FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 1
Foundations of Exceptionalities
Angela Piergentili
School of Education, Liberty University
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 2
Foundations of Exceptionalities
Chapter 3 Template
Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences
What does the book say about learning styles and multiple intelligences?
Learning theory styles promote the idea that only good teaching and learning can come after the teacher does a
full diagnostic of the learners learning style (O’Brien et al. 2019). Learning styles theory states that effective
instruction begins with a formal process of diagnosing a students’ learning style, and then basing instruction
on that specific learning style. This idea argues specifically to those students in special education, with the
concept that they should show improved academic performance if instruction is catered to their learning style.
Learning style theories suggest that everyone can be identified as a different type of learner based on
modalities, serving as a predictor of how they will experience success in the classroom (Fleming & Mills,
1992). However, as obvious as it may seem that students learn best based on specific learning styles, there is
no direct evidence to support this theory. Psychology does not support that students or individuals have one
specific learning style, more that they have a preferred learning style, and teachers should try to educate using
various methods of instruction.
Similarly, multiple intelligence is an intelligence theory that suggests a broader set of human abilities which
comprise intelligence (Gardner, 1983). For example, intelligence is more than just a student’s reading and
math skills, but combines these abilities with other learning styles, such as verbal, logical, and bodily.
Combining Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and the learning styles theory, educators can
differentiate their instruction for individual student needs, while combining multidisciplinary topics.
Beattie, D., O’Brien, J., & Sacco, C. (2020). Teaching students with special needs: A guide for future
educators. S.l.: KENDALL HUNT.
Word count: 249
What does your research article say about learning styles and multiple intelligences? How is this the same or
different from what your textbook says?
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences extends the three categories that broadly cover the way in
which people learn: visual, auditory, and kinesthetic; Gardner founds six initial intelligences: verbal-linguistic,
logical-mathematical, spatial-visual, bodily-kinesthetic, and interpersonal (NIU, 2023). Gardner claims that
regardless of which subject you teach, educators should present learning in differing ways to ensure students
learn the material, while teachers master the content. However, Gardner argues that multiple intelligences are
not learning styles; “…the concept is ill defined and there ‘is not persuasive evidence that the learning style
analysis produces more effective outcomes than a one size fits all approach’” (Strauss, 2013). Learning styles
tend to persuade that matching instruction to a child’s learning style will ultimately improve learning, but
Gardner believes that by changing the understanding from styles to intelligences, we can ease confusion and
“pluralize” learning (Strauss, 2013).
This concept learning styles are not the fix all to student understanding is similar to that of O’Brien’s writings,
where the argument is made that intelligence is more than just math and reading. O’Brien also quotes directly
from Gardner’s research when making the claim that educators should differentiate their instruction, but not
just towards learning styles, but also by combining multiple contents and not following one specific theory or
concept.
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 3
Strauss, V. (2013, Oct. 16). Howard Gardner: “Multiple intelligences” are not “learning styles.” The
Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-
sheet/wp/2013/10/16/howard-gardner-multiple-intelligences-are-not-learning-styles/.
Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences: Center for Innovative Teaching and learning. (n.d.).
Retrieved from https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide/gardners-theory-of-
multiple-intelligences.shtml.
Word count: 209
As a leader, how can you make a positive impact on instructional design and student outcomes based on this
information?
As an educator, I have learned over the years the importance of students’ learning styles, but I have not
adjusted this based on the idea of multiple intelligences. I have taught students from preschool up to sixth
grade, and these ages gaps make it obvious that curriculum is intended to teach these students where they are
at. When it comes to differentiating this instruction in a single classroom, I think one can use learning styles as
a basis to understand how instruction needs to reach these students, but then shift into multiple intelligence
thinking when scaffolding it for special needs and giftedness. Adjusting instruction solely on whether a student
learns visually or auditorily is just the beginning for engagement; further “pluralizing” instruction to engage
verbal, logical, or spatial thinking can be the next step to creating increased academic performance. To
improve student outcomes, as Gardner states designing instruction to help students learn in multiple ways can
trigger their confidence and improve their confidence in other areas (NIU, 2023).
This thinking is not something that only educators should be thinking about; when it comes to curriculum, we
are merely the transporters of the academics. For this method of thinking to impact instructional design, it
needs to be something that administrators and district representatives are aware of as well. I think by observing
educators that have successfully adjusted their instruction to incorporate multiple intelligence concepts, school
districts can improve student outcomes.
Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences: Center for Innovative Teaching and learning. (n.d.).
Retrieved from https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide/gardners-theory-of-
multiple-intelligences.shtml.
Word count: 239
Disability and Exceptionality
What does the book say about disability and exceptionality? How are these terms defined in schools?
O’Brien et al. (2019), claim that the concept or phrase of “disabled” is more ambiguous than it initially
appears, and that generally individuals with physical disabilities or sensory impairments receive more attention
than other types of disabilities. When speaking about students with disabilities, O’Brien argues that it is more
realistic to label these students as having school-related disabilities. In general, students with disabilities are
not much different from their peers externally, but they require more instructional time or more individualized
instruction. Educating students with disabilities shouldn’t just be naming the “problem,” but giving them the
assistance necessary to be successful amongst their peers. Crowl, Kaminsky, and Podell (1997), suggest that
the “disability is not in the student but in the gap between the student and the educational environment.”
The distinction between students with disabilities and students with exceptionalities is defined by an IQ cut
off; below 70 classifies a disability, and about 130 classifies a child for intellectual giftedness (O’Brien et al.
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 4
2019). Students considered exceptional or gifted, also do not participate in special education services; the
implementation of gifted education is quite different from special education from identification to practices
and funding (National Association for Gifted Children, 2010). Although students in both categories receive
services to support their style of learning, their academic performance is significantly different, therefore
garnering different reactions to their educational experiences.
Word count: 223
What does your research article say about disability and exceptionality? How is this the same or different from
what your textbook says?
All children exhibit differences in terms of their physical attributes and learning abilities, and although these
are relatively small differences when it comes to accessing their education, these learning abilities differ from
the norm (Hewerd, 2006). Disabilities or exceptionalities require students to receive specialized or
individualized educational programs to ensure they benefit from their education. According to Hewerd (2006),
the term exceptional incorporates all children who experience difficulties learning and those who perform
above expectations. This differs from the concepts of O’Brien, as the textbook stated children with disabilities
are labeled separately from their peers with exceptionalities. The identification process puts students with
disabilities at an IQ lower than 70, where students with exceptionalities have an IQ above 130. Hewerd
believes that exceptional children can be a term used inclusively to refer to all children with learning and
behavior problems, physical disabilities, sensory impairments, or giftedness.
Labeling students as individuals with disabilities, as stated in our textbook, creates a limited concept of
understanding of these children educationally; by identifying all students as exceptional, Hewerd has created
subcategories for students with learning disabilities to differentiated from their gifted peers. A disability exists
when an impairment limits a person’s ability to complete certain tasks; for example, a child who has lost a
limb can function normally educationally but may still be labeled as handicapped in other areas of their life. In
contrast, O’Brien (2019), labels students with disabilities in similar subcategories, but all disabilities can be
seen as an impairment and in need of services in education.
Hewerd, W.L. 2006. Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education, Pearson Allyn Bacon
Prentice Hall, p. 10-11.
Word count: 255
From what you found out, how does it differ from how society, in general, defines the terms?
Through my research, I discovered that there are a range of definitions for students with disabilities and
exceptionalities. My original understanding of the difference for students with disabilities and exceptionalities
falls in line with that of O’Brien, as I believed students with disabilities were those performing under academic
expectations, and those with exceptionalities excelled or could be labeled as gifted. It was interesting to read
through Hewerd’s definitions of exceptional, as being all encompassing and including students with
disabilities. I think Hewerd’s perspective creates a more optimistic understanding of students with disabilities
by placing them in a category similar to that of their gifted peers. By labeling students with disabilities as
exceptional, society can view these students as different rather than less than. Those labeled “handicapped” are
often treated differently, emphasizing the disability of the individual, rather than their abilities (Birch, 1974).
Societal definitions of students with disabilities have changed over the years as inclusion has become the goal
for most educational settings. Through inclusive education, biased attitudes towards students with disabilities
has reduced, (UNESCO, 2023), but there is still a divide between those with disabilities and those with
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 5
exceptionalities. By understanding the difference between these two types of students is academic and not
personal, societal views of each student can begin to adjust.
Birch, J.A.C.K., and Johnstone, B.K. (1975). Mainstreaming a new public policy in Education. Presented at
the Annual Convention of the America Association of School Administrators, Dallas, Texas.
UNESCO (2023). World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and quality.
Word count: 214
Assessing Intelligence
According to your book, what is intelligence and how is it assessed in schools?
According to O’Brien et al. (2019), there is an assumption that intelligence is something that can be measured
with IQ scores or tests, and these results represent the extent to which someone is intelligent. However, there is
not a clear definition of intelligence for educators and leave them with an “is what it is” mentality. The
concept of intelligences is more conceptual than concrete as it has largely been unexamined, and IQ testing is
the closest educators have come to identifying a baseline of intelligence. “In essence, this means that we would
define intelligence by discussing how we measure it” (O’Brien et al. 2019).
To assess intelligence professionals in schools, create testing that involves certain kinds of items or tasks to
assess how well an individual can perform on these tasks. Spearman, a psychologist, has also come up with
idea of assessing based on general intelligence or a “general intelligence factor.” This theory proposed that
intelligence could be defined as a measure combination of general intelligence factors and factors that
represent skills that the individual can perform (O’Brien et al. 2019). Educators attempt to apply these
theories, among others by Gardner and Sternberg to observe impact of intelligence and intelligence testing on
school evaluations and assessments. However, like learning styles, many theories of intelligence are
conceptual, therefore creating a broader view of human potential.
Word count: 231
What does your research article say about assessing intelligence? How is this the same or different from what
your textbook says?
Simply Psychology (2023), defines intelligence as higher-level abilities, the ability to learn, emotional
knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment effectively. Article Library
defines intelligence as the power of understanding, the intellect as endowment, or mental acuteness. Britannica
defines intelligence as the ability to adapt to the environment. Finally, Science Direct defines intelligence as
the acquirement, processing, and storage of information, meaning intelligence is restricted to the cognitive and
mental abilities of the human being. Similar to that of O’Brian (2019), intelligence definitions are more
conceptual than concrete, making it difficult for educators to have a clear understanding of what they are
looking for. These numerous definitions, lead to multiple understandings of intelligence, therefore making the
ability to assess student’s intelligence a difficult one.
There is common controversy over the implementation of intelligence tests as they tend to be designed for
white, middle-class students, creating an unfairness in evaluation. Without a clear definition of intelligence,
the creation of intelligence tests can be biased based on the individual creating or implementing the test. Over
the years, tests have not been culturally diverse, instead they represent the individuals who created them, not
the students intended to take them. This can lead to incorrect results, or accidental bias of identification of a
student; they often tend to focus on how the student will be unsuccessful, rather than their areas of
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 6
achievement. For students to be successful when taking an intelligence test, there needs to be a universal
definition of what is being tested, how they will be evaluated, and what this means for student identification.
Nash, P. (2023). The role of Intelligence in Education: What we know and what we’re still learning. Retrieved
from https://hackspirit.com/intelligence-and-education/
Word count:266
What are your personal thoughts on assessing intelligence?
Through my research and textbook reading, I think my understanding of intelligence has decreased; similar to
O’Brien, I believed intelligence to be assessable by IQ testing, and the higher your score the more intelligent
you are. As an educator, this made a clear-cut method to determine student placement in special education and
gifted programs. However, after reading further, I can understand that conceptualization of intelligence and the
difficulty we face in truly understanding how to evaluate someone’s intelligence. Intelligence is not simply
how easily a student can answer questions on a test, or how well they succeed in completing certain skill tests,
it is more of how a student can comprehend situational work and problem solve, while understanding their
ability to learn.
There are also other types of tests that I think can be beneficial when assessing a student’s intelligence, for
example, verbal and nonverbal skills, emotional IQ tests, and social IQ tests. I agree that there are various
definitions of intelligence testing, so in my opinion that means we should also test different areas of a student’s
intelligence. By assessing every aspect of their learning abilities, educators can get a better understanding
where they succeed and where they need assistance.
Word count: 201
Gifted children
According to your book, how do students who are gifted fit within the paradigm of exceptional children?
Giftedness indicates that a child has been recognized as unique due to their position on the IQ spectrum. Gifted
students often go hand-in-hand with the terminology “exceptional;” some professionals use the term
exceptional to specifically reflect the unique qualities of children whose intellectual and creative qualities set
them apart from their peers (O’Brien et al. 2019). Although, these students don’t participate in special
education resources, the Gifted and Talented Students Education Act provides funding for a gifted program.
To fully understand how these students are identified and placed, there needs to be an understanding of how
intelligence is defined and evaluated in school age children. The definition given by the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act:
“Students, children, or youth who give evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as
intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need
services and activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop these
capabilities” (O’Brien et al. 2019).
By this definition, students receive gifted services through an IQ score, with a high score generally placing
students in the category of exceptional. Since these students require differentiation in their education, they can
be understood as an exceptionality, as described by Hewerd’s definition of exceptional students including all
individuals that require separate or different instruction than their peers.
Word count: 222
What does your research article say about gifted children?
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 7
IDEA established the need for appropriate and equal access to all children, but there has been a significant
under-identification of gifted children, especially twice-exceptional individuals. The acknowledgment of
students with disabilities recognized those with below grade level performance but does not regard students
that may also excel in certain areas. Jackson Gilman recognizes the gap for those who may have been
recognized through IEP identification, receiving accommodations but also perform at or above grade level in
certain academic areas. Critical Issues in the Identification of Gifted Students reviews changing laws and
policies and examines the diagnoses of twice-exceptionality through assessments.
Students tend to receive services when they have been identified as need special education services, but there
is an under-identification of students receiving these services as also gifted students. Case studies of gifted
students with different types of disabilities are examined to determine why they were overlooked by schools,
and the long-term effects this has in their education (Gilman 2013). Children performing below grade level are
located and provided tiered intervention to prevent further delays, but this does not accommodate students that
may also perform above grade level in certain areas. “Efforts to curb costly special education services for
students with disabilities have undermined the identification of gifted children with disabilities (Gilman,
2013).
Gilman, B.J., Lovecky, D.V. Kearney, K., Peter, D.B., Wasserjman, J.D., Silverman, L.K., Postma, M. G.,
Robinson, N.M., Amend, E.R., Ryder-Schoeck, M., Curry, P.H., Lyon, S.K., Rogers, K.B., Collins, L.E.,
Charlebois, G.M., Harsin, C.M., & Rimm, S.B. (2013). Critical issues in the identification of gifted students
with co-existing disabilities: the twice exceptional. Sage Open, 3(3).
Https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013505855
Word count: 214
What will you do as a leader to ensure that gifted children are not overlooked?
When it comes to the intention of inclusive classrooms, it is essential to recognize that students with
disabilities are not the only individuals being affected by the differentiation of instruction. Through research, I
have recognized the lack of data acknowledging students without disabilities when understanding the impact
of inclusive education. Researchers tend to focus on students with disabilities when trying to understand the
importance of inclusive education and least restrictive environments. When implementing inclusive education,
as a teacher, I know I need to direct my instruction to students of all abilities.
This year, I taught 5th grade, and I had a student that couldn’t read at a kindergarten level, and I had a student
that was recognized as gifted and testing at an 8th grade level. This was a real eye-opening year when it came
to understanding the importance of differentiating my instruction to students of all needs. I had a difficult time
challenging my gifted student while also ensuring my underachieving and ELL students were receiving
adequate instruction. I was lucky enough to work at a school that catered to small group and pull-out
instruction to guarantee all students received challenges and one on one time to provide success in their
education. Going forward, I would like to be able to continue this directed instruction in small group settings
to ensure students with exceptionalities are receiving the challenge they need to not plateau academically.
Word count: 237
At-Risk Children
According to your book, what does it mean to be “at-risk” and how does that differ from being in special
education?
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 8
Students that receive special education services have extreme difficulty in school and are at-risk for
both school failure and school dropout (O’Brien et al. 2019). Many of their academic deficits contribute to
their label of “at-risk” and many of these students require a greater intensity of instruction in order to be
successful. This is not just limited to students in the special education setting, but also students with high-
incidence disabilities. Although students receiving interventions in special education are identified as at-risk
due to their needs for academic supports, many at-risk students remain in the general population in general
education settings. 80-90% of children in the category of specific learning disability are place on the basis of
reading failure (Lerner, 1989), but this does not dictate all students with academic struggles. Students with
specific learning disabilities are not the only individuals categorized as low achieving or “at-risk”. Most often,
students that are considered at risk, or at a concern for struggling in school are students with reading
disabilities, leading to a diminishing potential for academic success (O’Brien, et al. 2019). The concern for
students that are identified as “at risk” are students that have a high-incidence disability and tend to struggle
with instructional practices in relation to reading, writing, math, study skills, and social skills. The difficulty
with improving these skills for all students, is that students receiving special education services are receiving
accommodations to improve these deficits, while many still tend to fall through the cracks.
Word count: 246
What does your research article say about at-risk children? How is this the same or different from what your
textbooks says?
An at-risk student is a student who is at risk of not meeting academic or social expectations or of not
graduating (Concordia University, 2023). In many instances this involves students in the special education
program, as they require extra support and resources to succeed academically. Although educational deficits
are one of the largest factors for labelling a student at-risk, there are several other factors that contribute to a
student not meting academic or social expectations (Baum & McPherson, 2019). Some classifications for
students that are considered at risk are students who are performing poorly at school; students from low-
income families; students with learning or physical disabilities; students with social or emotional issues;
English language learners; and students who have experienced trauma (Concordia University, 2023). With so
many different characteristics identifying at-risk students, it is important as educators to recognize that these
students are not limited to those already in the special education system.
The definition given by Concordia University aligns fairly closely with that of O’Brien in the sense that at-risk
students are not only those with specific learning disabilities, but any student that is seen as struggling inside
and out of the classroom setting. Similarly, this also means that many of the interventions described are
academic support, social and emotional support, safe learning environments, access to resources, and positive
role models (Concordia University, 2023). Many of these interventions are things educators can do on a daily
basis, and do not only lie within special education accommodations.
Baum, S., & McPherson, M. (2019). The human factor: the promise & limits of online education. Daedalus,
148(4), 235-254.
At-risk students: Success and Interventions. (2023). Retrieved from
https://www.cui.edu/academicprograms/education/servant-leadership-institute/perfecting-the-
practice/blog/post/at-risk-students-success-and-interventions
Word count: 248
What will you do as a leader to ensure at-risk children are getting what they need?
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 9
When it comes to at risk students, as an educator, I will recognize that this is not limited to students with
disabilities or in the special education program. I currently work at a title one school, and I have recognized
that many of my students that can be considered at risk, are not the students receiving special education
services. I work with several students that are learning English or did not receive reading interventions at an
age that could have been beneficial. I have many students that enter my fifth-grade class performing at a level
lower than necessary to successfully enter middle school. I have learned that at a fifth-grade level interventions
are just as important as they would be at a kindergarten level. Reading skills are an essential foundation to be
successful throughout academics and in daily life. To ensure my students receive necessary services to be
successful and eventually graduate high school, I need to differentiate my instruction to accommodate students
of all learning abilities.
I have adjusted many of my instructional practices to cater to students of all reading levels, even if the content
is well above their reading level. I have incorporated small group instruction, language dives, and mini lessons
to dig deeper into difficult vocabulary. I have learned it is essential, even at a fifth-grade level to simplify
reading instruction, writing assignments, and vocabulary understanding to ensure content is accessible to
learners of all reading levels and language understandings.
Word count: 247
Based on the information learned in Chapter 3, reflect on the information presented and describe how this
evidence may impact you as a leader in the field of education. Specifically, address at least 2 concepts from
the reading related to your profession and describe how these may impact students with special needs under
your direct or indirect leadership. Incorporate a biblical rationale for making decisions and include at least one
scripture verse to support your reason.
As an educator in a title one school, where low-income families and English language learners are the most
prevalent, I related to the information discussing at risk students the most. I have learned through the years that
students in special education settings, may be considered strongly at risk due to their lower academic abilities,
however, they received mandated interventions to reduce their risk of dropping out. As stated by O’Brien et al.
(2019), many at risk students still lie in the general population of education. These students may be more
difficult to identify, as they are not receiving IEP services, they may be too embarrassed to speak up about
their situation, or they have found a way to blend in with their peers.
I think this can also translate in the opposite direction when discussing students with exceptionalities, or gifted
students. There are often times where a student may be gifted in one content but not another, therefore they
may be looked over when using assessment methods like IQ tests. Gilman et. al (2013), reviews this concern
when discussing gifted students, as they receive an IQ test that acknowledges their academic strengths, but
there should also be inclusion of social and critical thinking IQ tests to evaluate a student as a whole person,
rather than just their academic abilities.
A bible verse that has always resonated with me is Philippians 4:13 “I can do all things through him who
strengthens me,” and I think this is one that can be applied to reaching students of all abilities. This phrase has
been one that has pushed me as a teacher to always be strong in any situation, regardless of the difficulties of
my classroom. I think this is also something that can help students on both ends of the academic spectrum.
Students who are already excelling should find strength to challenge themselves and continue to work hard, no
matter how easy the material seems. Similarly, at risk youths need to find strength to not hide in the shadows
and to reach out for support to help guide them to graduation.
FOUNDATIONS OF EXCEPTIONALITIES 11
References
At-risk students: Success and Interventions. (2023). Retrieved from
https://www.cui.edu/academicprograms/education/servant-leadership-institute/perfecting-
the-practice/blog/post/at-risk-students-success-and-interventions
Baum, S., & McPherson, M. (2019). The human factor: the promise & limits of online education.
Daedalus, 148(4), 235-254.
Beattie, D., O’Brien, J., & Sacco, C. (2020). Teaching students with special needs: A guide for
future educators. S.l.: KENDALL HUNT.
Birch, J.A.C.K., and Johnstone, B.K. (1975). Mainstreaming a new public policy in Education.
Presented at the Annual Convention of the America Association of School
Administrators, Dallas, Texas.
English Standard Version Bible. (2001). Philippians, 4:13, ESV Online.
https://esv.literalword.com/
Gilman, B.J., Lovecky, D.V. Kearney, K., Peter, D.B., Wasserjman, J.D., Silverman, L.K.,
Hewerd, W.L. 2006. Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education, Pearson Allyn
Bacon Prentice Hall, p. 10-11.
Howard Gardner’s theory of Multiple Intelligences: Center for Innovative Teaching and learning.
(n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-
guide/gardners-theory-of-multiple-intelligences.shtml.
Nash, P. (2023). The role of Intelligence in Education: What we know and what we’re still
learning. Retrieved from https://hackspirit.com/intelligence-and-education/
Postman, M. G., Robinson, N.M., Amend, E.R., Ryder-Schoeck, M., Curry, P.H., Lyon, S.K.,
Rogers, K.B., Collins, L.E., Charlebois, G.M., Harsin, C.M., & Rimm, S.B. (2013).
Critical issues in the identification of gifted students with co-existing disabilities: the
twice exceptional. Sage Open, 3(3). Https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244013505855
Strauss, V. (2013, Oct. 16). Howard Gardner: “Multiple intelligences” are not “learning styles.”
The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/answer-
sheet/wp/2013/10/16/howard-gardner-multiple-intelligences-are-not-learning-styles/.
UNESCO (2023). World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and quality.
