Discussion 1
The Effective Teacher
A. Key Behaviors Contributing to Effective Teaching
If you had grown up a century ago, you would have been able to answer the
question “What is an effective teacher?” very simply: A good teacher is a good person—a
role model who meets the community ideal for a good citizen, good parent, and good
employee. At that time, teachers were judged primarily on their goodness as people and
only secondarily on their behavior in the classroom. They were expected to be honest,
hardworking, generous, friendly, and considerate and to demonstrate these qualities in
their classrooms by being organized, disciplined, insightful, and committed. Practically
speaking, this meant that to be effective all a teacher needed was King Solomon’s
wisdom, Sigmund Freud’s insight, Albert Einstein’s knowledge, and Florence
Nightingale’s dedication! It soon became evident that this definition of an ideal teacher
lacked clear, objective standards of performance that could be consistently applied and
that could be used to train future teachers.
Over the past several decades, a revolution has occurred in defining good
teaching. We have seen that defining good teachers by community ideals proved
unrealistic and that it was poorly related to what teachers actually do in the classroom.
This directed researchers to study the impact of specific teacher activities on the specific
cognitive and affective behaviors of their students. The term good teaching changed to
effective teaching, and the research focus shifted from studying teachers exclusively to
including teachers’ effects on students. These new ways of studying classroom behavior
have made the teacher–student relationship in the classroom the focus of modern
definitions of effective teaching. During the past few decades, researchers developed new
methods for studying the classroom interaction patterns of teachers and students.
The research embarked upon a meticulously crafted journey aimed at unraveling
the intricate tapestry of teacher-student interactions and their profound impact on
academic outcomes. Employing a multifaceted approach, the researchers orchestrated a
series of systematic steps to meticulously collect and analyze data, thereby illuminating
the nuanced dynamics at play within the classroom setting. To commence this scholarly
odyssey, a rigorous framework was devised to guide the selection of participants,
ensuring a diverse and representative cohort reflective of the educational landscape.
Through careful deliberation, educators from various backgrounds and teaching contexts
were recruited, each offering a unique perspective to enrich the study's fabric.
Central to the research methodology was the utilization of sophisticated
observational techniques, allowing for the unobtrusive documentation of teacher behavior
in its natural habitat. Armed with keen observational acumen, trained researchers
meticulously recorded a myriad of interactions unfolding within the classroom, capturing
the subtle nuances of pedagogical delivery, interpersonal dynamics, and instructional
strategies. Furthermore, to augment the richness of the data corpus, complementary
methodologies such as surveys, interviews, and self-report measures were employed,
affording both qualitative depth and quantitative breadth to the investigative process.
These complementary avenues of inquiry provided invaluable insights into the subjective
experiences and perceptions of both teachers and students, fostering a holistic
understanding of the phenomena under scrutiny. Moreover, to ensure methodological
rigor and mitigate potential biases, stringent measures were enacted to safeguard the
integrity and validity of the findings. Robust statistical analyses were employed to
discern meaningful patterns and relationships within the data, while rigorous peer review
and inter-rater reliability assessments bolstered the credibility and trustworthiness of the
research outcomes.
As the research journey unfolded, patterns began to emerge from the data,
offering tantalizing glimpses into the complex interplay between teacher behavior and
student performance. These emergent insights served as the cornerstone for the
subsequent interpretation and synthesis of findings, paving the way for the elucidation of
actionable recommendations and implications for educational practice. In essence,
through a judicious blend of methodological rigor, scholarly inquiry, and interdisciplinary
collaboration, this research endeavor embarked upon a transformative quest to unravel
the enigmatic nexus between teacher behavior and student performance, thereby
illuminating pathways towards fostering an enriching and empowering educational
experience for all stakeholders involved.
On the Coding Form for Measuring Individual Praise (Figure 1.3), the observer
codes the positive behavior being praised by the teacher (perseverance, progress, success,
good thinking, etc.). Individual students are identified by assigning each a unique number
such as 14, 23, 6, and so on. This form records not only the praise behavior of the teacher
in relation to individual student behavior but also the overall pattern or sequence of
action. For example, student 23 is praised twice in a row, the first time for “Success” and
the second time for “Good thinking.” With instruments such as these, a rich and varied
picture of classroom activity can be captured over the course of a research study and
related to various measures of school achievement. Obviously, a single observation of a
single class would provide too little data to reveal a consistent pattern of interaction.
However, multiple observations extending across different days, teachers, or schools
could reveal consistent patterns of teacher–student interactions.
Certainly, analyzing patterns of classroom behavior and their relationship to
various student outcomes provides valuable insights into the effectiveness of teaching
practices and their impact on student performance across a range of assessments.
Classroom quizzes are a common form of formative assessment used to gauge students'
understanding of material covered in class. Patterns of classroom behavior, such as
teacher clarity, instructional quality, and student engagement, can influence quiz scores.
For example, classrooms characterized by clear explanations, active student participation,
and opportunities for practice and feedback are likely to yield higher quiz scores as
students have better comprehension and retention of the material. Student projects often
require students to apply knowledge and skills in a creative and meaningful way.
Classroom behaviors that promote critical thinking, collaboration, and hands-on learning
can positively impact student project outcomes. Teachers who facilitate project-based
learning experiences, provide clear guidelines and support, and foster a positive
classroom climate tend to see higher-quality student projects and more successful
outcomes. Oral performances, such as presentations, debates, or discussions, assess
students' ability to communicate ideas effectively and articulate their understanding of a
topic. Classroom behaviors that promote oral communication skills, such as opportunities
for public speaking practice, peer feedback, and teacher modeling, can enhance student
performance in oral assessments. Teachers who create a supportive and respectful
environment for oral performances and provide constructive feedback help students
develop confidence and proficiency in oral communication.
One result from research on lesson clarity is that teachers vary considerably in
this behavior. Not all teachers are able to communicate clearly and directly to their
students without wandering, speaking above students’ levels of comprehension, or using
speech patterns that impair their presentation’s clarity (Brophy, 2002; Fasset & Warren,
2010; Muijs & Reynolds, 2005; Popham, 2009). If you teach with a high degree of
clarity, you will spend less time going over material. Your questions will be answered
correctly the first time, allowing more time for instruction. Clarity is a complex behavior
because it is related to many other behaviors, such as your organization of the content,
lesson familiarity, and delivery strategies (whether you use a discussion, recitation,
question–and–answer, or small-group format).
Indeed, research consistently demonstrates that the cognitive and oral clarity of
teacher presentations significantly impact student performance on cognitive tests of
achievement. Teachers who effectively communicate complex concepts with cognitive
clarity make it easier for students to understand and retain information. When teachers
provide clear explanations, organize content logically, and scaffold learning
appropriately, students are better able to grasp key concepts and make connections
between new information and prior knowledge. Cognitive clarity helps students navigate
through complex ideas, identify essential information, and apply their understanding to
solve problems or complete tasks. In contrast, when teachers present material in a
confusing or disorganized manner, students may struggle to comprehend the content,
leading to lower levels of achievement on cognitive tests.
The clarity of teachers' oral communication also significantly influences student
performance on cognitive tests. Teachers who articulate their ideas clearly, speak at an
appropriate pace, and use precise language facilitate better comprehension and retention
of information among students. Clear oral communication enables students to follow
along with the lesson, process verbal instructions effectively, and engage in meaningful
classroom discussions. Conversely, teachers who mumble, speak too quickly or
unclearly, or use convoluted language may hinder students' ability to understand and
internalize the material, resulting in lower performance on cognitive assessments. When
teachers present information with both cognitive and oral clarity, students are more likely
to comprehend the material and retain it over time. Clear explanations and effective
communication help students make sense of complex concepts, encode information into
memory more effectively, and recall it accurately when needed. As a result, students
demonstrate higher levels of achievement on cognitive tests that assess their
understanding, application, analysis, and synthesis of the content. On the other hand,
when teachers' presentations lack clarity, students may experience gaps in their
understanding, leading to lower performance on cognitive assessments and hindering
their overall academic success.
Clarity in teacher presentations also promotes student engagement, which in turn
enhances learning outcomes. When students can easily follow along with the lesson and
understand the material being presented, they are more likely to stay focused, participate
actively, and invest effort in their learning. Engaged students are more motivated to learn,
seek clarification when needed, and apply their knowledge to real-world situations,
leading to improved performance on cognitive tests and other measures of achievement.
In summary, the cognitive and oral clarity of teacher presentations significantly impact
student performance on cognitive tests of achievement. Teachers who communicate
information clearly and effectively facilitate better comprehension, retention, and
application of knowledge among students, leading to higher levels of achievement. By
prioritizing clarity in their instructional delivery, teachers can create optimal learning
environments that support student success and foster academic growth and achievement.
The term instructional variety refers to your variability or flexibility of delivery
during the presentation of a lesson (Brophy, 2002; Marzano, Pickering, & Heflebower,
2010; Marzano, 2009). One of the most effective ways of creating variety during
instruction is to ask questions. As you will learn in Chapter 8, many different types of
questions can be integrated into the pacing and sequencing of a lesson to create
meaningful variation (Chuska, 2003; Falk & Blumenreich, 2005; Walsh & Sattes, 2011).
Therefore, the effective teacher needs to know the art of asking questions and how to
discriminate among different question formats—fact questions, process questions,
convergent questions, and divergent questions. Another aspect of instructional variety in
teaching is perhaps the most obvious: the use of supplemental learning materials,
computer software, displays, the Internet, and space in your classroom. The physical
texture and visual variety of your classroom can also contribute to instructional variety.
This has been shown to influence students’ engagement, motivation to learn, and
achievement on end-of-unit tests and performance assessments (Walqui, 2000). For
example, some studies found the amount of disruptive behavior to be less in classrooms
that had more varied activities and materials (Emmer & Evertson, 2016; Evertson &
Emmer, 2016). Others have shown variety to be related to student attention.
Teacher task orientation is a key behavior that refers to the amount of classroom
time the teacher devotes to teaching an academic subject. The more time allocated to
teaching a specific topic, the greater the opportunity students have to learn. Some task-
related questions a teacher must answer are (1) How much time do I spend planning for
teaching and getting my students ready to learn? (2) How much time do I spend
presenting, asking questions, and encouraging students to inquire or think independently?
and (3) How much time do I spend assessing my learners’ performance? These questions
pertain to how much content is presented, learned, and assessed, as opposed to how much
time is delegated to procedural matters (for example, taking attendance, distributing
handouts, collecting homework, checking for materials). All teachers need to prepare
their students to learn and want them to enjoy learning.
While there may be varying perspectives among researchers, it's true that many
studies suggest that student performance tends to be higher in classrooms where teachers
prioritize the efficient delivery of subject-specific content over spending excessive time
on the process and materials needed to acquire that content. This approach is often
associated with maximizing instructional time, emphasizing direct instruction, and
maintaining a sharp focus on key learning objectives. Content-focused instruction
typically involves direct instruction methods, where teachers present information,
concepts, and skills to students in a clear and structured manner. Direct instruction
provides students with explicit guidance and explanations, minimizing ambiguity and
confusion and facilitating deeper comprehension. By delivering content directly, teachers
ensure that students receive accurate and coherent information, laying a solid foundation
for subsequent learning and application.
Emphasizing subject-specific content allows teachers to make efficient use of
instructional time, maximizing opportunities for learning and practice. By prioritizing key
learning objectives and minimizing extraneous activities, teachers optimize the time
available for students to engage with the material, deepen their understanding, and apply
their knowledge. This focused approach helps students stay on track and make the most
of their learning opportunities, leading to greater mastery of the content. Content-focused
instruction helps manage cognitive load by presenting information in a structured and
manageable way. Teachers break down complex concepts into smaller, more digestible
chunks, providing scaffolding and support as needed to help students make sense of the
material. By managing cognitive load effectively, teachers prevent overload and ensure
that students can process and retain information more effectively, leading to improved
learning outcomes.
Content-focused instruction is often closely aligned with academic standards and
curriculum expectations, ensuring that students are exposed to essential content and skills
required for success. By adhering to established standards and learning objectives,
teachers provide students with a clear roadmap for their learning journey, guiding them
toward proficiency and mastery. This alignment helps students develop the knowledge
and skills needed to meet academic expectations and succeed in assessments and
standardized tests. By prioritizing subject-specific content, teachers lay the groundwork
for higher-level thinking and problem-solving skills. Content knowledge serves as the
foundation upon which students can build critical thinking, analysis, and synthesis skills.
By mastering subject-specific content, students develop the conceptual understanding and
background knowledge necessary to tackle more complex tasks and challenges, preparing
them for success in higher education and the workforce. It's important to note that while
content-focused instruction is associated with improved student performance, effective
teaching also involves a balance of instructional approaches and strategies that cater to
the diverse needs and learning styles of students. Additionally, the quality of instruction,
teacher-student relationships, and classroom climate all play crucial roles in shaping
student outcomes. Ultimately, the goal of education is to empower students with the
knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to thrive in an ever-changing world, and
content-focused instruction is one valuable tool in achieving this aim.
When teachers effectively deliver content in a focused and purposeful manner,
students are provided with ample opportunities to engage with the material, deepen their
understanding, and practice new skills. Efficient teacher-student interactions ensure that
instructional time is maximized and used purposefully to convey essential subject matter
content. Teachers communicate clear learning objectives, provide explicit explanations,
and scaffold instruction to guide students through the learning process. By maintaining a
sharp focus on key concepts and skills, teachers minimize distractions and help students
stay on track, leading to more efficient and effective learning experiences. Focused
teacher-student interactions encourage active engagement and participation from
students, promoting deeper levels of comprehension and retention. Teachers use a variety
of instructional strategies, such as questioning, discussion, and hands-on activities, to
actively involve students in the learning process. By encouraging students to interact with
the content through meaningful tasks and activities, teachers foster a sense of ownership
and investment in their learning, leading to greater motivation and persistence.
Effective teacher-student interactions provide students with ample opportunities
to practice and apply what they have learned. Teachers incorporate opportunities for
guided and independent practice into their lessons, allowing students to consolidate their
understanding and reinforce newly acquired skills. By providing timely feedback and
support, teachers help students identify areas for improvement and refine their mastery of
the content. Through repeated practice and application, students develop fluency and
proficiency in the subject matter, leading to greater confidence and competence. Focused
teacher-student interactions allow for differentiation to meet the diverse needs and
abilities of students. Teachers tailor their instruction to accommodate varying learning
styles, preferences, and readiness levels, providing scaffolding and support as needed. By
differentiating instruction, teachers ensure that all students have access to challenging and
meaningful learning experiences that promote growth and achievement. Whether through
small-group instruction, flexible grouping, or individualized learning tasks, teachers
address the unique learning needs of each student, maximizing their potential for success.
Teacher-student interactions focused on subject matter content include ongoing
assessment and feedback to monitor student progress and inform instructional decision-
making. Teachers use formative assessment strategies, such as quizzes, exit tickets, and
observation, to gauge student understanding in real time and adjust instruction
accordingly. By providing timely and specific feedback, teachers help students identify
strengths and areas for growth, guiding them toward mastery of the content. Assessment
for learning promotes a growth mindset and a culture of continuous improvement,
empowering students to take ownership of their learning and strive for excellence. In
summary, classrooms where teacher-student interactions efficiently focus on subject
matter content create optimal conditions for student learning and achievement. By
maintaining clarity, promoting active engagement, providing opportunities for practice,
differentiating instruction, and assessing student progress, teachers create dynamic and
effective learning environments that foster growth, mastery, and success for all students.
Through focused interactions centered on subject matter content, teachers empower
students to reach their full potential and become lifelong learners prepared for success in
school and beyond.
This teacher-student relationship serves as the foundation for fostering a positive
classroom climate, promoting student engagement, and nurturing academic growth and
achievement. A strong teacher-student relationship is built on a foundation of trust and
respect. When students feel valued, respected, and understood by their teacher, they are
more likely to feel safe, supported, and motivated to engage in learning. Teachers who
establish positive relationships with their students demonstrate care, empathy, and
authenticity in their interactions, creating a sense of belonging and emotional security
that empowers students to take risks, ask questions, and explore new ideas. Effective
teachers recognize and respond to the individual needs, interests, and strengths of their
students, providing personalized support and encouragement to help them succeed. By
getting to know their students as individuals, teachers can tailor instruction, feedback,
and interventions to meet each student's unique learning style, preferences, and goals.
This personalized approach fosters a sense of agency and ownership in students, as they
feel empowered to take ownership of their learning and pursue their passions with
confidence.
A positive teacher-student relationship is characterized by high expectations for
academic achievement and personal growth. When teachers communicate clear
expectations, set challenging goals, and provide meaningful feedback, students are
motivated to strive for excellence and take pride in their accomplishments. Teachers who
believe in their students' potential and convey confidence in their abilities empower
students to believe in themselves and push beyond their comfort zones to achieve
success. Feedback is a powerful tool for promoting learning and growth, and the quality
of the teacher-student relationship greatly influences its effectiveness. When teachers
provide supportive, constructive feedback that focuses on student progress, effort, and
improvement, students feel valued and empowered to continue learning and growing.
Teachers who foster a growth mindset in their students encourage them to view
challenges and setbacks as opportunities for learning and development, rather than
obstacles to success.
The teacher-student relationship is also characterized by an emotional connection
that goes beyond academic instruction. Effective teachers cultivate a sense of warmth,
empathy, and connection with their students, creating a supportive and nurturing
classroom environment where students feel seen, heard, and understood. By
acknowledging students' emotions, validating their experiences, and providing a safe
space for expression, teachers build trust and rapport that strengthens the bond between
teacher and student and enhances the overall learning experience. In summary, the
relationship between the teacher and learners is a powerful force that fuels motivation,
fosters engagement, and challenges students to reach increasingly higher levels of
understanding. By cultivating a positive, supportive, and respectful relationship with their
students, teachers create an energizing learning environment where students feel valued,
empowered, and inspired to pursue excellence. This teacher-student relationship serves as
the cornerstone of effective teaching, driving student achievement and promoting lifelong
learning and success.
Student engagement in the learning process, called engaged learning time, is a key
behavior that refers to the amount of time students devote to learning in your classroom.
Student engagement is related to but different from a teacher’s task orientation. We
learned in the previous section that a teacher’s task orientation should provide students
the greatest possible opportunity to learn and to practice the material being taught.
Distinct from your task orientation—or the amount of time you devote to teaching a topic
—is the time your students are actively engaged in learning the material being taught.
This has been called their engagement rate, or the percentage of time devoted to learning
when your students are actually on task, attentive to, and engaged with the instructional
materials and benefiting from the activities being presented. Even though a teacher may
be task oriented and providing maximum content coverage, the students may be
disengaged. This means they are not actively thinking about, working with, or using what
is being presented.
Such disengagement can involve an emotional or mental detachment from the
lesson that may or may not be obvious. When students jump out of their seats, talk, read a
magazine, or leave for the restroom, they obviously are not engaged in instruction.
Students also can be disengaged in far more subtle ways, such as looking attentive while
their thoughts are many miles away. An unpleasant fact of life is that one-quarter of a
class may be off task at any time, distracted for personal reasons that are often amplified
by an impending lunch period, a Friday afternoon, or the day before a holiday. Correcting
this type of disengagement may be difficult, requiring changes in the structure of the task
itself and the cognitive demands being placed on the learner.
All five key behaviors—lesson clarity, instructional variety, teacher task
orientation, student engagement, and success rate—are essential for effective teaching.
Classroom researchers continue to study other effective teaching behaviors and work to
attain a more thorough understanding of those already described. However, for the first
time, research has provided a basis for more clearly defining effective teaching and for
training teachers. These five behaviors are the skeleton of the effective teacher, and the
remainder of this text will use these to construct the heart and the mind of an effective
teacher. You learned earlier there is no simple way to describe what it takes to become an
effective teacher. Many activities must be orchestrated into patterns of behavior for your
teaching to be effective.
Absolutely, while the identification of five key behaviors may simplify the
essence of effective teaching, the reality is that successful implementation of these
behaviors in the classroom is supported by a myriad of other helping behaviors. Teaching
is a complex and multifaceted profession that requires a diverse skill set and a nuanced
understanding of instructional strategies, classroom management techniques, and student
needs. Effective teachers recognize and respond to the diverse needs, abilities, and
interests of their students by differentiating instruction. They adapt their teaching
strategies, materials, and assessments to accommodate students' varied learning styles,
preferences, and readiness levels. By differentiating instruction, teachers ensure that all
students have access to high-quality learning experiences and opportunities for success.
A well-managed classroom provides a safe, supportive, and structured learning
environment where students can thrive academically and socially. Effective teachers
establish clear expectations, routines, and procedures to promote positive behavior and
minimize disruptions. They use proactive strategies, such as positive reinforcement,
classroom incentives, and relationship-building, to foster a positive classroom climate
and promote student engagement and motivation. Assessment is an integral part of the
teaching and learning process, providing valuable information about students' progress,
understanding, and areas for growth. Effective teachers use a variety of formative and
summative assessment strategies to monitor student learning, diagnose misconceptions,
and inform instructional decision-making. They provide timely, specific, and constructive
feedback that helps students understand their strengths and weaknesses, set learning
goals, and improve their performance over time.
In today's diverse classrooms, cultural competence is essential for effective
teaching. Effective teachers respect and value the cultural backgrounds, experiences, and
perspectives of their students, creating inclusive learning environments where all students
feel valued, respected, and empowered to succeed. They incorporate diverse perspectives
and resources into their instruction, promote cross-cultural understanding and empathy,
and address issues of equity and social justice in their teaching practice. Effective
teaching is a lifelong learning journey that requires continuous reflection, professional
development, and growth. Effective teachers engage in ongoing self-assessment and
reflection on their teaching practice, seeking feedback from colleagues, mentors, and
students to identify areas for improvement and implement evidence-based teaching
strategies. They participate in professional development opportunities, such as
workshops, conferences, and collaborative learning communities, to stay current with
research-based practices and trends in education.
Effective teachers recognize the importance of partnerships with parents, families,
and the broader community in supporting student learning and success. They
communicate regularly with parents about students' progress, goals, and classroom
expectations, and they involve families in decision-making processes and school
activities. They also collaborate with community organizations, businesses, and local
stakeholders to provide students with enriching learning experiences and access to
resources and support services. By complementing the five key behaviors with these
helping behaviors, teachers can create dynamic and inclusive learning environments that
foster academic achievement, social-emotional development, and lifelong learning skills
in all students. Effective teaching is not a one-size-fits-all approach but rather a
multifaceted endeavor that requires a holistic understanding of students' needs, strengths,
and backgrounds, as well as a commitment to continuous improvement and professional
growth.
B. Helping Behaviors Related to Effective Teaching
To complete our picture of an effective teacher, you will also need to know about
some behaviors that can help you implement the five key behaviors in your classroom.
These can be thought of as helping behaviors for performing the five key behaviors.
Research findings for helping behaviors, although promising, are not as strong and
consistent as those that identified the five key behaviors. This is why helping behaviors
need to be employed in the context of other behaviors to be effective, making them
catalysts rather than agents by themselves. More recently, the use of student ideas and
student contributions has been extended to reasoning, problem solving, and independent
thinking. This has been achieved through teacher-mediated dialogue and constructivist
teaching strategies that help learners restructure what is being learned using their own
ideas, experiences, and thought patterns.
Teacher-mediated dialogue is a powerful instructional strategy that goes beyond
simple question-and-answer interactions, encouraging learners to engage in deeper levels
of cognitive processing and meaning-making. In this approach, teachers facilitate
dialogue by prompting students to not only provide correct answers but also to internalize
the meaning of what they have learned by elaborating, extending, and commenting on it
using their own thoughts. Through teacher-mediated dialogue, students are encouraged to
elaborate on their responses by providing additional details, explanations, or examples.
By elaborating on their answers, students deepen their understanding of the content,
clarify their thinking, and make connections between new information and prior
knowledge. Elaboration promotes higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation, as students engage in critical reflection and elaborative
rehearsal of the material.
Teacher-mediated dialogue prompts students to extend their thinking beyond the
initial question or prompt by exploring related concepts, making connections, or posing
further inquiries. By encouraging students to extend their responses, teachers promote
intellectual curiosity, creativity, and exploration, as students delve deeper into the content
and consider alternative perspectives or implications. Extension fosters a culture of
inquiry and discovery, as students engage in active exploration and problem-solving
within the context of the dialogue. In teacher-mediated dialogue, students are invited to
provide commentary on the material by sharing their opinions, interpretations, or
reflections. By offering commentary, students personalize their learning experience,
express their unique perspectives, and engage in meaningful dialogue with peers and the
teacher. Commentary promotes metacognitive awareness, as students reflect on their
learning processes, evaluate their understanding, and articulate their thoughts and feelings
about the material. Additionally, commentary encourages active participation and fosters
a sense of ownership and agency over one's learning.
Teacher-mediated dialogue facilitates authentic meaning-making by inviting
students to actively construct and negotiate knowledge through dialogue and interaction.
Rather than passively receiving information, students engage in sense-making activities
that require them to actively process, interpret, and apply the material in meaningful
ways. Through dialogue, students collaboratively co-construct knowledge, challenge
assumptions, and construct shared understandings that reflect their diverse perspectives
and experiences. Overall, teacher-mediated dialogue is a dynamic and interactive
instructional approach that promotes active engagement, deep learning, and meaningful
participation. By encouraging students to elaborate, extend, and comment on their
learning, teachers create opportunities for students to engage in higher-order thinking,
reflection, and dialogue, leading to richer and more nuanced understandings of the
content. Through teacher-mediated dialogue, students develop essential communication
skills, critical thinking abilities, and metacognitive strategies that empower them to
become lifelong learners and active contributors to their communities.
Absolutely, encouraging learners to communicate the processes by which they are
learning is a powerful strategy for promoting active engagement, deepening
understanding, and fostering metacognitive awareness. By providing opportunities for
students to articulate their thoughts, questions, and reflections, teachers empower them to
construct their own meanings and understandings of the content. Encouraging learners to
communicate their learning processes prompts them to reflect on their thinking, monitor
their understanding, and evaluate their learning strategies. Through metacognitive
reflection, students become more aware of their cognitive strengths and weaknesses,
identify areas for improvement, and develop effective learning strategies. By articulating
their thought processes, students gain insights into their learning preferences, habits, and
misconceptions, which enables them to become more self-directed and autonomous
learners.
Communicating the processes of learning helps students make sense of the
content by connecting new information with prior knowledge, experiences, and
perspectives. Through verbalizing their thought processes, students clarify their
understanding, organize their thoughts, and construct coherent mental models of the
material. This sense-making process promotes deeper comprehension and retention of the
content, as students actively engage with the material and actively construct meaning
through dialogue and reflection. Communicating learning processes fosters social
interaction and collaborative learning as students share their ideas, insights, and questions
with peers. By engaging in dialogue and discourse with classmates, students benefit from
diverse perspectives, receive feedback, and co-construct knowledge collaboratively.
Social interaction enhances learning by providing opportunities for peer teaching,
cooperative problem-solving, and collective sense-making, leading to richer and more
nuanced understandings of the content.
Articulating learning processes empowers students to take ownership of their
learning and become active agents in constructing meaning. By expressing their thoughts,
opinions, and interpretations, students develop a sense of ownership and agency over
their learning journey. This sense of ownership fosters intrinsic motivation, as students
feel a sense of responsibility for their learning outcomes and take pride in their
achievements. Additionally, when students are actively involved in articulating their
learning processes, they become more engaged, motivated, and invested in their learning.
Articulating learning processes empowers students to take ownership of their learning
and become active agents in constructing meaning. By expressing their thoughts,
opinions, and interpretations, students develop a sense of ownership and agency over
their learning journey. This sense of ownership fosters intrinsic motivation, as students
feel a sense of responsibility for their learning outcomes and take pride in their
achievements. Additionally, when students are actively involved in articulating their
learning processes, they become more engaged, motivated, and invested in their learning.
Teacher comments made for the purpose of organizing what is to come or
summarizing what has gone before are called structuring. Used before an instructional
activity or question, structuring assists learners in bridging the gap between what they are
capable of doing on their own and what they are capable of doing with help from the
teacher, thereby aiding their understanding and use of the material to be taught. Used at
the conclusion of an instructional activity or question, structuring reinforces learned
content and places it in proper relation to other content already taught. Both forms of
structuring are related to student achievement and serve as effective catalysts for
performing the five key behaviors.
Another type of structuring uses emphasis. Can you find a point of emphasis in
the previous dialogue? By using the phrase “Most important,” this teacher alerts students
to the knowledge and understanding expected at the conclusion of this activity. This
structuring helps the student to organize what is to follow, called an advance organizer. In
this instance, the students are clued to consider the factors that extend beyond the color
and movement of the pipefish to include how they grow and provide the means for other
fish to flourish. This makes the teacher’s final question more meaningful (“Can you think
of when this clever strategy might not work, making the pipefish prey to other fish deep
below the ocean’s surface?”). The students have been clued that such a question might be
raised and that generalizations beyond the concepts discussed will be expected. Phrases
such as “Now this is important,” “We will return to this point later,” and “Remember
this” are called verbal markers.
By strategically designing and sequencing a set of related tasks with varying
cognitive demands, teachers can highlight essential concepts, facilitate comprehension,
and promote student engagement and autonomy. Activity structures provide a framework
for highlighting key points or concepts within a lesson. By structuring activities around
central themes or learning objectives, teachers can draw students' attention to the most
important ideas and information. Whether through discussions, hands-on activities,
problem-solving tasks, or multimedia presentations, teachers can use activity structures to
reinforce key concepts and ensure that students grasp essential knowledge and skills.
Activity structures help scaffold learning by breaking down complex content into
manageable chunks and guiding students through a sequence of tasks designed to deepen
understanding. By varying the cognitive complexity of tasks within an activity structure,
teachers can scaffold learning experiences to meet students' needs and support their
progression from simple recall to higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis,
and evaluation. This gradual release of responsibility empowers students to engage with
the material at their own pace and level of readiness, leading to deeper comprehension
and mastery of content.
Activity structures are inherently engaging, as they provide students with
opportunities for active participation, collaboration, and exploration. By incorporating
interactive and hands-on activities into a lesson, teachers can capture students' interest,
stimulate curiosity, and foster a sense of ownership over their learning. Whether through
cooperative group work, problem-based learning tasks, or inquiry-based investigations,
activity structures encourage students to take an active role in constructing knowledge
and making meaning of the content. Activity structures can be designed to provide
students with varying degrees of control and autonomy over their learning. By offering
choices, opportunities for self-directed inquiry, and flexibility in how tasks are
completed, teachers empower students to take ownership of their learning and pursue
their interests and strengths. This learner-centered approach promotes autonomy, self-
regulation, and intrinsic motivation, as students become active agents in constructing
meaning and applying their knowledge in authentic contexts.
By varying activity structures—such as cooperative, competitive, and independent
—teachers can tailor instruction to meet the diverse needs, preferences, and abilities of
their students, while also infusing tempo and momentum into the lesson. Cooperative
activities involve students working together in small groups or teams to achieve common
goals, solve problems, or complete tasks collaboratively. Cooperative learning fosters
peer interaction, collaboration, and mutual support, as students engage in shared decision-
making, communication, and problem-solving. By working collaboratively, students
benefit from diverse perspectives, learn from one another, and develop essential
interpersonal skills, such as teamwork, communication, and leadership. Cooperative
structures can be particularly effective for promoting deeper understanding, critical
thinking, and social-emotional learning, as students engage in meaningful dialogue,
negotiate meaning, and construct knowledge collectively.
Competitive activities involve students engaging in friendly competition, either
individually or in teams, to achieve specific objectives or outcomes. Competitive learning
environments can be motivating and energizing, as students strive to outperform their
peers or achieve personal bests. Competitive structures can promote active engagement,
goal-setting, and accountability, as students are motivated to demonstrate their skills,
knowledge, and abilities in a competitive context. However, it's essential to ensure that
competition remains positive and supportive, emphasizing sportsmanship, fairness, and
respect for others. Competitive structures can be particularly effective for enhancing
motivation, perseverance, and self-efficacy, as students experience the satisfaction of
achieving success and overcoming challenges.
Independent activities involve students working individually to complete tasks,
explore concepts, or demonstrate mastery of content. Independent learning provides
students with opportunities for self-directed inquiry, reflection, and exploration, as they
take ownership of their learning and pursue personal interests and goals. Independent
structures can promote autonomy, self-regulation, and intrinsic motivation, as students
engage in self-paced learning experiences tailored to their unique needs and preferences.
Independent learning also fosters metacognitive skills, as students monitor their progress,
set goals, and reflect on their learning strategies and outcomes. However, it's essential to
provide adequate support and scaffolding to ensure that students can successfully
navigate independent learning tasks and achieve desired learning outcomes. By
strategically incorporating a variety of activity structures into their instruction, teachers
can create dynamic and engaging learning environments that accommodate diverse
learning styles, promote social interaction, and optimize student learning outcomes.
Whether through cooperative, competitive, or independent structures, teachers can infuse
tempo and momentum into their lessons, energizing students, fostering collaboration, and
cultivating a culture of inquiry, exploration, and growth.
Indeed, questions are invaluable tools for effective teaching, serving as a bridge
that moves students beyond mere recall of facts toward deeper levels of understanding,
reasoning, critical thinking, and problem-solving behavior. Questions are instrumental in
promoting higher-order thinking skills by challenging students to analyze, evaluate, and
synthesize information. While factual recall is important, it represents only the first level
of cognitive engagement. By posing questions that require students to apply, analyze,
evaluate, and create, teachers encourage them to engage in deeper levels of cognitive
processing and develop critical thinking skills essential for success in academic and real-
world contexts. Questions serve as catalysts for active learning by prompting students to
actively engage with the material and construct their own understanding. When students
are asked thought-provoking questions, they become active participants in the learning
process, rather than passive recipients of information. This active engagement fosters
deeper comprehension, retention, and transfer of knowledge, as students grapple with
complex concepts, make connections, and construct meaning for themselves.
Questions play a crucial role in fostering problem-solving behavior by presenting
students with authentic challenges, dilemmas, and inquiries to explore. By posing open-
ended questions and real-world problems, teachers encourage students to apply their
knowledge, employ critical thinking skills, and generate creative solutions. This problem-
solving process not only enhances students' ability to tackle academic tasks but also
equips them with valuable skills for navigating challenges in their personal and
professional lives. The use of questions in the classroom fosters Socratic dialogue, a
method of inquiry that encourages reasoned discussion, reflection, and exploration of
ideas. Through guided questioning, teachers stimulate intellectual curiosity, provoke
thoughtful responses, and encourage students to articulate their reasoning and justify their
viewpoints. This dialogue-based approach promotes collaborative learning, fosters a
culture of inquiry, and cultivates a deeper understanding of complex issues and concepts.
Questions prompt students to reflect on their own thinking processes, monitor
their understanding, and regulate their learning strategies. By encouraging metacognitive
awareness through questions like "How did you arrive at that conclusion?" or "What
strategies did you use to solve the problem?" teachers help students develop
metacognitive skills that enable them to become more self-directed and autonomous
learners. In summary, questions are indispensable tools for effective teaching, as they
engage students in the learning process, promote higher-order thinking, foster problem-
solving behavior, facilitate Socratic dialogue, and promote metacognitive awareness. By
skillfully employing questions that challenge, provoke, and inspire, teachers empower
students to become active agents in their own learning journey and equip them with the
critical thinking skills needed to thrive in an increasingly complex and dynamic world.
Teachers pose content questions to have the student deal directly with the content
being taught. An example is when a teacher asks a question to see whether students can
recall and understand specific material. The correct answer is known well in advance by
the teacher. It also has been conveyed directly in class, in the text, or both. Few if any
interpretations or alternative meanings of the question are possible. Some estimates have
suggested that up to 80 percent of the questions teachers ask refer directly to specific
content and have readily discernible and unambiguous correct answers (Nadler &
Chandon, 2010). Perhaps even more important is the fact that approximately the same
percentage of teacher-made test items (and behavioral objectives) are written at the level
of recall, knowledge, or fact (Borich & Tombari, 2004). Therefore, test items, behavioral
objectives, and most instruction seem to emphasize readily known facts as they are
presented in curriculum guides, workbooks, and texts, leaving much less time for
encouraging higher-order thinking, such as problem solving, decision making, and
valuing. The art of questioning will become one of your most important skills as a
teacher.
Absolutely, the art of questioning is fundamental to effective teaching, as it serves
as a powerful tool for engaging students in the learning process and promoting active
participation. A teacher's ability to employ a variety of questioning techniques in a
flexible manner can significantly enhance student engagement, critical thinking, and
comprehension of the material. Questions serve as a catalyst for student engagement by
prompting them to actively interact with the content and respond to challenges or
prompts posed by the teacher. When students are encouraged to answer questions, share
their ideas, and participate in classroom discussions, they become more invested in the
learning process and develop a sense of ownership over their learning. Thoughtful
questioning stimulates higher-order thinking skills, such as analysis, synthesis, and
evaluation. By posing open-ended questions, hypothetical scenarios, or problems that
require reasoned responses, teachers prompt students to think critically, apply their
knowledge, and draw connections between concepts. This fosters deeper understanding
and encourages students to explore ideas from multiple perspectives.
Questions serve as a valuable formative assessment tool, allowing teachers to
gauge students' comprehension, identify misconceptions, and adjust instruction
accordingly. By posing probing questions that probe students' understanding of key
concepts, teachers can assess learning gaps, address areas of confusion, and provide
targeted support to individual students or groups. Questions facilitate meaningful
dialogue and promote interaction among students and between students and the teacher.
Through structured discussions, collaborative problem-solving activities, and peer-to-
peer exchanges, students have opportunities to articulate their thoughts, exchange ideas,
and construct knowledge collaboratively. This fosters a supportive learning community
where diverse perspectives are valued, and collective sense-making is encouraged.
Actively engaging with questions helps reinforce learning and enhance retention
of information. By reflecting on and responding to questions, students encode new
knowledge, make connections with prior learning, and consolidate their understanding of
the material. This active processing of information contributes to long-term memory
storage and retrieval, leading to deeper and more enduring learning outcomes. In
summary, questioning is a dynamic and versatile instructional strategy that serves
multiple purposes in the classroom. By skillfully employing a variety of questioning
techniques, teachers can promote student engagement, foster critical thinking, assess
understanding, facilitate dialogue, and enhance retention of learning. The art of
questioning lies in its ability to inspire curiosity, provoke inquiry, and empower students
to become active participants in their own learning journey.
Can you see the difference between this set of process questions and the set of
content questions that preceded it? Notice that the process questions encourage more
thinking and problem solving by requiring the learner to use personal sources of
knowledge to actively construct her or his own interpretations and meanings, rather than
acquiring understanding by giving back knowledge already organized in the form in
which it was given. As we saw earlier, this view of teaching and learning represents a
movement in education called constructivism. Constructivist teaching strategies
emphasize the learner’s direct experience and the dialogue of the classroom as
instructional tools while deemphasizing lecturing and telling. See In Practice: Focus on
Constructivism.
Another helping behavior is probing, which refers to teacher statements that
encourage students to elaborate on an answer—either their own or another student’s.
Probing may take the form of a general question or can include other expressions that
elicit clarification of an answer, solicit additional information about a response, or
redirect a student’s response in a more fruitful direction. Probing often is used to shift a
discussion to some higher thought level. Generally, student achievement is highest when
the eliciting, soliciting, and (if necessary) redirecting occur in cycles. This systematically
leads the discussion to a higher level of complexity, as when interrelationships,
generalizations, and problem solutions are being sought. In this manner, you may begin a
lesson with a simple fact question; then by eliciting clarification of student responses,
soliciting new information, or redirecting an answer, you can move to a higher level of
questioning.
Anyone who has ever been in a classroom where the teacher’s presentation was
lifeless, static, and without vocal variety can appreciate the commonsense value of the
affective side of teaching. However, unlike the behaviors discussed previously, affect
cannot be captured in transcripts of teaching or by classroom interaction instruments.
Narrowly focused research instruments often miss a teacher’s affective nature, which
emerges from a more holistic view of the classroom. This affective nature is the
foundation on which you can build a warm and nurturing relationship with your learners.
What the instruments miss, the students see clearly. Students are good perceivers of the
emotions and intentions underlying a teacher’s actions, and they often respond
accordingly. A teacher who is excited about the subject being taught and shows it by
facial expression, voice inflection, gesture, and movement communicating respect and
caring for the learner is more likely to hold the attention of students and motivate them to
higher levels of achievement than one who does not exhibit these behaviors.
Students take their cues from these affective signs and lower or heighten their
engagement with the lesson accordingly. Enthusiasm is an important aspect of a teacher’s
affect. Enthusiasm is the teacher’s vigor, involvement, excitement, and interest during a
classroom presentation, and willingness to share this emotion with learners, who will
want to respond in kind. We know from experience that enthusiasm is contagious. It can
be displayed to your students in many ways, the most common being vocal inflection,
gesture, eye contact, and animation. Most important, however, is how you coordinate
these signs to communicate that you care about and respect the experiences, knowledge,
and understandings your students bring to the classroom. Research has found a teacher’s
enthusiasm to be important in promoting student engagement as well as achievement
(Kuh, Kinzie, Smith, & Whitt, 2005; Tischler, 2005). No one can maintain a heightened
state of enthusiasm for very long without becoming exhausted emotionally. Nor is this
what is meant by the word enthusiasm. A proper level of enthusiasm is more subtle, and
perhaps that is why it has been so difficult to research.
Absolutely, conveying enthusiasm in teaching involves a multi-faceted approach
that encompasses vocal expression, body language, and overall demeanor. Achieving the
right balance of these elements sends a clear and unified signal to students, demonstrating
genuine interest, engagement, and care. Varied vocal inflection, including changes in
tone, pitch, and pace, can convey emotion and emphasis in spoken communication. By
modulating their voice to reflect excitement, curiosity, or passion for the subject matter,
teachers can captivate students' attention and create a sense of enthusiasm. Enthusiastic
teachers often use expressive speech patterns to convey enthusiasm and convey the
importance of the material being taught.
Gestures are powerful nonverbal cues that complement verbal communication and
enhance message clarity and impact. Strategic use of gestures, such as hand movements,
facial expressions, and body posture, can reinforce key points, emphasize important
concepts, and engage students' visual attention. Enthusiastic teachers often use dynamic
and purposeful gestures to convey energy, enthusiasm, and enthusiasm for learning. Eye
contact is a fundamental aspect of interpersonal communication and plays a crucial role
in building connections and rapport with students. Maintaining consistent and meaningful
eye contact conveys attentiveness, sincerity, and engagement. Enthusiastic teachers make
deliberate efforts to establish eye contact with their students, signaling interest,
involvement, and respect for their perspectives and contributions.
Purposeful movement in the classroom can enhance engagement and create a
dynamic learning environment. Walking around the room, interacting with students, and
using physical space creatively can increase teacher-student interaction and promote
active participation. Enthusiastic teachers use movement strategically to create a sense of
energy and momentum, keeping students' attention focused and fostering a sense of
connection and involvement. By combining vocal inflection, gesturing, eye contact, and
movement in a coordinated manner, teachers can create a unified signal of enthusiasm
that resonates with students. This holistic approach to communication conveys
authenticity, passion, and care, fostering a positive and supportive learning environment
where students feel valued, motivated, and inspired to learn. Ultimately, enthusiasm in
teaching is contagious and has the power to ignite students' curiosity, creativity, and love
for learning.
Indeed, timing and the ability to integrate behaviors into a consistent pattern are
essential elements of effective teaching. They enable teachers to establish a nonverbal
behavioral dialogue with their students, which can be just as impactful as verbal
communication. Nonverbal cues, such as body language, facial expressions, gestures, and
eye contact, play a significant role in communication. They convey messages and signals
that complement and reinforce spoken words, providing additional layers of meaning and
context. By timing their nonverbal behaviors strategically, teachers can convey warmth,
empathy, enthusiasm, and authority, fostering positive relationships and creating a
supportive learning environment. Consistent patterns of nonverbal behavior help teachers
build rapport with their students and establish a sense of trust and mutual respect.
Students are attuned to subtle cues from their teachers and are quick to pick up on signals
of authenticity, sincerity, and empathy. By maintaining a consistent and responsive
demeanor, teachers can create a safe and welcoming atmosphere where students feel
valued, understood, and supported.
Nonverbal cues can be powerful tools for managing classroom dynamics and
promoting positive behavior. Teachers can use gestures, facial expressions, and proximity
to redirect off-task behavior, signal transitions between activities, or convey expectations
for classroom conduct. By using nonverbal cues strategically, teachers can establish clear
boundaries, maintain order, and reinforce desired behaviors without disrupting the flow
of instruction. A dynamic interplay of nonverbal behaviors can enhance student
engagement and participation in learning activities. Teachers who convey enthusiasm,
energy, and passion for their subject matter through their body language and demeanor
can inspire curiosity and excitement among students. By timing their nonverbal cues to
coincide with key instructional moments, teachers can capture students' attention, sustain
their interest, and create memorable learning experiences.
Nonverbal communication is culturally influenced, and teachers must be mindful
of cultural differences in interpreting and responding to nonverbal cues. Sensitivity to
cultural norms and customs ensures that teachers' nonverbal behaviors are inclusive and
respectful of diverse backgrounds and perspectives. By adapting their nonverbal
communication styles to align with the cultural norms of their students, teachers can
enhance mutual understanding and communication effectiveness. In summary, the ability
to incorporate behaviors into a consistent pattern and to time them effectively is essential
for establishing an unspoken behavioral dialogue with students in the classroom. This
nonverbal communication facilitates rapport building, behavior management,
engagement promotion, and cultural sensitivity, ultimately contributing to a positive and
productive learning environment. By mastering the art of nonverbal communication,
teachers can enhance their effectiveness as educators and create meaningful connections
with their students.
The term socioeconomic status (SES) can mean different things, but generally, it
is an approximate index of one’s income and education level. For the classroom
researcher, the SES of students is determined directly by the income and education of
their parents or indirectly by the nature of the school the students attend. For example, a
school in which a high percentage of students qualify for a nationally sponsored free or
reduced price lunch program due to the income level of their parents may be considered a
lower-SES school. Some schools are in impoverished areas, where the overall income
and education levels of the community are low, whereas other schools are located in
more affluent communities. Many schools in impoverished areas qualify for special
financial assistance from the federal government. These schools are called Title I schools,
with the majority of students coming from lower-SES homes who may be disadvantaged,
at risk of school failure, have limited English proficiency, and/or belong to a cultural or
ethnic minority. In our nation’s 25 largest cities, SES is strongly tied to culture or
ethnicity.
Federal programs like Common Core Standards, Race to the Top, and No Child
Left Behind have been pivotal in shaping educational policies and practices across the
United States, with the overarching goal of improving student achievement and
narrowing achievement gaps. These initiatives have catalyzed efforts to raise academic
standards, enhance instructional quality, and expand access to high-quality education for
all students. Common Core Standards represent a set of rigorous, internationally
benchmarked academic standards for English language arts/literacy and mathematics.
Adopted by the majority of states, these standards provide a consistent framework for
what students should know and be able to do at each grade level, regardless of geographic
location or socio-economic background. By promoting higher expectations and academic
rigor, Common Core Standards aim to ensure that all students graduate high school
prepared for college, career, and citizenship.
Race to the Top was a competitive grant program launched by the U.S.
Department of Education to incentivize states to implement comprehensive education
reforms. States were encouraged to pursue ambitious initiatives aimed at improving
teacher effectiveness, enhancing school accountability, expanding access to high-quality
early learning programs, and fostering innovation in education. By promoting evidence-
based practices and fostering collaboration among stakeholders, Race to the Top aimed to
drive systemic improvements in student outcomes. Enacted in 2001, NCLB represented a
landmark federal education law aimed at holding schools accountable for student
achievement and closing achievement gaps. Key provisions of NCLB included annual
standardized testing in reading and math, disaggregation of student data by subgroups,
and implementation of sanctions for schools that failed to make Adequate Yearly
Progress (AYP). While NCLB was credited with bringing attention to disparities in
educational outcomes and promoting greater accountability, it also faced criticism for its
emphasis on high-stakes testing and its narrow focus on English language arts and math.
These federally sponsored programs have had significant implications for classrooms and
teaching practices nationwide. They have influenced curriculum development,
instructional strategies, assessment practices, and professional development initiatives in
schools and districts across the country. As we delve further into the chapters ahead, we
will examine the effects of these national programs on classrooms, teaching
methodologies, and student learning outcomes, as well as the ongoing debates and
challenges associated with their implementation.
C. Drawing on 30 Years of Professional Teaching Standards
At this point, you might think an effective teacher simply is one who has mastered
all of the key behaviors and helping behaviors. But teaching involves more than
knowledge of how to perform individual behaviors. Much like an artist, who blends color
and texture into a painting to produce a coherent impression, so must an effective teacher
blend individual behaviors into teaching practices that promote student achievement.
Teaching practices are larger than individual teaching behaviors that blend key and
helping behaviors in different degrees. To be effective requires the orchestration and
integration of the key and helping behaviors into meaningful patterns and rhythms that
can achieve the goals of instruction within your classroom. The truly effective teacher,
then, knows how to execute individual behaviors with a larger purpose in mind.
Teaching is indeed a complex and dynamic process that extends beyond the mere
enactment of individual behaviors. Rather, it involves orchestrating a sequence of actions
and interactions in a deliberate manner to achieve a larger purpose. This larger purpose
encompasses facilitating student learning, fostering development, and promoting
engagement in meaningful ways. Effective teaching is characterized by the cumulative
impact of various instructional strategies, classroom management techniques, and
interpersonal interactions over time. By strategically sequencing behaviors, teachers can
build upon students' prior knowledge, scaffold learning experiences, and reinforce key
concepts and skills progressively. Each behavior contributes incrementally to the overall
learning process, leading to deeper understanding and mastery of content.
Teaching involves integrating diverse elements, such as curriculum content,
instructional methods, assessment practices, and student feedback, into a cohesive and
coherent learning experience. By sequencing behaviors in a purposeful manner, teachers
can create connections and associations between different aspects of the curriculum,
helping students see the "big picture" and understand how concepts relate to one another.
Effective teaching takes into account the developmental needs and readiness levels of
students, guiding them through a sequence of learning experiences that are appropriate
for their age, abilities, and interests. Teachers adjust the pacing and complexity of
instruction to match students' learning trajectories, providing support and challenge as
needed to promote growth and development.
The timing and pacing of instructional activities are critical factors in engaging
students, maintaining their attention, and maximizing learning outcomes. Teachers must
strike a balance between providing opportunities for active participation and reflection,
while also ensuring that instruction moves forward at an appropriate pace. By carefully
orchestrating the timing and sequencing of behaviors, teachers can optimize student
engagement and comprehension. Effective teaching requires a holistic approach that
considers the interconnectedness of cognitive, affective, and social-emotional dimensions
of learning. Teachers must attend to students' academic needs, socio-emotional well-
being, and individual learning styles, integrating various instructional strategies and
supportive interventions to meet diverse needs effectively. In essence, teaching involves
much more than the sum of its individual parts. It requires a nuanced understanding of
how behaviors interact and intersect to create meaningful learning experiences for
students. By placing behaviors in sequences and patterns that build upon one another,
teachers can enhance the effectiveness and impact of their instruction, ultimately leading
to improved student learning outcomes.
The effectiveness of teaching hinges on a delicate balance and interplay among
various behaviors and elements within the classroom environment. These include
curriculum design, learning objectives, instructional materials, and the characteristics of
the learners themselves. Each of these components contributes uniquely to the overall
teaching experience and impacts student learning outcomes. The curriculum serves as the
foundation of teaching and learning activities in the classroom. It outlines the content,
scope, and sequence of instruction, guiding teachers in selecting appropriate instructional
strategies and resources to support student learning. Effective teachers carefully align
their teaching practices with the objectives and standards outlined in the curriculum,
ensuring coherence and continuity in the learning experience.
Clear and measurable learning objectives provide a roadmap for instruction,
helping teachers articulate what students should know, understand, and be able to do by
the end of a lesson or unit. By aligning teaching strategies with specific learning
objectives, teachers can focus their efforts on facilitating student mastery of key concepts
and skills, fostering deeper understanding and retention of content. The selection and use
of instructional materials play a crucial role in supporting teaching and learning activities.
Whether it's textbooks, multimedia resources, manipulatives, or technology tools,
instructional materials provide valuable resources for engaging students, reinforcing
concepts, and addressing diverse learning needs.
Absolutely, the thoughtful integration of instructional materials is a hallmark of
effective teaching. By incorporating a diverse array of resources, teachers can create
dynamic and engaging learning experiences that cater to the diverse needs, learning
styles, and preferences of their students. Students have varying learning styles,
preferences, and strengths. Some may excel with visual aids, such as diagrams, charts, or
videos, while others may prefer hands-on activities, group discussions, or auditory
explanations. By offering a variety of instructional materials, teachers can accommodate
different learning styles and provide multiple entry points for students to access and
engage with the content. Different instructional materials offer unique opportunities for
students to interact with and process information. For example, visual aids can help
clarify complex concepts, reinforce key ideas, and facilitate understanding through spatial
representations. Hands-on activities and manipulatives provide tactile experiences that
deepen conceptual understanding and promote experiential learning. By leveraging a
variety of materials, teachers can appeal to multiple senses and learning modalities,
fostering deeper comprehension and retention of content.
Interactive and multimedia resources have the potential to captivate students'
interest and motivation, making learning more enjoyable and meaningful. Incorporating
digital simulations, interactive games, virtual field trips, or multimedia presentations can
spark curiosity, stimulate curiosity, and sustain engagement throughout the lesson. By
offering a mix of engaging materials, teachers can create a dynamic learning environment
that energizes students and fosters active participation. Students come to the classroom
with diverse backgrounds, experiences, and abilities. Some may require additional
support or accommodations to access the curriculum effectively. By providing a range of
instructional materials, including scaffolded resources, differentiated activities, and
assistive technologies, teachers can address the diverse needs of all learners and promote
inclusive practices in the classroom.
Variety in instructional materials encourages students to think critically, make
connections, and apply their learning in new contexts. Open-ended activities, problem-
solving tasks, and project-based assignments prompt students to explore, experiment, and
generate creative solutions. By exposing students to a rich array of materials and
opportunities for inquiry, teachers nurture their curiosity, independence, and innovation.
In conclusion, the thoughtful integration of instructional materials is essential for
effective teaching. By offering a diverse range of resources that cater to different learning
styles and preferences, teachers can enhance understanding, promote engagement,
address diverse needs, and foster creativity and critical thinking in their students. This
approach creates a vibrant and inclusive learning environment where all students have the
opportunity to succeed and thrive.
Recognizing the unique needs, backgrounds, and abilities of learners is essential
for effective teaching. Teachers must adapt their instructional approaches to
accommodate diverse learning styles, preferences, and levels of readiness within the
classroom. By fostering a supportive and inclusive learning environment, teachers can
create opportunities for all students to succeed and thrive academically. The proper blend
and emphasis of these elements are essential for promoting teaching effectiveness and
maximizing student learning outcomes. Effective teachers leverage their understanding of
curriculum, learning objectives, instructional materials, and learner characteristics to
create dynamic and engaging learning experiences that cater to the needs of all students.
As we delve further into the chapters ahead, we will explore in greater detail the patterns
of teaching effectiveness and strategies for optimizing student learning in diverse
educational contexts.
D. Professional Teaching Standards
The effective teaching methods described in this book draw on more than 30
years of research on effective teaching and on national and state standards for the
teaching profession that have been closely aligned with current views of how and what
students and teachers should learn. For decades, teaching in the United States reflected a
direct instruction model. Teachers were expected to present or transmit knowledge to
students, who were expected to receive, store, and return that knowledge upon request
(Weiss & Weiss, 1998). Many researchers and educators have challenged this view,
suggesting that learners do not simply receive knowledge; rather, they actively construct
knowledge through interacting with the social, cultural, and linguistic context in which an
experience occurs. Effective teachers function as able facilitators, coaches, and guides for
students’ knowledge-building processes. In other words, students can and should be
taught to become agents of their own learning.
During the same year that the NBPTS was formed (1987), the Interstate New
Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC) was formed to create standards
that could be reviewed by professional organizations and state agencies as a basis for
licensing beginning teachers. The InTASC standards (Miller, 1992) were written as ten
principles, which were then further described in terms of teacher knowledge, dispositions,
and performances—in other words, what a beginning teacher should know and be able to
do. In 2011 the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO) updated the InTASC
Core Teaching Standards by making them applicable to the growth and development of
all, not just beginning, teachers. These updated standards were also written to be
compatible with the Common Core State Standards for students in math and English
language arts, thereby providing a single coherent system by which teachers can be
prepared, supported, and licensed.
Because you will probably work with the InTASC standards during your
professional development program (and perhaps with the NBPTS standards for advanced
certification later in your career), this text discusses research-based practices used by
effective teachers to achieve the InTASC and NBPTS standards. The following sections
outline the ten InTASC standards, each tagged with the chapters and appendices in this
text that will provide you with the effective teaching methods for attaining them. An
important question for you as a prospective teacher is, “What type of knowledge and
experiences will be needed to pass successfully into the real world of teaching?” The
chapters ahead convey the types of knowledge that should move you quickly up the
ladder of knowledge and experiences that make an effective teacher. But before learning
about the tools and techniques that will help you progress up this ladder, you should take
a moment to reflect on your own concerns about teaching at this point in your career.
Appendix A contains the Teacher Concerns Checklist, which is a 45-item self-report
instrument for assessing the stages of concern with which teachers, like you, most
strongly identify at different periods in their careers. Using the Teacher Concerns
Checklist, you can rank your own level of teaching concerns and, using the scoring
instructions provided, express the concerns with which you identify most closely. After
reviewing the Checklist, return to this chapter and read further to learn more about this
interesting facet of your growth and development as a teacher.
During the past decade, a number of national and state efforts—such as those by
the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), the International Reading
Association (IRA), and others—have sought to define the knowledge and performance
for students or teachers in particular subject areas. The Mid-continent Regional
Educational Laboratory (McREL) has created a large database that synthesizes many of
these efforts. Visit their website to learn more about standards. The following is a case
history and test preparation exercise intended to help you prepare for the licensure exam,
which may be required by your teacher preparation program and your state for
certification and licensing. You will find similar case histories at the end of each chapter.
Based on the objectives and content of the Praxis II: Principles of Learning and Teaching
exam and the InTASC and NBPTS standards, these in-depth case histories represent key
concepts in the chapter. (See Figure 1.5 for the composition of the Praxis II.) When you
have completed the test preparation exercises, you will find a rubric and examples of
scored student responses for the short-answer question; the correct answer and an
explanation for each multiple-choice question; and additional questions pertaining to
licensure test content. Although not intended as a comprehensive assessment of chapter
content, these questions provide a targeted rehearsal for preparing you for the level of
pedagogical knowledge and question formats that will be expected of you on the Praxis II
exam and other exams that may be required at the end of your teacher preparation
program.
