 3-year-olds, Derry sings, “Head, shoulders, knees, and toes
. . . and eyes, and ears, and a mouth and nose,” touching each body part as she sings.
Such a rhyme or song helps dual language learners by connecting physical
movements with words. Every cultural group has its tradition of artistic expression.
Consider origami in Asian cultures or African masks. Teachers can involve families
by inviting them to share creative art from their own culture and families. Exploring
children’s cultural diversity should not be limited to examining such artifacts, but
including them is important. Even at an early age, some children will say, “I can’t
draw.” They’ve already learned that the broader culture values particular ways of
representing the world. Digital media is a great way to motivate reluctant artists as
well as those who happily embrace their creative selves. Engaging art production apps
abound, such as MoMA Art Lab from New York’s Museum of Modern Art.
All of the experiences described previously contribute to the development of
children’s visual literacy. Visual literacy is the “ability to create visual messages and
to ‘read’ messages contained in visual communications; to perceive, understand,
interpret, and evaluate the visual environment” (Johnson, 2008, p. 74). To build
children’s visual literacy experiences, teachers engage them in talking about art,
extending their thinking about art, and reflecting on art (Johnson, 2008). These
processes are similar to the connections that exist among speaking, reading, and
writing.
Teachers engage children in talking about their art by commenting on colors,
textures, techniques, and patterns. They also lead children through thinking and
problem solving by asking open-ended questions such as “What materials did you use
to make this flower sculpture?” and “How can you make a door in your house
structure? What will you need? What could you do first?” As in the case study that
opened, teachers can help children observe, compare, and respond to the properties of
artistic works. With a teacher’s guidance, children can discuss the artist’s use of color,
shape, line, pattern, texture, and more. Typical comments might Jules Selmes/Pearson
Education clude “Look at the big blocks of color in the Mondrian painting.” “Look
very closely. Can you see how the people in this picture by Seurat are painted with
tiny dots of color?” “See how the Romare Bearden picture is a collage like we make.”
To bring art closer to children’s firsthand experience, local artists can share and
discuss a work-in-progress or display their work in the classroom.
On the first day of school for her preschool class, Yasmine gathers the children
on the rug and begins to sing a simple song with corresponding hand gestures: “Open,
shut them. Open, shut them. Give a little clap. Open, shut them. Open, shut them. Put
them in your lap. Creep them, creep them. Creep them, creep them, right up to your
chin. Open wide your little mouth . . . but do not let them in!” The children are
enchanted and their attention is fully engaged. They beg for her to do it again. Many
of them begin following her movements and mimicking the words immediately. Right
from the start, the children learn that music will be a fun and active part of every day
in Yasmine’s room. Developmentally appropriate music and movement experiences
involve creating, performing (singing, making and moving to music), listening and
responding, and connecting music and movement to interests, ideas, and knowledge.
Music and movement should be a primary focus of the curriculum and should also be
used to accomplish other learning goals. Every day, teachers can provide
opportunities for children to sing favorite songs, learn new ones, and make up their
own. Children should also use simple rhythm instruments to create music or to
accompany live or recorded music.
Children’s experiences and connections with music begin at birth, when they
are comforted by lullabies or the soft humming of their mothers’ voices. Some
families make music an integral part of their lives. By the time they reach the toddler
years, many children have favorite songs and musical pieces. They listen attentively,
sing along with a familiar chorus, move to the music, and begin making their own
music by shaking a tambourine or banging on a pot or drum. As language skills
develop, toddlers begin making up their own songs. If they have had many
opportunities to listen to and talk about music, they can identify the sounds made by
specific instruments such as a trumpet, drum, or violin. Music experiences play an
important role in children’s lives. Music and dance influence children’s identities,
connect them to their cultural group and the larger society, help them experience and
express emotions and ideas, and support their learning across the curriculum.
Moreover, music and dance can be lots of fun. Every cultural group and family has a
musical tradition. As communities connect within a broader culture, these musical
traditions are shared and influence each other. Rock and roll began as a blending of
several musical forms, including the blues and gospel. This is what makes music a
part of children’s identities and why it is important to incorporate the music of
children’s cultures and home languages into the curriculum. If children don’t know
the songs, they can sing along with a recorded version of a song, such as “Abiyoyo,”
until everyone learns the words. An iPod can be loaded with literally hundreds of
selections. Teachers can also introduce real or homemade versions of instruments that
are typical of children’s cultures.
Exposing children to all kinds of music provides many different opportunities
for learning. Firstgrade teacher Malique is an amateur guitarist and music lover. Even
though he doesn’t sing very well, he never lets that stop him from singing with the
children. He knows that children don’t mind if the song is off-key as long as they can
sing along, too. Malique introduces a different kind of music each week and provides
follow-up activities. To launch this music appreciation curriculum, Malique invites
sixth-grade band members to bring their instruments and demonstrate the sounds. The
children love seeing the instruments up close and learning how to care for them. Then
he plays a recording of portions of Peter and the Wolf and asks children to listen to
how the instruments sound like animals. Whatever music Malique uses in his
classroom, he involves children in thinking and talking about their experiences. He
asks questions such as “What do you like or dislike about it?” “How is it similar to
and different from other music you have heard?” “What instruments do you hear in
different pieces of music?” In this way, children can become critical thinkers about
music as well as music appreciators.
Pretend play and dramatization involve creative production and
demonstration. We have already discussed the benefits of socio-dramatic play for
language and early literacy skills. Dramatization, however, is more closely tied to a
specific story or script. Children in primary grades are more likely to engage in
dramatization than younger children, although preschoolers do act out favorite stories.
Children can also dramatize traditional stories from their own cultures. Teachers can
structure a drama session to promote literacy skills in story sequence, character
development, and plot. Many dramatizations, both child initiated and teacher guided,
involve retelling familiar stories. After reading Three Billy Goats Gruff to her class of
4-year-olds, Marissa Reese helps them act it out. First, she encourages their recall and
story sequencing skills by asking them to tell what happened: “How did the story
start?” “What happened next?” She helps them identify emotions or problems that
surface in the dialogue: “How did the little billy goat feel?” As the children practice
acting out the different roles, they get an opportunity to play with dialogue, changing
their tone of voice and expression to fit the character of each goat or the troll.
Scaffolding dramatization requires providing different kinds and the right amount of
support for different children (Davidson, 1996). Providing props of varying realism
can meet the needs of inexperienced as well as capable players. Some will need
realistic props to get into character, such as a variety of dress-up clothes or the actual
props used by characters in a story. For example, after reading The Little Old Lady
Who Was Not Afraid of Anything (Williams, 1988), a kindergarten teacher gives
children props to act out the story—shoes, pants, shirts, and a hat—and create a
scarecrow at the end. Other children can take on a creative role with more open-ended
objects such as cardboard tubes, unit blocks, or pieces of cloth. Videotaping the
production and sharing it on a class website or on YouTube encourages children to do
their best work.
Pablo Picasso once said that every child is an artist (cited in Arts Education
Partnership, 1998). But given the current emphasis on the basics of reading, writing,
and mathematics in early schooling, time and resources for arts education are
diminishing. Many children today have less opportunity to experience the arts.
However, all forms of art offer new ways in which children can build language and
literacy skills, learn about their own and other cultures, and develop cognitive and
social skills (Brown et al., 2010). Each of the creative arts can enhance development
and learning in other areas. For example, children might count musical beats, draw or
construct a model of the earth, analyze the message in a painting, or write dialogue for
a drama. A large body of research on the effects of early arts experiences finds a
positive relationship with improved academic performance (Ruppert, 2006). Research
in the arts also demonstrates that when creativity is developed at an early age, its
results transfer to many intellectual tasks (Isenberg & Jalongo, 2013; Thompson,
2013). Given the power of the creative arts to promote children’s learning and enrich
their lives, teachers can use all forms of art in their teaching to keep students engaged
and excited about learning. Today, state standards and program goals for early
childhood education always include language and literacy. Reading proficiency has
become the overarching purpose of primary grades. Teachers who know and love
young children, however, never lose sight of the long-term goal: learning to
communicate creatively in all forms of the arts.
