Module 3
Educational Settings and the Role of the Family & Social, Emotional, and Behavioral
Challenges
A. Least Restrictive Environment
A key decision that is made by the IEP (Individualized Education Program) team
is to determine the setting or educational environment in which students with learning
disabilities and related mild disabilities will receive instruction. An important provision
in special education law pertaining to educational settings is the least restrictive
environment (LRE). The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
2004 (IDEA-2004) calls for instructing students with disabilities in the least restrictive
environment—that is, with peers who do not have disabilities—to the greatest extent
appropriate. LRE serves as the cornerstone of the inclusion movement.
With increasing frequency, the recommended educational setting for students with
disabilities is the general education classroom, which is often referred to as inclusion.
IDEA-2004 requires that students with disabilities receive instruction in the least
restrictive environment and that they have access to the general education curriculum.
For effective instruction for students in general education, it is essential to provide
suitable supports for students with disabilities.
The inclusion of students with disabilities in general education settings continues
to expand. Figure 4.1 shows that about 54% of students with disabilities receive
instruction inside the regular class over 80% of the school day, 24% receive instruction in
the regular class for 40% to 70% of the school day, 17% receive instruction in the regular
class for less than 40% of the school day, and 5% receive instruction in other
environments.
Inclusion is based on the conviction that all children with disabilities have a right
to participate in environments as close to normal as possible and to benefit socially and
academically from being in the central school and society. The underlying philosophy
supporting inclusion is that maximum integration with typically developing children is
highly desirable and should be a major goal (Scanlon, Gargiulo & Metcalf, 2010; Boyle
& Scanlon, 2010).
The philosophical contention of inclusion includes the normalization of children
through integrated regular classes and the elimination of labels for children with
disabilities. An additional hope for inclusion is the underlying belief that a large part of a
child’s problem would disappear by doing away with labels (Gargiulo & Metcalf, 2010;
Boyle & Scanlon, 2010). An argument for inclusion is that successful adults with
disabilities have learned to function comfortably in society and in the community—in an
unrestricted environment composed of all people. To promote normalization and
experiences in the greater society, inclusion aims to ensure that, to the extent appropriate,
students with disabilities have experiences in school with students who do not have
disabilities.
Mainstreaming was an early procedure in which students with disabilities were
placed selectively in a general education classroom for instruction, when teachers
believed the students would benefit from an integrated placement. Students with learning
disabilities and other mild disabilities were carefully integrated into general classrooms,
perhaps for a single subject. The goal of mainstreaming was to increase slowly the
amount of time that the students would spend in the general education classroom. The
mainstreaming plan was carefully worked out and monitored for each student by special
and general education teachers.
With mainstreaming, the starting point for the student was the special education
classroom. The student was then integrated into a regular or general education classroom.
In contrast, with inclusion, the starting point for a student with special education needs is
the general education classroom with the student receiving special education services
either within or outside that classroom.
As noted earlier, the inclusion movement is rapidly escalating within our schools.
The steady increase of the placement of students with all disabilities in general education
classes is striking. In the 21 years between 1987 and 2008, the percentage of students
with learning disabilities who had only general education class placement increased from
17% to 54% (U.S. Department of Education, 2012).
B. Continuum of Alternative Placements
Another important concept is the continuum of alternative placements. This
provision in the law specifies that schools should make available an array of educational
settings to meet the varied needs of students with disabilities. The placement of students
with disabilities with nondisabled students in general education classes is considered the
least restrictive option. Placement in a separate class or a separate school in which only
students with disabilities are served is a more restrictive environment. It is important that
teachers not lose sight of the continuum of placement options and the fact that some
students with learning disabilities need more than an inclusive setting can offer (Johns,
2003; Crockett & Kauffman, 2001; Zigmond, 2003b, 2007).
Many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities need
intensive, systematic, and explicit instruction from teachers who are trained and highly
skilled in delivering such services. Moreover, instruction for these students is most
effective in a small instructional groups, which is difficult to provide in a general
education class (Vaughn, Elbaum, & Boardsman, 2001; Zigmond, 2003a, 2007). The
issue of where students receive instruction is very complex and there are no simple
answers. It is important to recognize that the placement or the setting is not a treatment.
The setting itself is less important than what goes on in the setting. General education
teachers and special education teachers can work together to provide individualized
instruction within a general education classroom setting (Holloway, 2001; McLeskey et
al., 2004; Murawski & Dieker, 2004; Zigmond, 2003, 2007; Murawski & Swanson,
2002).
The reality is that labels are indispensable in special education and that even if
general education is excellent, special education is still needed (Kauffman, 2007). Does
the stigma come from the label or from the child’s failure to learn? For example, reading
disabilities would not exist in a society that does not value literacy. The reality is,
however, that we live in a society that does value literacy, and a person who does not
know how to read suffers in this society (Kauffman & Hallahan, 1997). As a result,
research shows that students with learning disabilities are often neglected (Zigmond,
2003a). The concern is that one size does not fit all, and lumping all students with
learning disabilities into the general education classroom ignores the notion of
individualized instruction (Crockett & Kauffman, 2001; Foorman & Torgesen, 2001;
Johns, 2003).
Empirical research does not identify one educational setting as the “most
effective.” Moreover, no one educational setting is effective for all students. What is
much more important than the setting is the question, “What kinds of instructional and
learning opportunities are (or can be) made available to students within different
educational settings?” More important than the educational setting is the kind of
instruction students receive. Students with learning disabilities need instruction that takes
into account their individual differences, and they need explicit instruction to learn
(Zigmond, 2003).
Teams often recommend a placement that combines elements of several types of
educational settings. Parents must agree to the educational setting in writing. If parents
and school personnel disagree, parents can ask for mediation at no cost to them, the
school can request a “resolution session,” or the parent may request a due process hearing
(Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004). In what types of
settings are students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities currently
receiving instruction? The U.S. Department of Education (2008) reported information on
the educational environments of students with disabilities in terms of the percentage of
time students were outside the general education class. The classifications for educational
environments are: outside the general education class.
As indicated earlier, most students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities are instructed in general education classrooms. Data from the U.S.
Department of Education (2012) show that 87% of students with learning disabilities are
in general education classes. This number includes both students whose educational
placement is in the general education classroom only (52%) and those students who are
both in a resource room for part of the day and in a general education classroom for the
rest of the day (35%). About 12% of students with learning disabilities receive instruction
in separate classes. A small percentage (1%) are in other settings, such as separate
schools, residential facilities, or homebound/hospital settings (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012). The various educational settings are described in this section. Most
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities receive services through
general education classrooms, resource rooms, or special classrooms.
Sometimes a combination placement is a viable alternative for a particular
student. For example, a student could be in a special class for a portion of the day or the
week and in a general education classroom for the remainder of the time. The general
education classroom is considered the least restrictive environment in terms of being with
students who do not have disabilities. Effective integration of students with disabilities
into the general education classroom requires careful planning, teacher preparation, team
effort, and a complete support system. Mere physical placement in a general education
classroom is not enough to ensure academic achievement or social acceptance. Students
with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities have specific needs that require
targeted and specialized instruction and attention.
Ideally, general and special educators share responsibility for teaching. The
special educator may collaborate with the general education classroom teacher, provide
materials for the student, or actually teach the student within the general education
classroom. The general education classroom teacher must also have the skills,
knowledge, and willingness to work with students with learning disabilities and related
mild disabilities.
The composition of students in today’s general education classroom is changing
dramatically. The general education classroom is likely to include the following: most
students in the general education classroom do not have disabilities, some students in
general education classrooms have disabilities that have been identified through an IEP,
some students who do not have an IEP but are eligible to receive accommodation may
have a Section 504 Plan (see the example of a Section 504 plan in Figure 4.2), some
students in the general education classroom have suspected but undiagnosed disabilities,
and some students in the general education classroom may be English-language learners
(ELL) and have limited English proficiency. Thus, the general education classroom today
has many different types of students with special needs. The percentage of students with
disabilities in general education classrooms is increasing, while the percentage in other
settings is decreasing.
Students in a resource room are outside of the general education environment for
21% to 60% of the day for special education and related services (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012). A resource room is an educational setting that provides educational
services to students with disabilities on a regularly scheduled basis for part of the day.
Students spend the remainder of the school day in a general education classroom. The
resource room offers flexibility in terms of the curriculum offered, the time students
spend in the program, the number of students served, and the teacher’s time. As noted in
Figure 4.1, the percentage of students receiving resource room instruction is decreasing.
Care must be taken in scheduling students for a resource room session. For
example, if the pupil enjoys physical education, the teacher should avoid preempting this
period for the resource room session. In addition, the classroom teacher must be
consulted about the optimum time for the student to leave the classroom. Resource rooms
should be pleasant and have an abundant supply of materials. Because students with
learning disabilities and related mild disabilities often have short attention spans, it is
wise to provide a change of pace by planning several activities during a teaching session.
Students in a separate class are outside the general education environment for
more than 60% of the day for special education and related services (U.S. Department of
Education, 2012). The separate class within the school was one of the first placements
used in the public schools to provide education to students with disabilities. Separate
classes are typically small, containing about 6 to 15 students at a time. The separate class
offers the opportunity for highly individualized and closely supervised intensive
instruction. Even with the growing inclusion movement, the percentage of students with
learning disabilities placed in special classes is about 12%.
Some separate classes are categorical (consisting only of students with one
category of disability (such as learning disabilities); others are cross-categorical
(consisting of students with various mild or moderate disabilities). Often schools cluster
the categories of learning disabilities, emotional disturbance, or mental retardation in
special classes. Often private (but sometimes publicly supported) separate schools are
special educational facilities established specifically for students with disabilities. Some
students attend the separate school full time. Other students attend the separate school
only half a day and may spend the balance of the school day in the public school.
The disadvantages of separate schools include the high expense to parents, the
traveling distance, and the lack of opportunity to be with students in the general
education population. The advantages of separate schools are that they often serve
students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities well, and they sometimes
provide the only feasible option for certain students. Successful pilot programs are often
developed at separate schools, which are then used in other settings.
Separate classes are beneficial for certain students who appear to have a better
self-concept than similar students in general education classrooms, possibly because
regular class competition sets achievement criteria that these students cannot meet. With
its lower teacher–pupil ratio, separate classes can offer more intensive individualized
instruction in which students spend more time learning. The separate classroom may
provide the most appropriate setting for the kind of intensive and comprehensive
intervention needed by students with the most serious and severe learning difficulties.
Full-time placement for students away from their homes can be provided by
residential facilities. The students receive education in a public or private residential
facility. Relatively few students have disabilities that are severe enough to warrant such
placement. However, in some cases—if the community lacks adequate alternative
facilities, if the behavioral manifestations are extremely severe, or if the emotional
reaction among other members of the family is debilitating—residential placement on a
24-hour basis may be the best solution for both the student and the family.
The disadvantages of residential facilities are that they remove the student from
home and neighborhood and provide fewer opportunities for social experiences in the
larger community. However, for certain youngsters, residential placements become the
most appropriate choice, and they have successfully helped many students learn, adjust to
the world, and achieve very rewarding careers and lives.
The type of instruction known as one-to-one instruction occurs when one adult
works with one student. It is not an educational environment identified in IDEA-2004.
The research shows that it can lead to substantial improvement in student achievement.
One-to-one instruction works because the teaching is highly individualized, and the
student receives intensive instruction over a period of time by a skilled teacher who can
tailor the instruction to the specific student needs. Sometimes students need one-to-one
instruction, and they tend to do well with this individualized instruction (Slavin, 2000;
Vaughn, Gersten, & Chard, 2000).
In the real world, of course, the cost for schools to provide a teacher for each
student is impractical, so parents must often turn to private specialists or clinics to receive
this highly individualized form of instruction. Therefore, it is important for schools to
seek ways to get as close as possible to one-to-one instruction (Slavin, 2009). Methods
for providing individualized instruction include using computer instruction and aides and
volunteers as tutors in the classroom. Aides or volunteers must be supervised by an
appropriately certified teacher.
Computers offer a way to individualize teaching. A good computer software
program is like a tutor because it presents the information, gives students abundant
practice, assesses their level of understanding, and provides additional information if it is
needed. Computer programs can be quite effective in presenting ideas and in using
pictures or graphics to reinforce concepts. Because most students are motivated by the
computer, they will work longer and harder than they will with paper-and-pencil tasks.
Students utilizing computer programs must be monitored closely to ensure that they are
actually working on the designated program and are benefiting from it.
Using aides and volunteers offers another procedure to approximate one-toone
instruction. The volunteer movement is alive and growing. Some 60 reading and literacy
groups, such as Literacy Volunteers of America and the Laubach Program, support one-
to-one programs, using volunteer adult tutors. Moreover, research demonstrates that
tutoring works by increasing a student’s reading achievement, confidence, and
motivation, in addition to providing a sense of control of the student’s reading ability.
Even when a student receives the very best in-class instruction, some students still require
extra time and assistance to meet the high levels of reading skills needed in school, in the
workplace, and throughout life. Tutors can provide the explicit instruction that produces
positive results (Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement, 1998;
Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998a). Tutoring is especially critical during long school breaks,
such as summer vacation. Research shows that during these vacation periods, students
lose many skills they have learned (Wasik, 1998). Tutoring should be conducted by a
well-trained individual who coordinates efforts with the classroom teacher and who gears
instruction based on the individualized needs of the student as delineated by the IEP.
When teacher aides or volunteers are used, it is important to remember that the teacher is
the one who is responsible for planning the instruction for the student. The aide or
volunteer must work under the supervision of a teacher who is knowledgeable about how
to deliver the specialized instruction needed by the student.
C. Collaboration: Partnerships Between General Education Teachers and Special
Education Teachers
As a greater number of students with learning disabilities and related mild
disabilities receive their instruction in general education classrooms, procedures that
promote partnerships between general education and special education teachers become
especially important. For successful inclusion of students, it is important to find ways to
facilitate a team effort.
Collaboration is a style of interaction that provides a way for individuals or
groups to work together. Through collaboration, two or more individuals interact in a
supportive manner that benefits each member, as well as the people they are supporting.
The process of collaboration involves people with diverse areas of expertise (such as
classroom teachers, special education teachers, and related professions) who work
together to find creative solutions to mutually defined problems.
Coteaching occurs when two or more teachers deliver instruction to a diverse
group of students in a general education classroom. Coteaching between general
educators and special educators has become a common method for delivering instruction
to all students in a general education classroom. The teaching is shared by all teachers
involved. Coteaching can be mutually satisfying, but the teachers must be willing to share
and accept responsibility. In fact, coteaching has been likened to a marriage. To be
successful, the teachers have to make a 100% effort (Friend & Cook, 2010; Friend &
Bursuck, 2002; Gately & Gately, 2001).
D. Families and Parents
Children with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities claim a
tremendous emotional toll on parents. Families and parents face many of the same
problems as teachers do, but in greatly magnified intensity. The child is in school for a
few hours a day in a limited and controlled situation; but, for families and parents, their
responsibility encompasses 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, with no vacations, in all types
of situations, and with all types of demands.
It is important for school personnel to consider the strengths of the family.
Involvement of parents and families through family–school collaboration is encouraged
by informal communication, such as written notes between school and home, parental
involvement in the classroom and in extracurricular activities, face-to-face conferences,
telephone contact, and e-mail messages (Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank, & Smith, 2004).
Parents must also give time and attention to other members of the family and try
to make a life for themselves. Parenting a child with disabilities is challenging, but it can
also be rewarding. Parents need support from the school, the extended family, and other
professionals. With this support, encouragement, and the sharing of expertise, the child
can emerge from the school years academically, emotionally, and socially intact, as well
as prepared for the challenges ahead.
In the process of interacting with families, teachers should strive to be responsive
to cultural views and attitudes about disabilities. Teachers should realize that there are
cultural differences in attitudes about communication, personal space, eye contact, wait
time, tone of voice, and touching. Teachers should be sensitive to these issues in
interacting with families (Lerner, Lowenthal, & Egan, 2003).
A family of five is like five people lying on a waterbed. Whenever one person
moves, everyone feels the ripple (Lavoie, 1995). It is useful to view the family as a
system. The fundamental idea of the family systems theory is that whatever happens to
one part of a family or system affects all the other parts. In the family system, all
members of the extended family are interdependent, and each member has an interactive
effect on all other members. The family system involves the child, parents, siblings,
grandparents, other people living in the home, or those who are part of the child’s family.
The entire family system is affected by a child with learning disabilities or with
related mild disabilities. Day-to-day living can be stressful from the start. As infants,
these children may be irritable, demanding, and difficult to soothe, which can make
parents feel incompetent, confused, and helpless. As the child enters school and begins to
face learning failure, the parents may have feelings of guilt, shame, or embarrassment. As
they become frustrated, they may blame each other for their child’s problems. One parent
may accuse the other of being too strict or too lenient in raising their child, putting extra
strain on the marital relationship. Siblings and other family members are also affected
when a brother or sister has learning disabilities. The siblings may be embarrassed or feel
angry or jealous if their parents pay more attention to the sibling with learning
disabilities. For these reasons, it is necessary in some cases to include the entire family in
the treatment process, with counseling for the family system as an important part.
When parents are faced with the quandary of a child with a disability, they are
likely to pass through a series of predictable stages of acceptance (Kübler-Ross, 1969;
Lavoie, 1995). These stages are universal and apply to anyone who experiences a loss. In
this case, the parents have lost their hope for a normal child.
Some parents go through a mourning process when first told that their child has
learning disabilities. The stages in the process are shock, disbelief, denial, anger,
bargaining, and acceptance. For each parent, the number of stages or the length of time
spent in each stage is different. Often, too, the parent returns to an earlier stage. This
roller coaster of emotions has a profound impact upon the parent and upon interactions
with the child. Because the two parents will probably not go through these stages at the
same time, each parent must learn to respect the other’s right to travel through the stages
at a different rate.
The goal is to reach acceptance so that the parent is able to make decisions that
are unclouded by undue emotion. When parents accept their child along with their child’s
disabilities, they are then able to provide for the child’s special needs while continuing to
live a normal life and tending to family, home, civic, and social obligations.
Establishing healthy parental attitudes and ensuring parent–teacher cooperation
are, of course, desirable goals. Parent support groups and family counseling can help in
meeting these goals. Parent support groups offer parents a way to meet regularly in small
groups to discuss common problems. They can be organized by the school, family service
organizations, professional counselors, or parent organizations, such as the Learning
Disabilities Association (LDA). The opportunity to meet with other parents whose
children are encountering similar problems tends to reduce the parents’ sense of isolation.
Furthermore, such parent support groups have been useful in alerting the community,
school personnel, other professionals, and legislative bodies to the plight of their
children.
Parent–teacher conferences are a bridge between the home and school. Both
parents and teachers tend to shy away from these private conferences, parents fearing
what they will hear and teachers fearing that parents will react negatively. Yet, these
conferences, at which the student’s progress and problems are discussed, should be
viewed as an opportunity to help the student. Parents and teachers can work together to
enhance progress.
In setting up a conference, teachers should reassure parents that they are going to
communicate with someone who cares about their child. Teachers must impart a sense of
confidence without being arrogant and should convey a sincere interest in the student and
respect for the parents. Parents also want to know what they can do at home.
E. Social Challenges
Social, emotional, and behavioral challenges occur in children in all populations,
and they are found in students from diverse economic, racial, cultural, and language
groups. Often the social, emotional, and behavioral challenges are interdependent; they
overlap with each other, or they are interrelated problems. For example, students who feel
poorly about themselves may engage in specific behaviors that can lead to social
isolation. A student who is very depressed may engage in withdrawal behavior, which
leads to poor peer relationships and social isolation.
Imagine going to work every day and being faced with tasks that are too difficult
for you. Even the most resilient person would eventually give up and start looking for
another job. Yet students do not have this option. They are supposed to stay in school and
face tasks every day that are too difficult for them to accomplish. No wonder many
students become extremely frustrated and give up. They know they have many strengths
and things they can do well. Yet they are struggling with hard academic tasks, and they
do not understand why they are struggling so much. Investigations of the relationship
between academic underachievement and externalizing behavior show that students may
act out to avoid aversive academic tasks (Farley et al., 2012, Lane and Beebe-
Frankenberger, 2004). Students with behavioral problems present a major challenge to
school personnel because they often present both academic and behavioral deficits
(Farley et al., 2012; Nelson, Benner, & Moody, 2008). Teachers should explore the
“cause” of negative behaviors in school and then plan interventions that consider those
causes. Teachers must be sensitive to the stresses that many students with learning
problems face—they are expected to try to do academic tasks that are extremely difficult
for them. They may respond by giving up, acting out, or putting their head down on their
desk and trying to rest. They are tired—doing work that is difficult is tiring and what may
appear as work refusal may be exhaustion from demanding tasks.
Social skills consist of skills that are necessary to meet the basic social demands
of everyday life. Deficits in social skills are among the most crippling types of problem
that a student can have. In terms of total life functioning, a social disorder may be far
more intimidating than an academic dysfunction. A social disorder affects almost every
aspect of life—at school, at home, and at play (Silver, 2006). Social challenges involve
the student’s ability to interact with others. When students are not aware of the nuances
of social situations, they are unsure of how to act or how to make friends. It is estimated
that one third of students with learning disabilities also have problems with social skills
(Elksnin & Elksnin, 2004; Bryan, 1997; Voeller, 1994). Some individuals with learning
disabilities are less socially skilled than their same-aged peers (Gresham et al., 2006). If
they are asked to use cognitive social behaviors, they are less able to do so than their
peers. If they are asked to solve a social problem, they may jump to a solution quickly
rather than use problem-solving strategies to arrive at the best answer to the problem. If
pressured, they tend to engage in antisocial behaviors (Schumaker & Deshler, 1995).
Students with learning disabilities accounted for 52% of all students with disabilities who
experienced disciplinary actions during the 2007–2008 school year. Learning disabilities
is the second most common disability found among incarcerated juveniles (Cortiella,
2011)
Some students who have social difficulties do quite well in academic domains,
while other students have both social and academic difficulties. Also, it is important to
recognize that not all students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities
encounter difficulties with social skills (Gresham et al., 2006). In fact, for many, the
social sphere is an area of strength. These students are socially competent at making and
maintaining friends, and they work at pleasing teachers and parents (Haager & Vaughn,
1997).
Difficulties in the social arena are also characteristic of students with autism, and
nonverbal disabilities (see Chapter 7, “Autism Spectrum Disorders and Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder”). Students who have problems with social relationships may lack
sensitivity to others, have a poor perception of social situations, and suffer social
rejection. They may exhibit a wide range of poor social traits, such as impulsiveness, low
tolerance for frustration, and problems in handling day-to-day social interactions and
situations (Sridhar & Vaughn, 2001; Wong & Donahue, 2002; Bryan, 1997).
Having a social challenge puts a child at a great disadvantage. In school and in
other environments, students need well-developed social and interactive skills in dealing
with peers and adults. Although these students want to be accepted socially, they often do
not know how to engage in appropriate social behaviors. Our job as educators is to help
students learn how to improve their ability to respond appropriately in social situations.
F. Emotional Challenges
Emotional challenges often interfere with academic learning. When students are
troubled by emotional challenges, it is arduous for them to focus on academic tasks.
Students may be preoccupied with other problems that prevent them from successfully
completing the academic tasks.
The emotional development of typically developing students can be very different
from the emotional development of students with learning problems. Successful
achievers have a multitude of gratifying experiences to develop important basic feelings
of self-worth, and they have hundreds of opportunities for self-satisfaction, as well as the
enjoyment of pleasing others. When students are achieving, the parent-child relationship
is mutually satisfying because normal accomplishments stimulate parental responses of
approval and encouragement. As a result of students’ own feelings of accomplishment
and their awareness of the approval of those around them, achieving students develop a
sense of self-worth and a prideful identity. Successful achievers establish healthy
identifications with their mothers, fathers, and other key figures in their lives, building
feelings of self-worth, a tolerance for frustration, and a consideration for others (Lavoie,
2007; Silver, 2006).
In contrast, the emotional development of students who encounter learning
problems follows a very different pattern. If the central nervous system is not intact and is
not maturing in a normal manner, disturbances in motor and perceptual development lead
to dissatisfaction with one’s self. Failed attempts at mastering tasks induce feelings of
frustration, rather than feelings of accomplishment. Instead of building self-esteem, the
thwarted attempts produce an attitude of self-derision, and, at the same time, these
thwarted attempts fail to stimulate the parents’ normal responses of pride. Parents,
therefore, may become anxious and disheartened, reactions that can result in either
rejection or overprotection.
With such a developmental scenario, it is not surprising that many students with
mild disabilities and students with learning disabilities develop emotional challenges.
These students may react by either internalizing or by externalizing their emotional
problems. An internalizing reaction may take the form of a conscious refusal to learn, a
resistance to pressure, clinging to dependency, quick discouragement, a fear of success,
sadness, and withdrawal into a private world. An externalizing reaction can take the form
of overt hostility, acting-out behaviors, excessive anger, fighting with other children, and
defiance toward teachers.
The environment should be a place in which the student can be successful. It is
important to restructure tasks to assure success. These students do have many strengths
and interests, and teachers and families must find those areas of strengths and capitalize
on them. By recognizing students for their accomplishments, teachers reduce feelings of
inadequacy, decrease anxiety, and increase student beliefs in themselves.
It is not unusual for students with serious emotional or behavioral problems to
also have a coexisting learning disability (Kauffman & Landrum, 2009). If the problems
are so severe that they interfere with further learning and life activities, the student may
be referred for psychological or psychiatric counseling (Silver, 2006).
Many students with emotional challenges suffer from depression and a general
pervasive mood of unhappiness. Depression may be a reaction to the stress and
frustration of school demands, to the lack of friendships and social interactions, or may
stem from a biochemical predisposition. Although a person’s feelings of self-worth may
be threatened by continual failure, it is interesting to note that not all individuals who face
difficulties in life develop low self-esteem. Some have remarkable resiliency and are able
to preserve self-confidence and self-worth (Goldstein & Brooks, 2005; Brooks &
Goldstein, 2002; Freiberg, 1993; Keogh, 2000). Their resilience seems to come from a
mix of internal and external factors (Sorensen et al., 2003). Resilience has been described
as “a buffering process”—it doesn’t eliminate risks or the adverse conditions that one
might face but it helps individuals deal with those conditions effectively (Brooks &
Goldstein, 2004). What are the factors that enable individuals to keep on trying, and how
can the school help build resilience? Self-worth is gained through mastery of a skill or
task, through perceived respect from peers, and through feelings of competence. Students
who believe that they have competencies in areas other than academic work are less
likely to be devastated by school failure. To maintain their sense of self-worth, students
need a support system from teachers, from parents and families, and from peers who
acknowledge that these students possess specific competencies. The support system
preserves student self-worth by keeping failure to a minimum; increasing the visibility of
nonacademic talents, skills, and competencies; and emphasizing learning goals over
performance goals. For example, the student can be given credit for performing a task in
the correct manner (a learning goal) even though the final answer may not be accurate
(the performance goal).
It is fascinating to observe individuals who have achieved greatness and
maintained a sense of belief in their self-worth and in what they were doing despite
having faced years of rejection and ridicule. Examples include Gertrude Stein, the famous
poet, who submitted poems to editors for about 20 years before one was finally accepted
for publication; Vincent van Gogh, who sold only one painting during his lifetime; and
Frank Lloyd Wright, who was rejected as an architect during much of his life. So, too,
many individuals with learning disabilities have overcome failure and rejection because
they strongly believed in themselves. The stories of adults with learning disabilities who
have succeeded against the odds are inspiring, and their resilience is evident in their
success (Hart, 2009; Gerber & Brown, 1997; Gerber & Reiff, 1991; Smith, 1991).
G. Behavioral Challenges
Students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities sometimes exhibit
co-occurring behavioral challenges. These behavioral challenges must be considered in
planning instruction (Farley et al., 2012; Burns et al., 2009; Haydon et al., 2009; Buck et
al., 2000; Scott, 2003). When students struggle with learning, they may become so
frustrated that they act out or refuse to work. Because they cannot get attention for strong
academic skills, they may seek to get attention for inappropriate behaviors.
Some students engage in behaviors in an attempt to be accepted by peers, or they
impulsively engage in a behavior, not realizing the consequences of their behavior. Thus,
they get into trouble. Students with disabilities have higher rates of suspension than youth
without disabilities. An analysis of data from the U.S. Department of Education based on
the 2009–2010 school year showed that 13% of students with disabilities in kindergarten
through grade 12 were suspended compared to 7% of students without disabilities in
urban middle schools (Losen & Skiba, 2012). Studies of students with learning
disabilities and students with attention deficit disorders show that these students have a
higher risk of being suspended. When academic tasks become very difficult, these
students may respond with disruptive behaviors that result in suspensions (Johns & Carr,
2012; Krezmien, Leone, & Achilles, 2006).
If the student is suspended or expelled, the IEP (Individualized Education Team)
team must make a manifestation determination. This means that the IEP team must
decide whether the presenting problem behavior is a result of the student’s disability and
whether the current IEP is being implemented. If the behavior is a result of the disability
or if the services on the IEP were not being met, services must continue for students with
disabilities who have been suspended or expelled because of their behavior.
Of concern is the number of students reported to either be suspended from school
for more than 10 school days or to be removed to an interim alternative educational
setting for drugs or weapons. According to the Civil Rights Data Collection’s 2009–2010
statistics based on data from 72,000 schools in 7,000 districts that serve approximately
85% of American students, it was reported that 1 in 5 black males and 1 in 10 black
females received an out-of-school suspension (Lewin, 2012). In 10 states in urban middle
schools more than 25% of black students with disabilities were suspended in 2009–2010
(Losen & Skiba, 2012). In a Texas study reported in 2011, almost 60% of the students in
grades 7 through 12 had received an in-school suspension, an out-of-school suspension,
or had been expelled. Out of all of the students who were suspended, students who
qualified for special education constituted 75%. About 76% of the students identified as
having a learning disability had at least one disciplinary action (Fabelo et al., 2011; Johns
& Carr, 2012).
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004 (IDEA-
2004) requires that if the child’s behavior interferes with his or her learning or the
learning of others, the IEP team will consider strategies and supports to address the
child’s behavior. Moreover, if a child with disabilities displays behavior that impedes his
or her learning or that of others, the IEP team must be able to evaluate the child’s
behavior through a functional behavioral assessment and to design positive behavioral
supports to change the student’s troublesome behavior.
Positive behavioral supports are strategies to change a student’s troublesome
behavior and to increase positive behavior or to replace an undesirable behavior. For
example, Charlie is only asked to read aloud after he has practiced and prepared to do this
task. Charlie’s response can be modified by rewarding him when he responds in a more
suitable fashion. Jerry signs a contract to respond using appropriate language. These
positive behavioral supports are based on strategies of behavior management.
Throughout the country, schools are being encouraged to promote positive
learning climates for their students. School-wide positive behavior support (SWPBS) is a
proactive school-wide approach that addresses the entire school as well as individual
students. It focuses on prevention of behavioral problems and recognition for positive
actions of students. In this approach, school-wide data is collected and used to make
decisions and plan an effective school wide program, students are taught the behavioral
expectations within the school and are recognized for meeting those expectations, and a
continuum of supports are established to meet the needs of students (Flannery, Sugai, &
Anderson, 2009). In PBIS schools, universally designed interventions are designed for all
students within the school. Clear expectations are set and students are recognized for
performing those expectations. Students are taught the expectations. They may get
special tickets that are good for a drawing or can be cashed in for special prizes. For those
students who need more than the universally designed interventions, secondary
interventions are put into place. The student may need more individual attention, may
need additional interventions, or may need a closer look at the reasons for the behavior.
There will be those students who fail to respond to either universal or secondary
interventions and those students will need tertiary interventions. They may need to be
referred for a comprehensive case study evaluation that includes a thorough functional
assessment. They may need additional support services such as those offered by a school
social worker or a school psychologist.
Behavior is communication, and our job as educators is to ascertain what the
student is telling us. By recognizing the function of the student’s behavior, the educator
can change either the antecedents or the consequences in order to meet the need of that
student. Function-based interventions can make meaningful and lasting change (Gage,
Lewis, & Stichter, 2012; Lane et al., 2006; Liaupsin et al., 2006). In order to assess the
function of the behavior, it is important for the general educator and the special educator
to work collaboratively. Oftentimes it is difficult for a teacher to see the function of the
behavior because he or she may be too close to the situation and can’t always see what is
driving the behavior. However, another individual may be able to see the function of the
behavior more clearly.
The general educator may not have the time to collect the necessary data on how
many times a student engages in a specific behavior and at what times of day and during
what specific academic activities a behavior is occurring. If the special educator can take
the time to observe in the classroom and collect the data, it assists the team in
determining appropriate behavioral interventions.
H. Strategies to Improve Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Competencies
Students who are socially competent learn social skills effortlessly through daily
living and observation. Students with social challenges need conscious effort and specific
teaching to learn about the social world, its nuances, and its silent language. Just as we
teach students to perform academic work (to read, write, spell, do arithmetic, and pass
tests), we should teach students with social challenges how to live with and relate to other
people.
Scrapbooks can help the students put together information about themselves. The
students should include pictures of themselves at different stages of growth, pictures of
their families and pets, a list of their likes and dislikes, anecdotes about their past,
accounts of trips, awards they have won, and so on. One group of secondary students
with social challenges enjoyed making a PowerPoint presentation entitled “About Me.”
Often students with social challenges respond impulsively in social situations.
They act without considering what is required, without thinking through possible
solutions, or without thinking about the consequences of various courses of action.
Through instruction in the strategies of self-verbalization and self-monitoring, students
can be taught self-control to keep from giving immediate, nonreflective responses.
Students can learn to ask themselves questions such as “What am I supposed to be
doing?” In other words, they are taught to stop and think before responding. Teachers can
model social learning strategies by talking out loud with such thoughts as “Does this
problem have similarities to other problems I have encountered?” or “What are three
possible solutions?” The students then practice these skills of self-verbalization, or
thinking aloud.
Student accomplishments can increase the ability to learn and strengthen
emotional outlook. Successful experiences build feelings of self-worth, self-confidence,
and self-respect. Teachers should help students accomplish an educational task so that
their feelings of self-worth and self-esteem are enhanced. The beginning of a mutual
reinforcement cycle is also the beginning of effective treatment (Silver, 2006). Teaching
Tips 6.1, “Strategies for Improving Self- Esteem,” offers ways to build self-esteem.
Many students with learning disabilities and related mild disabilities display
disruptive or antisocial coping behaviors when they are faced with challenging and
frustrating work. In this section, we discuss a variety of instructional strategies for
students with behavioral challenges. Including Students in General Education 6.2,
“Behavioral Challenges,” offers some strategies for helping students with behavioral
challenges in general education classes.
Earlier in this chapter, we discussed conducting a functional behavioral
assessment to determine a behavioral intervention plan. Sometimes school personnel do a
thorough job of functional assessment, but then create a “one size fits all” behavioral
intervention plan. The behavioral intervention plan should be based on the individual
needs of the student. Student Stories 6.4, “A Behavioral Intervention Plan for Jerod,”
gives an example of how a behavioral assessment can be used to develop a behavioral
intervention plan.
Children may feel threatened, or even defeated, by the demands placed on them in
school. Students crave a sense of competence and achievement, which can be theirs when
educators provide the right structure for success (Johns, 2004). A positive classroom
environment is important in the process of conducting a positive behavioral intervention
plan. Teaching Tips 6.2, “Strategies for Creating a Positive Environment,” offers
methods for achieving this goal.
Errorless learning techniques offer students the chance to succeed by accentuating
what the students do well. Two strategies that result in errorless learning are fading and
backward chaining. These instructional strategies require conducting a task analysis on
the activities that are expected.
In the strategy called fading, the teacher gives the student maximum cues to
begin with and then fades those cues away until the student is able to do the task on his or
her own (Johns, 2004). For example, if the student is learning cursive writing, the teacher
can provide a model of the letter to be written and the student merely traces over the
letter. The teacher then reinforces the student for writing the letter. When the student is
able to do this, the teacher can then prepare a model with dotted lines and the student
traces over the dotted lines. The teacher then reinforces the student with praise. The last
step is for the student to write the letter on his or her own. Let’s look at an example of
fading used to increase middle school and high school students’ compliance with
classroom rules. When students switch from class to class, it is sometimes difficult for
them to comply with different teachers’ rules. Perhaps one teacher expects students to
raise their hand before speaking; another teacher is not concerned with that behavior.
Middle school and high school teachers should have their rules posted in an obvious spot
in the classroom. This is an excellent visual prompt for students. During the first two
weeks of school, each teacher reviews the rules of his or her classroom. When students
comply with the rules, the teacher remembers to thank them for doing so. After the first
two weeks, the teacher fades his or her verbal prompt and simply points to the rules and
reminds the students of the importance of following the posted rules. The teacher again
thanks students for following the rules and may write a short personal note to students
who have followed the rules. After the first month of school, the teacher leaves the rules
posted but no longer provides a verbal reminder. However, the teacher continues to
positively reinforce students who follow the rules but does not do so as often as he or she
did the first month of school.
In backward chaining, the teacher gradually constructs a backward chain, which is
a chain in a reverse order from that in which the chain is performed. The last step is
established first; then the next to the last step is taught and linked to the last step (Martin
& Pear, 2003; Johns, 2004). An example of backward chaining occurs in teaching a
student to tie shoes. The teacher does all of the steps except pull the bow. The student
does that and is praised for doing so. The student then does the last two steps, and so
forth.
Let’s look at another example. The teacher is concerned that two young children
are not able to play cooperatively together. The teacher wants them to be able to throw a
ball back and forth. The teacher decides that she will engage in the game with the two
students. She throws the ball back and forth to the students, never expecting the students
to throw to each other. She then praises them for playing ball together. She has done all
but the last part of the chain. After the students have become accustomed to doing that,
she then throws the ball to each student and they throw it back to her. She then throws the
ball to one of the students and expects one of the students to throw the ball to the other
student and the other student is to catch it. She then praises both students. In the next
step, she throws the ball to one of the students—he catches it and throws it to the next
student and then throws the ball to the teacher. In the next step, the teacher begins the
game by throwing the ball to one student who throws it to the other student and they
throw it back and forth—teacher is praising the students for playing together. In the last,
the teacher removes herself completely from the game and the students throw it back and
forth.
Teach students to manage their own behaviors at any early age. Self-monitoring
during independent seatwork can improve student accuracy in computation of basic math
skills (Hodge et al.,2006). Learning self-management fosters independence for students
and discourages the sense of helplessness. The following steps can help students with
self-management (Little, 2000).
I. Behavior Management Strategies
Students with behavioral challenges can benefit from behavior management
strategies. Many teachers intuitively use many behavior management procedures, but
precise application of behavior management requires that the procedures are systematic
and that the behaviors to be changed are observable and measurable. In the following
sections, we describe several behavioral management activities.
The contingency contract is a written agreement between the student and the
teacher. An example of a contingency contract is shown in Figure 6.3. The idea that
something desirable can be used to reinforce something the student does not wish to do is
the essence of contingency contracting. This method is also called “Grandma’s Rule”
because grandmothers are alleged to promise, “If you finish your vegetables, you can
have your dessert.” For example, Dave, who likes to play ball, is allowed to play after he
finishes his spelling work. Another name for this procedure is the Premack principle,
which is based on the premise that a nonpreferred activity is reinforced with a preferred
activity. As an example, the student does not like doing math problems but loves to color
in a coloring book. If the student completes 5 math problems, he can color for 1–2
minutes. For an older student who likes to draw or listen to his iPod, the student can do a
set number of math problems and then can have 5 minutes to draw or listen to music.
Time-out is a procedure in which a disruptive student is removed from the
instructional activities and placed in a designated isolated area for a short period of time.
Isolation does not have to be complete to be effective, but it does need to remove the
student from the group. Timeout can be a powerful technique to manage disruptive
behaviors in children, but it should be used cautiously. If implemented properly, time-out
offers an effective means of managing behavior.
Reinforcement theory offers a major tool for behavior management. The use of
reinforcements provides an important strategy for teaching students appropriate behavior
and for managing behavior. Reinforcements are used to increase or to change behavior.
By identifying reinforcements that a student wants, teachers can construct a reward
system that will promote the desired behavior. Positive and immediate reinforcements are
the most effective in fostering the desired behavior. Stars, stickers, raisins, tokens, points,
praise, flashing lights, or simply the satisfaction of knowing that the answer is correct are
common reinforcers.
Programs of home-school coordination are intended to improve the behavior of
students by combining school and home efforts. Behavioral goals are established for the
student, and each day the teacher indicates the goals the student has met. These behavior-
management sheets are sent home, signed by the parent to acknowledge the teacher’s
comments, and then returned to the school. The student is reinforced at home for the
positive behaviors displayed at school. As educators work to establish a positive
relationship with the parents, it is important that they recognize the efforts of the parents
—when the parent helps with homework, when the parent gets the student to school on
time each day, when the parent answers note from the teacher. Parents need to be
reinforced for their efforts and appreciate a “Thank you, I really appreciate your support.”
