Module 3
Presentation 3
a. The Importance of Individual Differences
Anyone who has been a parent or a teacher is aware of the fact that every child
is unique. Even people who do not have parenting or teaching experience have been
children themselves and know that we are all different. Try to remember your earliest
school experience and picture the children in your class. Were all the boys or girls
alike? Did everyone enjoy and excel at the same activities? Did all of your classmates
learn at the same pace and in the same way? Was anyone exactly like you? Of course,
the answer to all of these questions is “No.” Acknowledging the uniqueness of each
child is only the beginning. Effective early childhood teachers understand typical and
atypical child development; they also understand the importance of knowing each
child as an individual. They use this knowledge to plan and adapt curriculum and to
help each child meet important learning goals (NAEYC, 2009).
One of the most enduring debates in psychology is the degree to which
development is the product of biology (nature) or environment (nurture). The question
is often framed as whether nature or nurture is more influential in determining who
we become as individuals. Although we know that physical characteristics are
inherited, the genetic markers are less clear when it comes to an individual’s behavior,
intelligence, and personality. Consider the twins in Lindsay Creighton’s classroom at
the beginning. Is Alice more outgoing and Alex more cautious because these
personality traits are not part of the genetic pattern they share? Or does this difference
result because their parents encouraged the girls in different ways?
Nature also refers to the biological and neurological drivers of development.
For example, physical growth and advances in motor skills for most humans develop
in a predictable sequence. Newborn reflexes soon give rise to voluntary movements
and the development of abilities such as rolling over, crawling, walking, and running.
Similarly, language development has a biological component. The fact that most
infants, regardless of culture, begin to coo and babble at approximately the same ages
provides strong evidence that nature indeed affects development. Whereas some
aspects of nature influence a similar course of development for most children,
genetics also affects individual differences. For example, most children take their first
steps by about 1 year of age, but there is a wide range of variation among individuals.
David took his first steps at 7 months; his brother Jeffrey wasn’t mobile until
188months.
Although biology influences individual differences, some scientists (Skinner,
1953, 1968) believe that people behave in certain ways more as a result of their
experiences in the environment or because they are taught to do so. This belief
stresses the influence of nurture on human behavior. Heredity may play a role in
influencing personality traits, but according to the nurture perspective, environmental
factors ultimately determine who we become. Parents’ discipline methods, for
example, might have more influence on their children’s behavior than the parents’
genetic contributions. Other dimensions of the environment also influence children’s
development, such as the family’s economic resources, the quality of their child care
setting, the number of siblings in the home, and the safety of the community.
To illustrate how nature and nurture interact, consider the following examples.
Myra, a highly verbal and inquisitive 6-year-old, seems to inspire her teacher to
engage her in intellectually stimulating projects, such as finding out what causes
earthquakes, which in turn further Myra’s already accelerated development and
learning. By contrast, Alyssa, who is deaf, is withdrawn and rarely joins in activities
even though her teacher uses sign language. Alyssa’s lack of responsiveness may
provoke her teacher to initiate communication with her less often. Both biology and
experience play critical, interrelated roles in children’s development. Therefore, the
kinds of experiences children have become vitally important. As the Center on the
Developing Child at Harvard University (2010) reports, “Experiences children have
early in life—and the environments in which they have them—shape their developing
brain architecture and strongly affect whether they grow up to be healthy, productive
members of society”
Risk factors are inherited or experiential conditions that potentially contribute
to negative outcomes for children (Huffman et al., 2001). Among the most frequently
identified risk factors are living in poverty, living with a single parent, low education
level of parents, disability, and child abuse (Moore, 2006). The concept of risk factors
has led to the use of the term children at risk of school failure. When risk factors
multiply in children’s lives, they produce a growing number of poor developmental
outcomes. That is, the more risk factors children have, the more likely they are to
experience developmental delays and social or health problems. These conditions, in
turn, can lead to a host of poor outcomes such as peer rejection, academic failure,
dropping out of school, mental health disorders, or criminal behavior.
Research on children with multiple risk factors demonstrates that exposure to
risk and adversity does not necessarily result in negative outcomes for some children
(Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University, 2010). Positive, supportive
experiences can mediate risk and help children become resilient (Masten & Powell,
2003). Resilience refers to a child’s ability to overcome, adapt to, or minimize the
damaging effects of adversity (Werner & Smith, 2001). Mechanisms—called
protective factors—exist that may minimize the potentially negative effects for
children living in identified high-risk situations. Like risk factors, protective factors
are both inherited (nature) and experiential (nurture). A continuous, positive parent-
child relationship has been found to be one of the most important contributors to the
development of resilience (Thompson & Goodman, 2009). Other protective factors
include a variety of external social supports such as extended family, membership in a
church or spiritual group, and close friends and neighbors.
Children’s inherent characteristics also contribute to resilience. For example,
resilient children often possess temperaments in infancy that elicit positive responses
from their caregivers. For example, Stefano is a happy, easily soothed baby who
draws positive attention from everyone. Timothy, on the other hand, cries all night and
doesn’t nurse readily. His mother begins to feel inadequate and has difficulty
attaching to him. In short, risk and resilience are not the result of either biology or
environment alone. Rather, the interactions between children’s biological makeup and
their experiences contribute to the wide variation among children and families.
Teachers must remember that a child’s genetic inheritance or environmental
circumstances should never limit their expectations of children. In fact, one of the
most important sources of resilience in children is positive relationships with teachers.
b. What We Know About Individual Differences
“Is it a boy or a girl?” seems to be the first question asked about a new baby.
From the first moments of life, and even prenatally, powerful assumptions are made
about children on the basis of their sex. These assumptions are soon influenced by
experience. When 3-year-old Lucienne receives a soccer ball and goal, she insists that
she cannot play with them because “It’s for boys.” Her belief was reinforced by the
fact that the packaging showed two boys playing soccer. Indeed, stereotypes about
girls and boys are durable and pervasive, which raises questions about what the actual
differences are, if any, in the development and characteristics of boys and girls.
There is little evidence of gender differences in most domains of development
and learning. In some domains, however, the characteristics of females and males
have been found to differ. Physically, for example, females are typically more mature
at birth, and males are more likely to be miscarried, die in infancy, or develop
hereditary diseases (Jacklin, 1989). On average, females also reach developmental
milestones, such as talking earlier, than do males. Current research is beginning to
reveal some sex differences in brain structure, but much remains to be learned before
definite conclusions can be drawn.
Although there are no significant gender-based differences in overall
intelligence, tests of cognitive abilities find some specific differences between girls
and boys. Notably, boys demonstrate a slight but consistent advantage in the domain
of visual-spatial rotation, the ability to visualize and mentally transform or rotate
figures or objects. While this ability is related to success in other mathematics areas,
evidence suggests that early experience and attitudes toward mathematics may play a
more important role in mathematical learning. Some evidence suggests, however, that
gender differences in visual-spatial ability are to some extent a product of children’s
experience. For example, during the preschool years, boys tend to spend more time
than girls do involved in the kinds of activities that build visual-spatial skills: building
with blocks, playing with Legos, and putting puzzles together. When girls engage in
such play and teachers make the experience meaningful, such as talking with them
about what they are doing or reading a story about shapes, girls perform as well as
boys on these visual-spatial tasks.
A major contributor to individual differences is variation in language
development. Consider the fact that although, on average, babies say their first word
at 11 months, the range is from 8 to 14 months. In addition, although the average age
at which half of what children say is understandable is 19 months, the range is from
15 to 30 months, making teaching toddlers a challenging task indeed. As children get
older, variation only increases. Observations of 2-year-olds demonstrate that, on
average, children produce 134 different words per hour, but the range is from 18 to
286 words. Such wide variation makes it challenging for teachers and parents to
determine whether a child’s development is just at the slow end of the range or is
actually delayed. By the time children reach kindergarten, their language, literacy, and
mathematics abilities vary widely, and the achievement gap is already apparent.
However, it is important to remember our earlier caution about averages when
thinking about a large group of individuals such as children from low-income
families. A wide range of variation exists within this group as well; although many
children will be far behind, others will not. A large national study found that although
Head Start children on average score below national norms, especially in vocabulary,
the top one-quarter of the children scored at national averages on letter recognition
and writing skills.
Individual differences in social and emotional development are often related to
temperament, and can often be observed when children are infants and toddlers.
Temperament refers to individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation as
shown in children’s emotions, activity level, and attention (Rothbart, 2011). While
temperament has genetic and biological roots, research has shown that warm
relationships with family members and teachers help all children develop positive
social skills, regardless of their temperament type. One important aspect of
temperament is how children react to new situations and people. Recall the twins,
Alexandra and Alice, vignette. Alice confidently joins in and becomes the life of the
party, whereas Alex is fearful and inhibited in the new situation.
Early childhood educators are becoming increasingly aware that children’s
approaches to learning are critically important determinants of their success in school.
Approaches to learning are “behaviors, tendencies or typical patterns that children use
in learning situations” (Hyson, 2008, p. 10). These include both how children feel
about learning—their level of enthusiasm, interest, and motivation—and how children
engage with learning. Do they pay attention? Do they persist when tasks are
challenging or frustrating? If one solution doesn’t work out, are they flexible and
creative in trying something new? As with all other aspects of learning and
development, there are individual differences in children’s approaches to learning,
which vary depending on the situation. For example, 7-year-old Wes enjoys taking
things apart and putting them together; he will persist for hours working on his simple
machines project for science. But during reading class, Wes loses interest and his
attention wanders; his reading progress suffers. In response, his teacher brings in
several books on machines and Wes’s enthusiasm for reading improves.
Children of the same chronological age vary considerably in height and
weight. Teachers sometimes inaccurately judge children’s maturity based on their
physical characteristics. For example, boys who are small for their age may be
thought to be less mature than taller boys and inaccurately judged as not ready for
kindergarten. At the same time, taller children, girls as well as boys, are often
assumed to be older and more capable than they are. Physical development is largely
determined by biology; however, experience also plays a role in how physical skills
and abilities develop, as when childhood malnutrition or chronic illness stunts growth.
On average, girls develop fine motor skills earlier than boys do, but cultural
expectations for girls’ behavior may contribute to these differences. Girls, for
instance, may be given dolls to dress with miniature clothes and shoes that require
fine motor skills, and they may be encouraged by teachers or parents to play in a more
restricted way than boys. Similarly, because boys may be less adept with pencils or
unable to sit still for group time, teachers might think they are less competent. Just as
teachers must understand each child’s temperament, they must also come to
understand each child’s physical skills and capabilities in order to provide a wide
range of learning opportunities to find the best match.
There is a scene in the movie Mary Poppins when Ms. Poppins meets her
charges, Jane and Michael, for the first time. The star nanny pulls out her “magical
measuring tape.” The special tape measurer allows her to instantaneously surmise
important and unique information about the children that helps her to plan how she
will best care for them. While this type of measuring tape does not exist in reality, it
illustrates a necessary first step in working with children: getting to know them. For
teachers to build positive relationships and teach effectively, they need to understand
children’s preferences, interests, background, and culture. For children, this
information is most often accessed by carefully and purposefully observing what they
do, and by speaking with parents and other caregivers. The task of knowing children
involves observing and assessing on a regular basis. Some teachers find it helpful for
parents to complete surveys about their child. Items on these surveys include family
members; pets; fears; favorite foods, toys, or activities; how to tell when their child is
upset; or what other special needs a child may have. With this information, teachers
can help ensure that children are motivated to get involved, that the content of
conversations and level of instruction are relevant, and that they communicate respect
for children’s families and cultural background.
c. Multiple Intelligences: A Theory of Individual Differences
A small percentage of children may display highly specialized talents at a
young age. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is helpful in adapting
instruction for these children. What is giftedness? The National Association for Gifted
Children (2010) defines it as: “Individuals who demonstrate outstanding levels of
aptitude or competence in one or more domains.” However, there is no universally
accepted definition; giftedness, intelligence, and talent may look different in different
contexts and cultures (Heward, 2014). Traditionally, giftedness was determined by a
high IQ score, but today broader conceptions are used to identify a child as gifted and
talented. A child may be gifted in music, drama, or sports, for instance. One way to
identify young gifted children is to focus on a range of behaviors and characteristics
that occur in daily activities as well as in school.
For example, Melvin’s second-grade teacher, Ms. Dell, thinks he is “very
precocious.” He reads well above grade level and has a large vocabulary. One day he
announces to her that his brother is funny. She asks, “How so?” and he answers, “You
know, strange, odd, peculiar.” Melvin exhibits an intense curiosity, asking high-level
questions such as, “Where does gasoline come from?” Ms. Dell modifies the
curriculum to challenge him. She sets up a time for Melvin to read to preschoolers.
She orders National Geographic to satisfy his voracious curiosity about geography.
She is also patient with Melvin’s persistent questioning that would bother most other
adults. Ms. Dell understands the importance of recognizing early signs of giftedness
in young children—particularly in children like Melvin from low-income families
who are more often considered at risk than gifted—and nurturing the gift so that it
may flourish. She also understands that gifted children’s development can be uneven,
in that they may have great strengths in many areas but still be at age level or below in
others.
For example, cognitively gifted children may excel at articulating school rules
and explaining the reasoning behind them in a detailed and sophisticated manner.
These children often possess advanced verbal skills, allowing them to discuss and
analyze the rules with a depth of understanding that surpasses their peers. They can
engage in complex conversations about the importance of following rules, the
consequences of breaking them, and the ethical and social implications of rule
adherence. Their ability to reason and articulate these concepts can be quite
impressive to adults and educators.
However, despite their intellectual grasp of rules and regulations, gifted
children may struggle with the practical application of these rules in everyday
situations. The disconnect between understanding and action can stem from various
factors, including a heightened sensitivity to perceived injustices, a strong sense of
independence, or a propensity for questioning authority and established norms. As a
result, they might find it challenging to consistently follow rules, especially if they
perceive them as illogical or unfair. This incongruence between their cognitive
abilities and their behavioral responses can sometimes lead to misunderstandings with
teachers and peers.
Furthermore, a gifted child may stand out from their peers due to their
advanced abilities and interests, which can sometimes create social challenges. Their
intellectual curiosity might lead them to engage in conversations and activities that are
not typical for their age group, making it difficult for them to relate to peers who do
not share the same level of interest or understanding. This difference can be
particularly pronounced in social settings where group norms and behaviors are
crucial for inclusion. As a result, gifted children might feel isolated or struggle to form
meaningful friendships with classmates who may view them as different or
intimidating.
The social and emotional development of gifted children often does not align
with their cognitive development, leading to what is known as asynchronous
development. This means that while they may be intellectually advanced, their
emotional and social skills might be at par with, or even lag behind, those of their age-
mates. This discrepancy can make it challenging for them to navigate social
interactions effectively. They might experience frustration or disappointment when
their peers do not understand their perspectives or when they cannot find common
ground for play and conversation.
Additionally, gifted children might exhibit perfectionistic tendencies, setting
high standards for themselves and others. This trait can make it difficult for them to
tolerate mistakes, both their own and those of their peers, potentially leading to
conflicts and social withdrawal. Their keen awareness of their own differences and the
reactions of others can also contribute to feelings of loneliness and alienation. They
may become hyper-aware of any social rejection or exclusion, which can further
exacerbate their social difficulties.
In some cases, gifted children might also exhibit behaviors that are
misinterpreted as noncompliance or defiance. For example, their tendency to question
and challenge rules can be seen as disrespectful or rebellious rather than a
manifestation of their critical thinking and desire for understanding. Educators and
parents might need to adopt more nuanced approaches to discipline and guidance,
recognizing that these behaviors are often rooted in the child's intellectual
inquisitiveness and need for clarity.
Supporting gifted children requires a multifaceted approach that addresses
both their cognitive and social-emotional needs. Educators and parents can help by
providing opportunities for intellectual stimulation while also fostering social skills
and emotional resilience. Creating environments where gifted children can connect
with like-minded peers, such as through gifted programs or interest-based clubs, can
help them build friendships and feel less isolated. Teaching strategies for social
interaction, empathy, and self-regulation can also support their overall development
and well-being.
In conclusion, while cognitively gifted children may excel in understanding
and articulating complex concepts such as school rules, they often face unique
challenges in applying these rules in practice and navigating social relationships.
Recognizing and addressing these challenges through supportive and tailored
interventions can help gifted children thrive both academically and socially.
d. Responsive Education for All Learners
The environment refers to the overall look and feel of the classroom. A
differentiated environment provides various spaces throughout the classroom for
learning to occur. For example, soft, cozy spaces allow some children to work alone.
Other spaces are designed for intrapersonal learners to work together in small groups.
A differentiated environment also provides a variety of materials. For example, a
reading center includes books at different levels on various topics for children. A
writing center might have sandpaper letters or plastic magnetic letters for tactile
learners. Children who learn best while moving may have places to stand and work at
tables.
Differentiating the content involves meeting children where they are and
focusing instruction on what they need to learn next. For example, a child who knows
letters can begin to map letter sounds to the alphabet and is also ready to receive
instruction on blending letters to make sounds. A child who is skilled at decoding
words can focus on fluency and comprehension.
Strategies are the ways teachers provide specific content instruction. The
intentional teacher considers the child’s abilities and interests when planning content
instruction. For example, when teaching science, the teacher provides hands-on tools
for children to observe, measure, and record their observations. A computer program
or mobile app is motivating for many children. Other examples include providing
information books for linguistic learners and cooperative learning activities for the
intrapersonal learners.
The product that results from differentiated instruction is the demonstration of
learning. When content and processes are differentiated for children, the products they
produce will be different, too. Consider Josh Peters, a kindergarten teacher in an
inclusive classroom. As he is reading a story, he stops occasionally to ask questions.
The purpose of asking questions is so the children can demonstrate what they have
learned (the product). He asks some children to recall the events of the story and
others to predict what will happen next. One child may even be asked to simply point
to an illustration of a character in the story. Josh takes each child’s level of literacy
into account and targets their engagement to successful participation and extending
learning.
As we have seen, every early childhood classroom is composed of diverse
learners—children of widely varying abilities and interests. Although every classroom
teacher is responsible for differentiating instruction for the children in her class, in
recent years, greater emphasis has been placed on preventing learning problems and
intervening earlier for all children, rather than waiting until a child falls too far behind
or is labeled as having a learning disability. To accomplish this goal, one frequently
used approach is Response to Intervention (RTI), a three-tiered, comprehensive
framework for bridging assessment and instruction that is intended to prevent school
failure, especially in the areas of reading and mathematics.
RTI is a framework that applies to all children. It is very important that RTI
tiers are not misinterpreted or misused to categorize or label children. In reality, the
tiers are flexible, and individual children move between them based on ongoing
assessment of their progress. Successful implementation of RTI depends on accurate,
ongoing assessment of children, which can be challenging for teachers of dual
language learners. An English language learner or a child who speaks a variation of
English may have a welldeveloped vocabulary and understand many concepts, but
may not be well understood at school.
In such a situation, it can be difficult to accurately assess either the child’s
competence or his or her needs, as illustrated in the Language Lens feature. The
complexity arises from the multifaceted nature of giftedness and the unique ways in
which it can manifest in each child. Gifted children often display asynchronous
development, where their intellectual abilities are far ahead of their social and
emotional skills. This can make it challenging for educators and caregivers to get a
clear picture of the child’s overall capabilities and requirements.
One of the main difficulties in assessing a gifted child’s competence lies in the
variability of their performance across different contexts and tasks. For instance, a
child might excel in a structured academic setting, demonstrating exceptional
reasoning and problem-solving skills. However, the same child might struggle with
tasks that require emotional regulation or social interaction. This inconsistency can
lead to misunderstandings about the child’s true level of competence, as their
advanced abilities in one area might overshadow difficulties in another.
Moreover, gifted children often have unique learning styles and preferences
that differ from those of their peers. Traditional assessment methods, which are
typically designed for the average student, might not capture the full extent of a gifted
child’s abilities. These children might become bored or disengaged with standard
assessments, leading to underperformance that does not reflect their true potential.
Additionally, gifted children might exhibit heightened sensitivity or perfectionism,
which can impact their performance during assessments due to anxiety or fear of
failure.
Assessing the needs of gifted children is equally complex. Their advanced
intellectual capabilities often mean they require more challenging and stimulating
educational experiences than those provided in a typical classroom setting. However,
their social and emotional needs must also be considered. Gifted children might
require support in developing social skills, managing emotions, and coping with the
pressures of high expectations. Balancing these diverse needs requires a
comprehensive approach that goes beyond academic enrichment.
The Language Lens feature highlights the importance of nuanced and
individualized assessments for dual language learners, which can be extended to the
context of gifted children. Just as dual language learners benefit from assessments that
consider their linguistic and cultural backgrounds, gifted children require evaluations
that take into account their unique cognitive profiles and developmental trajectories.
This involves using a variety of assessment tools and approaches, such as
observational assessments, performance-based tasks, and interviews with the child,
parents, and teachers.
Furthermore, the Language Lens feature emphasizes the importance of
creating a supportive environment that allows for accurate assessments. For gifted
children, this means providing a safe and nurturing space where they feel comfortable
expressing their abilities and needs. Educators and caregivers can foster such an
environment by building trusting relationships with the child, encouraging open
communication, and showing empathy and understanding toward the child’s
experiences and challenges.
In addition to formal assessments, ongoing observation and informal
assessments play a crucial role in understanding the competence and needs of gifted
children. Teachers and parents can gather valuable insights through daily interactions,
noting how the child responds to different activities and social situations. This
continuous observation helps in identifying patterns and trends in the child’s behavior
and performance, providing a more holistic view of their strengths and areas for
growth.
Collaborative assessment approaches, involving input from multiple
stakeholders, can also enhance the accuracy and comprehensiveness of the evaluation
process. Engaging parents, teachers, school psychologists, and the children
themselves in the assessment process ensures that all perspectives are considered,
leading to a more complete understanding of the child’s abilities and needs. This
collaborative approach also helps in developing tailored support plans that address the
child’s academic, social, and emotional requirements.
In conclusion, accurately assessing the competence and needs of gifted
children is a complex task that requires a multifaceted and individualized approach.
As illustrated in the Language Lens feature, effective assessment involves using a
variety of tools and strategies, creating a supportive environment, and engaging in
ongoing observation and collaboration. By adopting these practices, educators and
caregivers can gain a deeper understanding of gifted children’s unique profiles and
provide the appropriate support to help them thrive.
The value of such prevention/intervention models is becoming more widely
recognized. A growing body of research demonstrates the effectiveness of RTI in
preventing and addressing learning disabilities (Coleman et al., 2009). As of 2004, the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) permits schools to use special
education funds for RTI, which may reduce the number of children who are identified
for special education. Nevertheless, there will always be a small percentage of
children with identified disabilities and special needs.
e. Understanding Cultural Diversity
The United States has always been a nation of immigrants, its diversity being a
hallmark of American society. Recent waves of immigration and higher birth rates
among certain groups have made the nation even more diverse. The U.S. Census
Bureau projects that by 2020, approximately 51% of the children in the United States
will be Latino, Asian, or African American/African (Child Trends, 2014), and 26% of
children will be Hispanic. In many parts of the country, the majority of children are
members of a so-called “minority” group. In the future, the concepts of majority and
minority status are likely to become confusing if not meaningless. Given the diversity
of children and families served in programs, as well as changing demographics, every
teacher will work with diverse groups of children and families. Even if differences are
not outwardly apparent, individuals differ from one another in many ways: religion,
national heritage, language, traditions, and many more. Therefore, all teachers must
be committed to making it part of their ongoing education to learn about the diverse
populations of their classrooms.
Consider the range of child-rearing practices among various cultural groups.
Are babies carried on mother’s backs or pushed in strollers? Does the family remain
silent during meals or talk openly? Do parents feel comfortable playing with their
children or find this behavior embarrassing? Are mothers primarily responsible for a
baby’s care or is that care shared among different members of the extended family?
These are only a few examples of the many ways cultural practices begin to shape
children’s development from the earliest moments of life. Some cultural rules are
explicitly taught, such as “hold the fork in your right hand and the knife in your left,”
or vice versa. In most countries, mixing up these rules would be of little consequence.
By contrast, in Middle Eastern cultures, people eat with their right hand and use their
left hand for toileting. Therefore, offering your left hand to someone is interpreted as
a grave insult. Children learn many cultural rules from adults or other children
through modeling. From observation, children learn when to smile or look someone in
the eye. They also learn when to speak up and when to listen.
Cultural rules determine the meaning attached to particular behaviors.
Therefore, teachers need to be aware of how different experiences can carry different
meanings for children. Consider the example of physical touch. Touch is an important
aspect of human behavior, but different cultural groups attach different interpretations
to the same kinds of touch. In the United States, it is not unusual for opposite-sex
couples to hold hands or lock arms as outward signs of affection. In other parts of the
world, these behaviors between men and women might not be tolerated. Similarly, in
some countries, members of the same sex walk arm in arm as a sign of friendship, but
in the United States, same-sex public displays of affection are interpreted as a sign of
sexual orientation. Accordingly, we see that the same behavior—holding hands or
taking someone’s arm—means something different, depending on the cultural context.
How does this concept affect teachers and children? When the same behaviors mean
different things or different behaviors mean the same thing, mixed messages can
result, as occurred in Stacey’s classroom at the beginning. Stacey thinks that using
one’s first name signals a positive relationship, whereas Mrs. Arguenta interprets it as
a sign of disrespect.
Everyone is rooted in one or more cultural groups. This first principle is the
foundation of all understanding about culture (Head Start, 2010b). Accepting this
principle requires going beyond respecting diversity to deeper understanding; it
requires that European American teachers reject the tendency to see white, European
American children as exhibiting ordinary behaviors, while thinking about children of
other ethnic ancestries as exhibiting cultural behaviors. Members of the majority
cultural group in any country tend to have more difficulty recognizing that their
cultural background influences their thinking and behavior.
Cultures are dynamic. Culture is not a fixed, static entity. Because it is born of
traditions and historical experiences, intervening events can affect and change cultural
rules. When groups immigrate, they take aspects of their culture with them; however,
as they interact with members of other cultural groups, they may change. Similarly,
the cultural traditions in the country of origin may diverge as a result of differing
circumstances. New information and changing political situations may also challenge
cultural assumptions, such as appropriate roles for men and women. In the 1960s, for
instance, the women’s movement and other political events led to rapid shifts in
expectations for women and men in America. Similarly, female candidates for
president and vice president of the United States altered perceptions about women as
leaders, especially for young girls.
Culture, language, ethnicity, and race are aspects of experience that influence
people’s beliefs and values. Culture is only one determinant, albeit a strong one, of
people’s values, beliefs, and behaviors. Ethnicity refers to the shared characteristics
and experiences of a group of people, such as nationality, race, history, religion, and
language. Ethnicity is usually connected to the geographic origin of a group, as with
Greek or Chinese people. Additional factors, including socioeconomic status,
education, occupation, ability/disability, sexual orientation, personality, and events in
the larger society influence how people behave and how groups function (Lynch,
2011). All of these factors interact to influence the values and behavior of various
groups and of individuals within groups. History in particular plays a key role. For
example, the history of slavery, racism, and discrimination in the United States and
other countries has had a significant, differential effect on people’s lives and
opportunities and continues to do so. Racism persists as new groups become its target,
including Arabic people and immigrants from Spanish-speaking countries.
In addition, gay and lesbian people have been and continue to be discriminated
against in various aspects of life, including employment, housing, healthcare, and
legal recognition of their relationships. Historically, members of the LGBTQ+
community have faced systemic oppression and social stigmatization, leading to
significant challenges in their daily lives. Although considerable progress has been
made toward equality for all groups of Americans, the struggle for full acceptance and
equal rights continues.
One area where discrimination persists is in the workplace. Despite legal
protections in many regions, gay and lesbian individuals often encounter bias when
seeking employment, promotions, or fair treatment at work. They may face subtle
forms of discrimination, such as exclusion from professional networks or being
passed over for leadership positions due to their sexual orientation. Additionally,
workplace harassment remains a serious issue, with many LGBTQ+ individuals
experiencing hostile work environments that can affect their mental health and job
performance.
In the realm of housing, gay and lesbian people frequently encounter barriers
when renting or buying homes. Discriminatory practices by landlords, real estate
agents, and mortgage lenders can make it difficult for LGBTQ+ individuals to find
safe and welcoming places to live. Even in areas with legal protections against
housing discrimination, prejudices can persist, leading to unequal treatment and
limited housing options for LGBTQ+ individuals and families.
Healthcare is another critical area where discrimination against gay and
lesbian individuals continues. Despite advances in medical understanding and the
establishment of inclusive healthcare policies, many LGBTQ+ people still face
barriers to accessing quality care. This can include discriminatory attitudes from
healthcare providers, a lack of culturally competent care, and insurance policies that
do not adequately cover the specific health needs of LGBTQ+ individuals. These
challenges can result in poorer health outcomes and increased vulnerability to
physical and mental health issues within the LGBTQ+ community.
Legal recognition of relationships is a significant area where progress has been
made, yet challenges remain. While same-sex marriage is now legal across the United
States, many gay and lesbian couples still face discrimination in areas such as
adoption, parental rights, and spousal benefits. Legal battles and legislative efforts
continue to address these disparities, but full equality under the law is still a work in
progress.
Furthermore, societal attitudes and cultural acceptance of gay and lesbian
individuals vary widely, contributing to ongoing discrimination and prejudice. In
many communities, LGBTQ+ individuals continue to face social ostracism, bullying,
and violence. Hate crimes targeting LGBTQ+ people remain a significant concern,
with individuals at risk of physical harm simply because of their sexual orientation.
These acts of violence and hate can have devastating effects on the well-being and
safety of LGBTQ+ individuals and their communities.
Despite these challenges, there have been numerous advancements and
victories in the fight for LGBTQ+ rights. Advocacy groups and activists have worked
tirelessly to raise awareness, change discriminatory laws, and promote acceptance and
inclusion. Public attitudes have shifted significantly over the past few decades, with
increasing support for LGBTQ+ rights and recognition of the importance of equality.
Media representation of gay and lesbian individuals has also improved, contributing
to greater visibility and understanding.
Educational institutions are playing a crucial role in fostering inclusivity and
combating discrimination. Many schools and universities have implemented policies
and programs to support LGBTQ+ students, including anti-bullying initiatives,
gender-neutral facilities, and inclusive curricula. These efforts aim to create safer and
more welcoming environments for LGBTQ+ youth, helping to reduce the stigma and
discrimination they may face.
In conclusion, while considerable progress has been made toward equality for
all groups of Americans, gay and lesbian individuals continue to face significant
discrimination in various aspects of life. The struggle for full acceptance and equal
rights is ongoing, requiring continued advocacy, legal reforms, and societal change.
By addressing these challenges and promoting inclusivity, we can work towards a
future where all individuals, regardless of their sexual orientation, can live with
dignity, respect, and equal opportunities.
Differences within a cultural group may be as great as, or greater than,
differences between cultural groups. Assuming that children who share the same
culture or language are all alike is like assuming that all 3-yearolds are alike.
Although there are some similarities, there are many differences in their skills,
abilities, and behaviors. Likewise, children from the same cultural group share some
attitudes, beliefs, and values, but there are many that they do not share. Children from
one cultural group are both alike and different from children of another. African
American children growing up in low-income, urban areas will share some but not all
of the culturally determined behaviors of African American children whose families
have been middle-class professionals for generations. Therefore, it is vitally important
not to stereotype individuals who are members of particular groups even while
learning some of the common practices, values, or beliefs of those groups.
An overview of the principles just discussed reveals that there is a complex
relationship between race, ethnicity, and culture that knowledgeable teachers need to
understand. Because race is a sensitive topic in the United States, the words culture
and race are sometimes inaccurately used synonymously, but they are not the same
thing (Wardle, 2008b). Scientists argue that a person’s race cannot be determined by
examining her or his biological makeup. Nevertheless, race is associated with a
person’s biology and is determined by who their parents are, whereas culture is
learned. As evidenced by how census data are collected, racial classifications are
complex and, for the most part, politically determined (Banks, 2012). For example,
the same person might be considered racially black in the United States, colored in
South Africa, and brown in Brazil. Moreover, according to the 2010 U.S. Census,
almost 5% of children are multiracial, mostly likely an underestimate.
Teachers need to understand that although a very limited number of racial
categories, such as Asian or Caucasian, are identified based on skin color and other
physical characteristics, hundreds of cultural/ethnic groups exist. Asian peoples
include Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, Vietnamese, Hmong, and many others, some of
which have been historical enemies (Wardle, 2008a). Similarly, Hispanic is not an
actual racial, cultural, or even linguistic group, despite its designation as such by
census takers. The term Latino/a is currently used to refer to people of Mexican,
Cuban, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin.
Given these complex realities, the increasing diversity of immigrants, and the growing
number of biracial and multiracial children, it is essential that teachers not make
assumptions about children and families’ racial and cultural identities.
f. A Framework for Thinking About Culture
The values of individualistic cultural groups include focusing on the needs of
the individual, independence, self-expression, and personal property and choice. In
individualistic cultures, the primary goal is individual achievement and fulfillment.
These cultures emphasize the rights of the individual over the rights of the group.
With its history of individual rights and focus on personal achievement, this is the
dominant cultural orientation in the United States. Picture an individualistic-oriented
classroom. All of the children have their own cubbies marked with their names in
which to store their belongings. Developing independence in children is an important
goal. The children’s individual work is displayed and carefully identified. Children
are praised for their achievements and graded in comparison to one another. When
parents visit, they look carefully to find their child’s contribution. The focus on
individual children and their accomplishments is evident.
By contrast, interdependent cultural groups focus on the needs of the group
rather than on those of the individual. These cultural groups, also called collectivist,
value interdependence, cooperation and mutual assistance, shared property, and social
responsibility. Interdependent cultures stress respect for tradition and authority over
the rights of the individual. Among cultural groups that exhibit an interdependent
orientation are Latinos, Asians, and people in West African and Middle Eastern
countries. Because the United States is a nation of immigrants, many cultural groups
within this country, as well as Native Americans and African Americans, are oriented
more toward interdependence than individualism (Hanson, 2011). In an
interdependent-oriented classroom, individual children do not draw attention to
themselves. Children readily share their possessions with each other. Group work is
displayed. A colorful mural representing the contributions of scores of children adorns
the entrance to the school. These two classrooms are described in overly simplistic
terms. Most classrooms would evidence both cultural orientations because, in reality,
they are not polar opposites but rather points on a continuum.
Instead of classifying cultural groups as either individualistic or
interdependent, a more useful strategy is to think of values that are common across all
cultural groups as varying along a continuum. Individuals within cultural groups vary
all along the continuum; families are more or less inclusive, just as they are more or
less traditional rather than either traditional or not. In addition, the ends of the
continuum can be seen from a both/and perspective. For example, in the United
States, schools and society emphasize both individual achievement and cooperation,
working together to solve problems, and taking care of those in need.
Consider how misunderstandings can occur when teachers and family
members operate from different points on the interdependent and individualist
continuum, as in the following example: Mr. Wu is late for a team meeting to discuss
his son’s IEP. The disabilities coordinator, Ms. Armstrong, impatiently taps her foot,
repeatedly looks at her watch, and gets more and more irritated as minutes tick by.
Ms. Garcia, the classroom teacher, seems less concerned. When Mr. Wu arrives, he
doesn’t apologize for being late, but he does tell Ms. Garcia that his mother is taking
care of his son and she has questions to ask about her grandson. Ms. Garcia
understands that Mr. Wu’s respect for his mother took precedence over arriving at the
meeting on time. When the meeting ends, Ms. Garcia reviews her notes with Ms.
Armstrong. She politely states, “I could see that you were concerned about the
meeting running overtime. I know that you are very busy, but I believe that Mr. Wu
did not intend to inconvenience us by being late.
His greatest priority was to show respect for his mother, which is deeply
rooted in his cultural values and traditions. This sense of filial piety guided his actions
and decisions, emphasizing the importance of seeking his mother’s guidance and
approval. I'm glad he consulted her because, with her input, we can do a better job of
helping her grandson by aligning our approach with the family’s cultural expectations
and values. This collaboration ensures that our support is culturally sensitive and
respectful, enhancing its effectiveness and fostering a stronger partnership with the
family.
In this way, Ms. Garcia did not tell Ms. Armstrong that her cultural views are
wrong or inappropriate. Instead, she took a thoughtful and respectful approach by
clarifying her own cultural views and those of Mr. Wu. By doing so, she demonstrated
an understanding of the importance of cultural competence in their professional
interactions. Ms. Garcia acknowledged the cultural context in which Mr. Wu's actions
were rooted, showing empathy and respect for his perspective.
Ms. Garcia’s approach highlights the significance of cultural humility, where
one recognizes the value and legitimacy of different cultural practices and beliefs. She
carefully explained how Mr. Wu's cultural background influences his priorities and
decision-making processes, emphasizing the respect he has for his mother and the
importance of her input in family matters. This explanation provided Ms. Armstrong
with a clearer understanding of the cultural dynamics at play, helping her to appreciate
the rationale behind Mr. Wu's actions.
By sharing her own cultural views and those of Mr. Wu, Ms. Garcia created an
opportunity for open dialogue and mutual learning. This approach encouraged a
respectful exchange of perspectives, allowing both Ms. Armstrong and Ms. Garcia to
gain insights into each other’s cultural frameworks. It fostered an environment where
differences could be acknowledged and valued rather than judged or dismissed.
Furthermore, this approach underscores the importance of involving families
in the decision-making process, particularly when cultural values play a significant
role. By consulting his mother, Mr. Wu ensured that the family's cultural traditions
were honored and integrated into the support provided to his son. This involvement
not only enhances the relevance and appropriateness of the interventions but also
strengthens the trust and collaboration between the family and the professionals
involved.
Ms. Garcia’s respectful and culturally informed approach serves as a model for
how educators and professionals can navigate cultural differences in a way that
promotes understanding and cooperation. It demonstrates the importance of
acknowledging and valuing diverse cultural perspectives, leading to more effective
and culturally responsive support for children and their families.
In conclusion, Ms. Garcia’s approach exemplifies how cultural competence
and humility can enhance professional interactions and support. By not telling Ms.
Armstrong that her cultural views are wrong but instead clarifying her own cultural
views and those of Mr. Wu, Ms. Garcia fostered an environment of respect,
understanding, and collaboration. This approach ensures that the support provided is
culturally sensitive and aligned with the family’s values, ultimately benefiting the
child and strengthening the partnership between the family and the professionals
involved.
g. Understanding Your Own Cultural Perspective
Finding yourself in another group and experiencing what it feels like not to be
certain of the rules is an excellent way to gain deeper understanding of your cultural
views and those of other groups. I (the author) have had many such experiences when
speaking about early childhood education throughout the United States and in other
countries. I remember specifically telling a story about the struggles I encountered
during my early days of teaching. I often said, “I knew that I was smart, but I also
knew that I didn’t know enough about teaching young children and I had a lot to
learn.” Much to my surprise (and subsequent embarrassment), I later learned that
some audiences were so stunned to hear me call myself smart that they couldn’t hear
anything else I said! Pointing out individual achievement even with self-deprecating
humor is simply not considered appropriate behavior in many groups. A part of
reflecting on your own cultural experience includes comparing your perspective with
that of other people. Therefore, the next step is to learn about other cultural groups
and how your views and behaviors compare and contrast with theirs.
Learning generalities about cultural groups is a useful starting point, but it can
easily lead to stereotyping—making assumptions that all children who appear part of
a group share similar backgrounds. For example, a Cuban American father was
dismayed to learn that his daughter’s teacher kept telling her what she knew about the
young girl’s “Hispanic” culture and how the teacher was being responsive to it. None
of the teacher’s accommodations were meaningful to the little girl, whose family had
lived in Minnesota for three generations.
Now that we have discussed the complex concept of culture and identified
several key principles that describe how culture functions in children’s development,
it is essential to consider how this knowledge can be practically applied to the
classroom. Understanding the profound impact of culture on children’s growth and
learning processes will significantly inform and enhance our teaching strategies,
interactions, and overall approach to education.
Firstly, recognizing the diverse cultural backgrounds of students allows us to
create a more inclusive and respectful classroom environment. This involves not only
acknowledging but also valuing the rich cultural heritage that each student brings to
the classroom. By integrating cultural awareness into our teaching practices, we can
develop a curriculum that is both relevant and engaging to all students. This might
include incorporating multicultural literature, celebrating various cultural holidays
and traditions, and using examples and references from a wide range of cultures in our
lessons. Such practices help students see their own experiences reflected in the
curriculum, fostering a sense of belonging and respect for diversity.
Additionally, understanding the cultural contexts of our students enables us to
tailor our teaching methods to better meet their needs. Different cultures have
different ways of learning and interacting with information. Some students might
come from cultures that emphasize collective learning and group activities, while
others might be more accustomed to independent study. By being aware of these
differences, we can employ a variety of instructional strategies that cater to diverse
learning styles, such as collaborative projects, individual assignments, hands-on
activities, and interactive discussions. This differentiated approach not only enhances
student engagement but also supports a more equitable learning environment where
all students can thrive.
Furthermore, knowledge of cultural influences on development helps us to
build stronger relationships with our students and their families. When teachers show
an understanding and appreciation of their students’ cultural backgrounds, it fosters
trust and open communication. This can lead to more effective partnerships with
parents and caregivers, who feel respected and valued as part of the educational
process. Engaging with families through culturally relevant communication methods
and involving them in classroom activities and decision-making processes can
strengthen these bonds. It also provides valuable insights into the students’ home
environments and cultural practices, which can further inform our teaching strategies.
Incorporating cultural competence into our teaching also means being mindful
of potential cultural biases and stereotypes. Reflecting on our own cultural
assumptions and biases is crucial to ensure that they do not negatively impact our
interactions with students or our expectations of their abilities. Professional
development in cultural competence can be beneficial in this regard, helping
educators to recognize and address their own biases, develop empathy, and adopt
more inclusive teaching practices. By fostering an equitable classroom environment,
we can help all students feel valued and supported, regardless of their cultural
background.
Moreover, culturally informed teaching can enhance students’ social and
emotional development. Understanding and respecting cultural differences helps to
create a classroom climate where students feel safe and understood. This can
significantly reduce instances of cultural misunderstandings and conflicts, promoting
a more harmonious and cooperative learning environment. Additionally, by teaching
students about various cultures and encouraging them to share their own, we help
them develop empathy, respect for diversity, and global awareness. These social-
emotional skills are essential for their success in an increasingly interconnected world.
Applying cultural knowledge to classroom management is another critical
aspect. Different cultural norms and values influence students' behavior and their
responses to authority and rules. Being aware of these cultural differences can help
teachers implement classroom management strategies that are fair and effective for all
students. For example, some cultures may prioritize respect for authority and quiet
obedience, while others might encourage questioning and active participation.
Understanding these cultural nuances can help teachers develop management
techniques that are culturally responsive and that foster a positive and inclusive
classroom atmosphere.
Finally, culturally informed teaching encourages critical thinking and cultural
literacy among students. By exposing students to diverse perspectives and
encouraging them to critically examine their own cultural assumptions, we can help
them develop a deeper understanding of the world and their place in it. This critical
awareness not only enhances their academic learning but also prepares them to
navigate and contribute to a multicultural society.
In conclusion, applying knowledge of cultural principles to the classroom
profoundly informs and enriches our teaching practices. It enables us to create an
inclusive, engaging, and equitable learning environment that respects and values the
diverse cultural backgrounds of all students. By integrating cultural awareness into
our curriculum, instructional methods, relationships with families, classroom
management, and student development, we can support the holistic growth of every
child and prepare them to thrive in a diverse and interconnected world.
h. Teaching in a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse World
Imagine it is the first day of school. Parents who are dropping off their
children are using various dialects and languages that you don’t recognize. Some of
the children are crying and clinging to their parent, while others, it is clear, have been
told that crying is not allowed, so they are standing with quivering chins trying to hold
it together. You are making the rounds, introducing yourself to the children, trying to
get them excited about the day and the upcoming year. You may have been through
this before, as a student teacher working in a culturally diverse classroom, but every
year the dynamic and the ethnic mix change. It will be up to you to find a way to
communicate with dual language learners, to be sensitive to the fact that the English
language has many idioms that may be foreign to children who are mastering English,
and to be sensitive to each child’s home life, whether they live with their parents and
siblings, or their extended family, or are from a singleparent home. The key is to learn
as much as you can about each of the children, to get to know their families, and to
always be culturally and linguistically responsive in the classroom.
Children from diverse language and cultural groups and those from low-
income families (who are disproportionately linguistically and culturally diverse) are
the very children who are not being well served in our nation’s schools. In fact,
federal education policy is often designed to hold schools accountable for educating
every child and to close the achievement gap between groups of children. The
underlying causes and remedies for the achievement gap are complex, but part of the
solution must be to recognize and build on the competencies that children bring from
prior experiences. To do so requires that teachers acquire cultural understanding.
Without such knowledge, at least three problems can occur: (1) teachers can
misunderstand children, (2) teachers can inaccurately assess children’s competence,
and (3) teachers can plan incorrectly to promote children’s learning.
Carey’s classroom activity was at odds with the interdependence valued by
Antonia’s family. Most likely, this situation would have turned out better if Carey had
been sensitive to Antonia’s discomfort initially. Instead of taking over for Antonia,
Carey could have said, “Tell me more about your family.” Listening would have
helped Carey better understand the values of Antonia’s family. One area where
cultural groups often differ is how they approach discipline. If teachers are unaware of
these differences, they may be ineffective in guiding children’s behavior. Furthermore,
their methods may prove to be counterproductive. For example, time-out—removing
children from the group for misbehavior for a period of time—is a discipline strategy
that is widely used by parents and teachers. In general, the strategy is not effective,
because it simply stops the children’s negative behavior temporarily without teaching
children what to do instead. Nevertheless, some teachers continue to use time-out.
Mark Temple is a new teacher who is struggling to control his first-grade class
for reading instruction. His school is in a close-in suburb of a major city, and some
people call it the “little United Nations” because it serves so many cultural groups.
Today, Mark is reading a story to the group and Yao cannot keep still. He touches and
sits very close to the other children, who pull away and are distracted by his behavior.
After several warnings, Mark puts Yao in time-out for the duration of the story. Mark
notices that Yao is sitting very quietly with his head bowed and a dejected look on his
face, trying hard not to cry. Mark assumes that Yao is sorry for disrupting story time
and that the time-out was effective. Mark’s interpretation of Yao’s response to his
time-out, however, is uninformed. Mark’s ignorance of Yao’s Chinese cultural values
causes him to misunderstand Yao’s behavior. Yao loves school and is excited by the
opportunity to sit close to the other children. Being assigned to time-out means being
isolated from the group where he feels most comfortable and happy. Yao feels
ashamed and guilty, not because he didn’t follow the rules, but because he has been
separated from the others. Yao is humiliated because he thinks that the group has
rejected him. Mark also fails to recognize that Yao’s desire to belong is a strength that
he can build on to engage Yao positively in the group.
Misunderstanding and inaccurate assessment of children’s competence can
lead to ineffective teaching that does not meet the needs of all students. If children’s
competence is acquired in a context that does not match that of the teacher or school,
several potential problems can arise. Teachers can negatively judge children on the
basis of their culturally influenced behaviors. Without accurate assessment, teachers’
expectations for children’s learning can be too low. If teachers do not recognize what
students already know—what they have learned from prior experiences—teachers
cannot build on it. For example, many early childhood programs encourage and
expect children to speak up and share stories of their own experience or background.
Yet this may not be a task that all students can do. Consider, for instance, that among
many Native American tribes, children are expected to listen to older adults rather
than speak themselves.
As we stated earlier, different cultural groups often make different meanings
from the same experience. If new learning is to be meaningful, teachers must help
children make connections between what they know and are able to do at home and in
their community and what is expected in school. Meaningful learning is more likely
when teachers focus on the learning goal rather than on the specific means to the goal.
For example, if the goal of a first-grade science curriculum is for children to
understand life cycles, studying buffalo, which may be familiar to Native American
children in the West, is as effective as learning about cows would be for children in
the Midwest. Misunderstandings, the roots of which are cultural in many cases, can
have dire consequences. For example, cultural studies of African American children,
boys in particular, find that on average they tend to be more physically active and
emotive than their European American peers. Teachers may incorrectly judge this
exuberance as aggression. As a result, the very behavior that is rewarded and expected
in their community may be censored by their teachers in school (Barbarin, 2011).
When such negative responses persist, children may become discouraged and,
perhaps, more disruptive (Ritchie & Gutman, 2014). African American boys are
disproportionately represented in special education and more likely to be expelled,
even in preschool. The civil rights division of the U.S. Department of Education
(2014) found that African American children represent 18% of preschool enrollment,
but 42% of students had been suspended once, and 48% of the students were
suspended more than once. To better understand this disturbing phenomenon, read the
feature, Promoting Play: African American Children and Play.
Similarly, some languages may have many words to distinguish subtle
variations in meaning that are important to the group. A large vocabulary for types of
snow and ice is essential in the Arctic, but unnecessary in more temperate climates.
What if English only had one word for blue? How could we communicate clearly
without words like turquoise, navy, or periwinkle? The inextricable link between
language and culture means that one cannot be embraced without also embracing the
other. Language is also strongly connected to emotions. Words can trigger strong
emotions in some cultures and not in others. For example, in Arab cultures the word
crusade carries a negative connotation dating back to the Middle Ages, while in the
United States we regularly have positive crusades to collect money for charity or fight
disease.
All children in our society need to acquire English, but they can become
proficient without giving up their home language. The key is for teachers to support
continued development of the home language and to inform parents that if they
encourage their children to speak English both in the home and at school at a very
early age, their children may lose their home language. Home language loss can harm
children’s long-term academic achievement. In addition, if parents do not speak
English well and their children lose the home language, serious communication and
relationship problems between parents and children are likely to occur. Therefore,
teachers should encourage families to speak to children in whatever language the
parent is most proficient, usually their native tongue, to support children’s educational
achievement.
